Global buckling of system:

The stability of whole building is often characterized by buckling of each members in the building.
The entire building can buckle as whole due to lacking of stiffness of vertical members. The higher
lateral load cause the instability in the building. When lateral load increases rapidly, the building can
deflect in horizontally due to lack of member stiffness. It is very often suggested that the buckling
resistance should be through Euro code linear elastic buckling load or linear second order analysis.
The instability of building can cause higher stresses in the member that leads to failure of building.
The designer should check that there will not be any weak points at any place in structure and
members should have a constant utilization of resistance in each stories. An excess deflection could
give signal or warning of stability failure of building.

Deflection:

The deflection is one of main criteria in Serviceability Limit States. Deflections must be controlled to
prevent discomfort to people and damage to structural members. The lateral deflection due to
lateral load will lead to second order effect or P-Dela effects. The second order effect can create
additional bending moments in all columns and it decreases the lateral stiffness of building. The
deformed structures can cause instability in frame structures. There is no evidence that how much
buildings are allowed to deflect, but there is limit for each story drift index in practices. According to
Finnish standard, limit for each story is L/300 which can be also used for total building deflection.
However, it can be varied from L/1000 to L/200. Additional lateral deflection can lead addition
effects. The defection is an indication for global buckling. The limits of deflection can be varied based
on the company’s experience. There is no fixed deletion criteria.

Frame system:

A rigid frame system comprises of beams, column and rigid connections. The lateral resistance is
dependent on stiffness of beam-column and stiffness of joints. The main advantage of this frame is
that allows the architectural freedom for door and windows. According to smith and coull, rigid
frames are very effective up to 25stories in terms of economic. The shear forces of any story created
by wind forces are resisted by shear in column in that story. The moment from columns are resisting
by attached adjacent beams. The deformation caused shear and moment allow racking of frame and
deflect horizontally in each story. The inclination of column will be more in bottom compare to top
which means higher shear in bottom of column than top column.

Another behavior is total bending moment due to lateral loads. The whole building considers as a
rigid body. The total bending moment due to lateral load is resisted by columns, which some them
are in tension and some of them are in compression based on plane frame neutral axis. The total
lateral displacement are calculated by combining of individual deformation of shear, bending and
axial.

The forces and deformation caused by external shear and external moment are shown in fig1 and fig
2 respectively.
Fig 1. Rigid frame with wind load

Fig.1 Forces and deformations caused by external shear

Fig.2 Forces and deformation caused by external moment

Buckling load of frames:

Second order effects are ignored if they are less than 10% of first effect (Eurocode 2). There are
many ways to check to second order effects due to global behavior are required to be include in the
analysis of a concrete sytetm. These methods include the equivalent column method , vianellos
method, linear buckling analysis or simplified criteria in the Eurocode. Second effects can be
calculated as fictitious horizontal load, which is a function of vertical load / buckling load ratio.

Equivalent column method(buckling load due to second order effects)

According to P.Kollar statement, to design slender buildings, global second order effects must be
taken into account whether this effect is significant or not. The second order effects can be checked
through by comparing the total vertical load to the buckling load of the structure. According to Euro
code, second order effects can be neglected if it is less than 10% of first order effects. Second order
effects can be include in the calculation of stability of building as fictitious horizontal load. The
horizontal load is a function of vertical load by buckling load ratio.

To determine proper approxitmation bucking load of structrure, effect of stifnnes of frames,

deformatablti of foundation, load distribution and effect of number of stories are taken in to
account. Expresesion presented in eurocode include these effects. However, for some cases,
Eurocdoe expresseion may lead to unacceptable, unconcervative results.

The global buckling load presented in eurocdoe have been develoveped by using equivelnt column
method. This section shows that where those expression are derived from in eurocode.

To obtain the buckling load, the total building considers as equivalent column with uniform
stiffnesses. The stiffness of equivalent columns may be dominated by either bending stiffness or
shear stiffness. The two models which are buckling load with point load on the top of column and
axially uniformaly distributed load are shown in figure Table 1.

The corresponding bending deformation and shear deformation formulas are presented as follows,

Eurocode 2 does not give a criterion on the calculation of bucklng load in case unbraced frames.

The column is replacement of simple frame strucute which is shown in figure 5. The column have
only shear deformation only. Shear stiffness can be determined by deformation of one story in such
case. The following expression (eq.1) are approximate story shear stiffness

- equation 1

Where n and n-1 are the number of columns and beams

EIci & EIbi – bending stiffness

h – story height

di – bay length

The buckling load is

This model has been improved by Sigalov,Beck and Csonka, a coupled bar model was introduced,
which has both shear and bending stiffness. This model is referred to as Csonka beam. Its shear
stiffness is calculated by eq.1. and its bending stiffness is

its buckling load under concentrated load is shown in table 4

When the column is subjected to a distributed load the critical load was determined by Zalka [6, 8],
an approximate expression was fitted on his results, which is presented in Table 5. (Note that
Suthwell’s expression, which is also presented in Table 5, may underestimate the buckling load by
almost 50%.)

These both methods neglect the compressibility of the columns, given forumal overestimate
buckling load. For slender frames, a new bending stiffness is presented which can be derived from
parallel axes therom as follows,

EAci – tensile stiffness of the ith column

si – distance between center of column to center of building.

D0 , D1, S – rigidites of a sandwich beam ( this model is deveopled by Rosman and Rutenberg and
skattum) its buckling load under point load is given in table 4.

when the column is subjected to a distributed load, the critical load is given in table 5.

Eurocede 2 does not give a criterion on the calculation of the buckling load in case of (unbraced)
frames, the expressions given in Table 4 and 5 are recommended.
as state in eurocode 8, The second order effects are neglected if following criterion meet for all the
storyes.
The Equivalent columan and its load: (REF: K.A.Zalka Karoly)

When the building is subjected into horizontal trapezoidal load acting diagonally, the torsional
characteristic need to be taken into account. The torsional characerisctisc of individual bracing
elemtne are ver y difficualt to find out. The equivleane column method is used for global and
dynamic analysis subjected to horizontal load (wind or seismic)

The mathematical expression are presened below for finding torsiona moment of equivalent
column

The horizontal load districution with intensity of

z z
q ( z )=qo +q 1
[
q 1+ μ
H= o H ]
Where,

q.0 – intensity of the uniform part of the load

(q.0+q1) – intensity of the load at the top of structure (fig 1)

H – heigh of the building

U – coefficient(slope of load function)

u = q.1/q.0
Figure1. Horizontal load of trapezoidal distribution (K.A. Zalka Karoly)

The resultant of horizontal load will not pass throught the sheara cener of bracings system of
building. If we replace bracing system in to equilvalen column, the horizontal forces will transfer
throght center axis of the building. The the load are dividend into load componens q.x and q.y
parallel to coordinate axis X and Y which is shown in figure 2

Fig 2 : The equivalen column and its external load ( K.A. Zalka Karoly)
The external load is defined by the two load components (qx and qy) and the torsional moment (mz)

z
q x ( z ) =q 0 x+¿ q z
=q 0 x
¿
[ 1+ μ ]
1x
H H

z
q y(z )=q =q z
0 y+ q 1 y
H 0 y [1+ μ ]
x

And
m x (z)=eq ( z)=eq z
[
0 1+ μ
x]=m
[ Hz ]
xo 1+ μ

Or using the load components

mx (z)=q y x + q y x y =¿
x

in formulae (5.5 ) and (5.6)

m z 0(z )=eq 0=qox y c+ q x c

oy

is the torsional moment of the uniform part of the load

 L B
x c = − x́ 0 y c = − ý 0
2 2

These values are coordinates of centroid of the building and their origin is shear center of the
building.

Load components qx and qy are considered positive in the positive x and y directions

and mz is positive in the clockwise direction. The load function defined by formula (5.1)

represents a uniformly distributed load when µ=0 holds. This special case is dealt with

in section 5.7

5.7 BUILDINGS WITH Ixy=0, SUBJECTED TO UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED HORIZONTAL LOAD

if bracing element are symmetric with respect to their axis, the product o inertia ( Ixy) is zero. The
formula are present here for building is subjected to uniform horizontal load.

The simplified version of are considered here,

The coordinates of shear centre as follows,

Type equation here .Warping constant of column

n
I ω=∑ (I ω , i+ I x, i ¿ x2i + I y ,i y 2i )¿
I
The maximum lateral displacement of equivalent column

qx H 4 qy H 4

umax =u(H )=
8 EI y
, v max=v (H )=
8 EI x

maximum top roation of equivalent column

m z H 2 cos h k−1 tanh k 1

φ max =
φ (H)=
[
GJ k 2 cos h k
−
k
+
2 ]
When the warping stiffness dominates over Saint-venant torsional stiffness , the simple foruma

mz H 4
φ max=φ( H )=
8 EI ω

it can used instead of top rotation formula

φ max
When warping stiffness is zero , the formula can not used. in such cased maximum
rotation is calculated from

mz H 2
φ max=φ(H )=
2 GJ
The maximum shear force factor and the maximum bending moment factor formula are simplified as
follows,
 1 tan h k
nTmax =1- cos h k + k

2 2 4 tan h k 2
nM max = − + −
k 2 cos h
k k 2
k cos h k

The maximum shear forces in the bracing elements are derived as follows

I y, i I Y
T max
x ,i =T x, i (0)=q x H −m2 H y ,i i n T max ,
Iy Iω

I x, i I x ,i x
T max =
y ,i =T y ,i (0) q y H +m z H i
n max
Ix Iω T

The maximum bending moment in the bracing elements are calculated using these formula
 max −q x H 2 I y ,i mz H 2 I y ,i y i
M x,i =M x ,i ( 0 )= + n max
2 Iy 2 Iω M

−q y H I x ,i mz H 2 I x, i x i
2

M max
Ix - 2
y ,i =M y ,i (0)= n max

2 Iω M

The Sain-Venant torsional momens formula are simplified as follows

kz 1 H kz
{
M t =mz H −z+ sin h
H [
sin h k + ]
k cos hk
H cos h
H }

M ωmax=M ω (0)=mH
Stability analysis of buildings.

For regular buildings, the bracing system consists of frame works, shear walls, coupled shear walls
and core shaft. They are contributing in overall resistance of the buildings. However, designer should
know the behavior of bracing units to optimize the bracing system, which can be more efficient.
Since the framework play vital role in structural analysis, the three-stiffness characteristic (i.e. Shear
stiffness, global bending stiffness and local bending stiffness) of framework should be investigated

Frame works refers that consisting of beam and columns only

Deflection analysis of sway frame under horizontal load:

The behavior of usually moment resisting frame under horizontal load is more complicated as they
produce both shear deformation and bending deformation. Because of complexity, the many
approximation technique and method have developed by many researchers. The continuum method
based on equivalent column has been replaced of frame works. This method is very simple and
known widely.

According to theory of sandwich ((Plantema, 1961; Allen, 1969; Hegedűs and Kollár, 1999; Zalka,
2000), the rigid frame are classified by their stiffness and their corresponding deformations. The
frame structure include three types of stiffness such as shear, global bending where structure
consider as whole unit and local bending of individual column and bending of columns due to axial
deformation.

These stiffness characteristics shown in figure1 are used for analysis of lateral deflection and
rotation analysis.

Figure1. Characteristic deformation a) shear b) global bending c) local bending

A single bay frame is shown in fig 2. Subjected to horizontal load. The continuum model can be
acquired by reduction of frames by few steps. The method is more suitable for symmetric frame and
can be applied at least four story frame safely. It is assume that frame should have enough beams to
ensure the continuation between the columns. First step, since the frame is symmetric, beam are
cut in the middle of the beam at their contraflexture. Second step, the compensate force which is
called shear flow of intensity q can be provided due to lacking continuity of frame. The compensate
force q will be transferred to column in terms of normal forces and bending moments as shown in
figure c. The both individual column is reduced to one column that called continuum column after
setting up differential equation for problem solving.

When the beam are cut, there are three vertical displacement devepled in the system based on their
relative actions. The vertical displacement for every actions will be calculated indivually and summed
to altogether.

1. The vertical displacement due to bending action of column is as shown in the figure 2
figure 2 Due to bending deflection of column

2. Due to axial force deveped from shear forces of connecting beam, the axial deformation of
the column is as follows

fig3. Due to axial deformation of column

Where

N – Normal force due to axial deformation in the column

q- intensity of shear flow

Ac1, AC2 . cross section area of the columns

H-height of the buildigs

E . modulus of elasticity

3. The shear force(qh) by cutting of beams at contraflexture deveop vertical deformation due
to bending action of beams. The relative displacement forlum as follows

1 3
¿
∆ 3=−2
qh
2 ()
=
−ql 3 h −ql 2 −ql 2
= = (2.1)
3 EI b 12 EI b 12 EI b kb
lh

The equation above consider when beams are infinitely stiff to the columns as shown in
figure 4 with dotted line. This is more suitable for wall structure. wall is more stiffer than
connecting beams. For rigid frame, the delfection Delata3 will be increased due to flexibility
of the columns as column can develop double curvature bending between the beams. Then
equaton become as below

ql 2 ql 2
∆ 3=
[ +
12 EI b 12 EI c
lh h2 ]=-ql 2
[ 1 1
+
kb kc ]

Where,
 12 EI c
k c=
h2
stiffness of column distributed over height of the columns

I.c – second moment of area of the columns

12 EI b
k b=
lh

stiffness of beams

I,b – second moment of area of the beams

h – story height

l – bay length

Figure 4. Vertical displacement due to bending of beam

For such kind for action present in the frame, the sheare stiffness Of frame is taken into account ,The
shear stiffness of frame is defined as
 1 1
−1
kc
K= [ +
kb k c ] =k b
kb+kc =
k br (2.4)
In Equation (2,4) the term
kc
r= kb+ kc (2.5)

r – reduction factor relation to K.b

By replacing Kb with K in equation 2.1, relative displacement becomes as below by considering

bending of both beams and columns

ql2
∆ 3=
k
The above deflection formulae are suitable if the frame is symmetric and beam cut at contracflexure
point at middle of the frame. In most practical cases, their accuracy is enough.

For real structure, the actual beams are not cut and they are continuous along the line of
controflexure. Therefore, sum of above three deformation is equal to zero.

2 H
´ ql − 1 1 + 1
ly−
k E A c1 A c2[ ]∫ Ndz=0 (2.6)

after differentiating, the equation becomes

 i
Y”- k N + {1} over {{EI} rsub {g}} N= (2.9)

Where

A c 1 A c2 2
I g= A c1 l 22= l
Ac 1+ A c2

global second moment of area

The final governing equation of frame can be replaced by now as a single cantilever column with
their corresponding local beding stiffness EI, global bending stiffness EIg and shear stiffness K .

The final govering difereitnti combining all the actions, the eqzution is defined as

w az 2
Y””-k 2 y = E1 [
2
−1 ] (2.15)

r- reduction factor
 K k
a = E1 , b = E1 , k=√ a+b=√ bs,
g

a a+b I c r I g+ I c r a Ic r
s=1+ b = b
=1+
Ig
=
Ig
,
a+b =I c r+Ig
(2.14)

wz 2
Using the above notation and with M= 2 , the short version of
Equation (2.2) is

after solving differential equation by setting boundary condtions and shape function, the solutions of
differential equation for maximum deflection at H becomes as follows ( refer book Karoly A.Zalka)

y wH 4 wH 2 wEI 1+kH sin h kH

max = y(H )= + − [
8 EI f 2 Ks 2 k 2 s3 cosh kH
−1 ]

Where
 wH 4 wH 2
= wEI 1+kH sin h kH
y b ( H )= , y ( H )=
8 EI f s 2 ks2
, yi( H ) [
2 3
k s cos h kH
−1]

Tthe formulae which are derived for one story buiding can be extended to multistory buildings as
well.

The shear stiffness of for the whole structure is obtained using

kc
K= k br
=kb
kb + kc
Where the two contributors to the shear stiffness are

n−1
12 EI b ,i
k b= ∑
i=1 li h

And

n
12 EI c ,i
K c =∑
i =1 h2

where

n – is number of columns

1. local beding stiffness of the column defined as

(EI = EI c r ),
where,

I = r∑ I 1
c ,i
Where the summation goes from i=1 to i=n. When the cross sections of the columns of the
framework are identical (as is often the case), the second moment of area of the columns is simply
multiplied by n and r (the reduction factor).

For the global bending stiffness (( EI g ), the formula

n
I g=∑ A c ,i t 2i (2.32)
1

Should be used, where Ac , iis the cross-sectional area of the i thcolumn and t i is the distance of the i th
column from the centroid of the cross sections. It should be noted, however, the equation (2.32)
represents an approximation and its use for multi-bay frameworks may lead to slightly
unconservative estimates for the deflection in the region of 0-3 % for thr four-bay structures and up
to 6% for ten-bay structures (kollar, 1986).

w H 3 z z4 wz2 wEI cos h k (H −z)+kH sin h kz

y= [
EI f 6
− + 2]− 2 3
24 2 Ks K s [
cos h kH
−1 ] (2.18)
Maximum deflection develops at z = H :

wH 4 wH 2 wEI 1+ kH sin h kH
y max = y ( H )= + − [
8 EI f 2 Ks 2 K 2 s 3 cos h kH
−1 ] (2.24)

Accuracy of delfection equation:

The total delfection can be reduced due to effect of interaction between the shear and bending
modes. The result of delfection is too conservative if ignoring effects of interaction. By analyzing 117
framework, the range of deflection is reduced between 0% to 64%. in tall builings, the effect of
interaction is decreased due to increasing of building heights. Typical deformation shape of buildings
is shown in Fig2. with bending, shear, interaction and overall deformation.
Figure 2.6 Typical deflection shapes with components y b(bending), y s (shear), y i(interaction) and the
overall deflection y for the 4-, 10-, 22- and 80- storey framework F1 shown in figure 2,7/a.

a) Some special case is need to be investigated for frame works under lateral load. for example,
low rise buiings, multibay have predominately shear type deflection while other global
bending and local bending are neglected.

For this case, stiffness of beam is much greater than stiffness of the column( ) ( I g ≫¿ I ¿. so
c,

that, a-0

b-infinitive. Governing equation is modified by doing some arrangement as follows,

w
Y” =
K
~
Where k¿ K b .This differential equation ,together with the boundary conditions y(0) = 0 and ý
(0)=0 , lead to the deflection and the top deflection as

wz 2
Y(z) = (2.33)
2k
And
2
y max = y ( H )= wH (2.34)
2K

This shear type defecltion is shown in fig.a

b) The case with grater height/width ratio, slender structures
In this type of structure, the global bending is major criteria for causing total deformation in
the buiding. so the terms 2 and 3 in expression will have smaller magnitude compare to first
term. the governing equation is modified as follows

wH 4
y max = y ( H )=
8 EI f
where,

where I f =I c r + I g . This case is illustrated in figure 2.1/b.

c) The structure is relatively slender (with great height /width ratio ).

The structure develops predominantly (global) bending deformation. The second and third
terms in Equations (2.18) and (2.24) tend to be by orders of magnitude smaller than the first
term, and the solution for the deflection and the top deflection effectively become
w H 3 z z4
Y(z) =
[
EI f 6
−
24 ] (2.37)

And
 wH 4
y max = y ( H )= (2.38)
8 EI f

Where I f =I c r + I g . This case is illustrated in figure 2.1/b

Linear buckling analysis.

Linear buckling analysis Is one of the best method to calculatue critical elastic bucking load. It
predicts ideal theoretical laod of linear elastic structure by solving an eigenvalue probme.

Rigid frame: (Ref: Bungale_Taranath: struturalanalysis and design of tall buildings)

lateral systems of concrete buidlings:

Rigid frame:

Concrete is a universal material. It is ideal, economy and versatility of form and fuctiion and
resistance to fire and ravages of time. The concete materoia exhibit some distinctive features like 1)
low resistance to tension which overcome by tension reinforcement. 2). time depenant dimensional
varitatoins , namely creep and shrinkage 3). larger cross sectional area needed for strength
considerations. The dean load tend to be more significant. Other hand, stiffness of concrete is
greater , minimizing the sway delfection and floor vibrations and local instability problems.

The details and design of frame joints should be given more attenation espically when frames is
designed for wind forces. large shear force will be occurred in column region with in depth of beam.
Horizontal ties are given to avoid the diagonal cracking and disintergarte of concrete. usually, rigid
frames are more ductile than structure with wall. so, rigid frame is distuished naturally by flexibility
which is made of flexture of indiviaual columns, beam and their rotations at joints. when beam and
column size are increased, the stiffness and strength of frame will be increteased and increasing of
columns spacing decreases the strength and stiffness of frame.

Efficient frame can be made reducing spacing of column and more depth in beam and haunch girder
or conncection between colum and beam.

Frame analysis:

This flow chart for unbraced frame has been made according to Eurocode with british natioan
standard.
Flow chart of unbraced frame design (Design aids for EC2)
P-Delta effects:

Stability design of frames:

In the old days, a simple design methodology that would give a reasonable result for columns in a
multistory building frame subjected to lateral load(s) was to assume an inflection point at the mid-
height of each column. Treating the entire building frame as a flagpole-type cantilever column
generally yields a poor result.
The current (2005) AISC specification recognizes both the notional load analysis and the effective-
length concept, along with a direct or indirect second-order analysis. The purpose of the notional
loads is to account for the destabilizing effects of initial imperfections, nonideal conditions (incidental
pattern gravity load effects, temperature gradients, foundation settlement, uneven column shortening,
or any other effects that could induce sway that is not explicitly considered in the analysis),
inelasticity in structural members, or combi- nations thereof.

The magnitude of the notional lateral load, 0.002 times the story vertical loads, can be thought of as
the continuity shear representing PD=‘ in which Dis an initial out-of-plumbness in each story of
1/500 times the story height. Although the notional load procedure is considered to be an improved
method of analysis, it still requires a stability analysis of the entire frame. In this regard, the
effective-length concept still has a role to play in the design of framed columns.

The most common procedure for determining effective lengths is to use the Jackson and Moreland
alignment charts originally developed by Julian and Lawrence (1959) and presented in detail by
Kavanagh (1960). An improved approximate method of analyses of columns in frames was
introduced by Kavanagh (1960)

AISC (2005) Specification Commentary endorses the suggested adjustment of the G-factor by Yura
(1971) and ASCE Task Committee on Effective Length (1997) when the column is inelastic. The
derivation was based on the slope-deflection equation with axial forces.
The following assumptions are used in the development of the elastic stability equation:
1. Behavior is purely elastic.
2. All members are prismatic.
3. All columns reach their buckling loads simultaneously.
4. The structure consists of symmetrical rectangular frames.
5. At a joint, the restraining moment provided by the girder is distributed
to the column in proportion to their stiffnesses

6. The girders are elastically restrained at their ends by the columns, and at the onset of buckling,
the rotations of the girder at its ends are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction with sidesway
inhibited. If side sway is uninhibited, rotations at opposite ends of the restraining girders are equal in
magnitude and direction.

7. The girders carry no axial forces.

Consider next the case of an unbraced column AB shown in Fig. 4-18. The assumptions for the
unbraced frame are the same as for the braced frame, except for assumption No. 6. For the
unbraced frame, the girder (or beam) is assumed to be in reverse curvature, with the rotation at
both ends equal in magnitude and direction. The definitions of elastic restraints u and v are the same
as for the braced frame.
Lateral load- resisting system for buildings.

The frame which is interconnected beams and columns are called moment resisting frame. Usually
such kind for frame under lateral load will undergo for large deformation. if every story has same
size of column and beam proportional to the shear in that particular story, horizontal deflection will
be same in every floor. The shaded portion of deflected frame and total deflected frame are shown
in figure. the horizontal deflection for shaded portion A relative B is given by

Vl 3 Vl 2 L
∆ AB= +
24 Ec I c 24 E b I b
L - length of beam center to center of supports

l – height of column from mid height of the story above to mid height of the story below the beam
P-Delta effects: (second order effects in concrete buildings)

The overall stability subjected to lateral load and vertical is very important to design columns in the
building. if the cross-sectional dimension of column are small compared to its length, columns is said
to be slender. The slender ness ratio is l/r. where, l is unsupported length between inflection points
between column below and above of the connections and r is the radius of gyration. Slender
columns are failed by buckling due to bending and stocky column are failed by crushing of concrete
due to axial load.

In elastic design procedure, the stability of frame can be checked through the concept of effective
length factor K in the buckling load formulas or through P-Delta anlysis by introducing additional
horizontal shear forces applied on the structure.

The Euler buckling load formula for idealized slender column supported by pinned-pinned is given as

π 2 EI
pc =
l2

Where E,I and I are the familiar notations for young´s modulus, moment of inertia , and length of the
column. If pc is divided by thr cross-sectional area A of the column, the expression for the critical
load may be written in terms of the critical average stress f c on the gross section of the column
 π 2 EI
f c=
l2 A
Substituting I= Ar 2, where r is the radius of gyration gives the stress form of Euler´s equation

π2 E
f c=
(l/r )2

In most of the buildings, the columns are connected with beams which restrict rotation and
developing moment at base of the column. In addition to, unbraced frame exhibit lateral
delfections. In order to find the critical load for practical cases of the building, the above expression
is modified with effective length factor K as follows
 π 2 EI
pc =
Kl 2
The effective length factor can be determined by ratio of sum of relative bending stiffness of column
to bending stiffness of connected beams. The effective length is not only on the degree of restraint
but also consider weather it is braced or unbraced frame.

The effective length is obtained from the relation,

l eff =β l col
Figure 11.1 : Nomogram for assessing effective lengths.

Coefficient K A and K B denote the rigidity of restraint at the column ends :

∑ Ecm ¿col l ¿
col

∑ Ecm aI b /¿ l eff
¿

Where

Ecm = modulus of elasticity of the concrete

I col , I b=¿ ¿ moment of the inertia (gross section) of the column or beam
respectively

I col =height of the column measured between centres of restraint

I eff =¿¿effective spam of the beam

A=¿ factor taking into account the conditions os restraint of the beam
at the opposite end :

= 1.0 opposite end elastically ir rigidly restrained

= 0.5 opposite end free to rotate

= 0 for a cantilever beam

=

The effective height for unbraced framed structures may be taken as the lesser of :

l c =l o ¿¿

l c =l 0 [ 2.0+0.3 ac , min ]

Where
I c= effective height of a column in the plane of bending considered

I o= height between end restraints

a c, 1= ratio of the sum of the columns stiffnesses to the sum of the beam stiffnesses at the lower end
of a column

a c, 2= ratio of the sum of the columns stiffnesses to the sum of the beam stiffnesses at the upper end
of a column

a min=lesser of a a c1∧ac 2
Where creep may significantly affect the performance of a member (e.g. where members are not
well restrained at the ends by monolithic connections) , this can be allowed for by increasing the
effective length by a factor
1
M qp
[ 1+
M sd ] 2

Where

M qp is the moment under the quasi-permanent load

M sd is the design first order moment

P-Delta effects:

In reality, none of the buildings is either braced or unbraced. Buildings are classified braced or
unbraced for structural analysis purpose only. In general, the total building stiffness should be at
least six times of total column stiffness, then column in the structure is consider as braced column
otherwise, columns are considered as unbraced.

The K values for unbraced in monographs is derived based on assumption that column and beam
deflect into double curvature in which, far end of beam are either completely fixed or pinned. So
that, stiffness of beam is reduced by factor 0.67 and 0.5 corresponding to if far end is fixed and
pinned respectively.
We take an example of unbraced subjected to vertical loads and horizontal load. The deflection of
shape of unbraced frame is shown in figure. First applying horizontal load, the deflection shape of
frame is represent by solid line as shown figure a. and corresponding end moment of column shown
in figure b. The vertical load is applied on the deformed structure which create secondary moment in
the column as represented by dashed line in figure a and corresponding moment shown in figure c.
The resulting end moment of column is obtained by combining both effects as shown in figure d.

As we can see that, both primary and secondary have same positive sign and having same moments
at both ends. Therefore, that ratio of end moments is one and Cm value is one for unbraced frame

Design in a manner which approximately accounts for continuity, i.e., for frame buckling effects. This
is done by mathematically isolating a compression member together with its adjoining members at
both ends and determining its critical load in terms of effective length factor K. The member is the
analyzed as a beam-column by a simplified interaction equation which accounts for the moment
magnification caused by the p−∆ effect. Instead of frame analysis for the p−∆ method, a member
analysis is substituted.

We will now review the various forms of interaction equations given in the AISC specifications.
Consideration of only uniaxial bending reduces the AISC equations to the less intimidating format as
follows:

fa Cm f b
+ ≤1.0 (11.8)
F a (1−f a / F e' ) F b

fa f
+ b ≤ 1.0 (11.9)
0.6 f y F b

A column design procedure in unbraced frame is explained as follows

1. Determine the primary moments in the columns due to lateral loads using elastic analysis.
Include geometrical imperfection and axial loads.
2. Find if the frame is unbraced against sidesway and find the unsupported length l.u and K,
which can be obtained from the alignment chart
3. Calculate EI values which can be included effects of creep and cracking in the forumulas
 Ec I g /5+ E s I s
EI=
1+ β

Ec I g / 2.5
EI =
1+ β

Where Ec and E s = the moduli of elasticity of concrete and

steel,respectively

I gand I s = the moment of inertia of the gross section of concrete

and reinforcement about the axis of bending

β = a ratio that takes into account the effect of creep and is equal to the
ratio of maximum factored dead load moment to the maximum factored
total load moment.

4. Find column end moments M1 and M2 from lateral analysis and calculate the coefficient Cm
from formula below

C m=0.6+ 0.4 M 1 /M 2 .
Cm value is one for unbraced as explained earlier, maximum primary and secondary
moment appears in the same location.
5. Calculate the gravity moments at the column ends from the elastic analysis
6. calculate B.s value which is used to find I value
7. Calculate the non-sway moment magnification factor (d.b) by the relation

5 . Calculate the moment magnification factor δ by the relation :

 Cm
δ b= ≥1.0
1−Pu / ∅ p c

Where Pu=¿ ultimate axial load on the column

Pc =¿ critical load
∅=¿capacity reduction faction

8. Calculate sway moment magnification factor(d.s) by one of the method below

a) Magnifier method:

A. Magnifier Method :
1
δ s= (12.17)
1−¿ ¿

Where δ s ≤2.5 and ∑ Pu is the summation for all the factored vertical loads in a story and ∑ P c is the
summation for all sway-resisting columns in a story. Also,

Ms
δ s M s= (12.18)
1−¿ ¿

Where M sis the factored end moment due to loads causing

appreciable sway
 6. From ∑ Pu and ∑ P c for all the columns in the particular story, calculate the
moment magnification factor δ s for the secondary moments by the realtion
1
δ s=
1−∑ P u/ ∅ ∑ p c

7. obtain the design moment M c by multiplying the primary, i.e., the gravity moment M g
and the secondary moments M s by their corresponding magnification factors thus
M c =δ b M 2 g+ δ s M 2 s

The subscript 2 for M g and M s indicates that the larger of the two end moments is to be
used in obtaining the design moment.

8. Design the column for the axial load and the amplified moments obtained in step 7.

In practices most of enginner try to find out distribution of internal forces and deflection of bulding
throughout the structure. They do not include the stability effects of building. One of the most effect
is P_Delta which caused lateral deformation due to vertical load and crating additional shears and
moments in the members of structures. The moment magnification method replaces the P-Delta
effects by multiplying result of first order analysis to moment magnification factor. Moment
magfnifaction method is approximate method and practical method to evaluatet secondary effects
to design slender columns. Nowadays, the commercial programmes are availbae to run the second-
order analysis accurately. So no need anymore calcuattehe momentmaganification method.

Methods of second order analysis:

Iterative P-Delta analysis: Sway forces:

A conventional linear elastic method such as stiffness method assumes that external load applied on
the deformed structure does not change the primary internal forces and moment in structure. but in
reality, the axial load acting delfected structure creates additional mometns through P-Delta effects.

For that reason, advanced second order analysis is used to anlayse structure to obtainer accoureteh
internal forces and moments. The procdue of second order analysis descrbied in this section. To
keep the system in equilibrium, the internal resisting moment must equilibrate the change in
external applied moments while the frame deflecte horzontaally due to action of lateral load and
vertical load. The equilibrium equation is

∑ (M top+ M btm)=vlc + ∑ p ∆
As we can see in figure 1 that the same amount of deflection (Delaa) occur in both column in frame.
so that we can not consider that columns indiependetnlhy in a sway frame. The additional shear
force is created by moment(P-Delata) as shown fig 2. The net sway force is calculated by algebraic
sum of story shear forces from column below and above as shown in figure 3.

( ∑ pi ) ∆i
Sway force j = li
−¿ ¿

Where a positive column end moment and positive sway forces causes overturning the structure in
the same direction as wind load do. The sway force is applied on each story of structure and the
structure is reanalyzed. We get new additional deformation and sway forces. If the defection is
increased by 2.5% than previous defection, the structure should be analyzed again for new sway
forces and external forces. The process continuous until structure brings in equilibrium.

If there is a discontinuity in the applied loads or in the stiffness of building, the sway force will be
negative and act in opposite direction of lateral forces as shown in figure 3.
Direct P-Delta analysis for frames:

However, the many researcher developed an equation that can calculate final second-order
deflection directly from the first order deflection as follows
 1
∆=
1−∑ P ∆ /Hh

Where ∑ p=¿ cumulative vertical load

∆ i=¿the first-order story sway

h = story height

H = horizontal shear force

The following procedure can be used to calculate final delfctoin

1. Find Detla.i from first order anlaysis for each story

2. calculate the second order deflection using above experssions
3. compute sway forces caused by P-Delta moments
4. Run the first order analysis again by adding sway force at each story with existing lateral load

Step four gives final moment and forces for designing of column members directly without resorting
moment magnification method.

As explained earlier, for accounting P-Delta effects, the moment magnification method is practical
method now. There are many errors in the analysis and design procedure. For that reason, direct
method for evaluating p-Delta effects is far better than moment magnification method and highly
recommended for office routine use. In this this method, effective length factor (K) considered as
one for all type of buildings –concrete, or composite. If the computer have option second-order
analysis, the computer programs crate equilibrium equations on deflected shape itself and produce
results in single solution without following iterative techniques. Since P-Delta effects include in the
analysis directly, they do not take into account of stiffness reduction of member.

The drawback of second order analysis of concrete structure is to calculate the flexural stiffness
value EI under different load combinations. The EI value depends on amount of reinforcement, creep
effects, cracking and inelastic behavior of concrete and steel and stiffness reduction due to presence
of axial loads. The variation of stiffness along the entire length of member for cracked and uncracked
regions should be taken into account for each member of columns. In practical, it is impossible to
calculate the stiffness for each member in the analysis. Therefore, simplified methods are used to
calculate EI value. Moment magnification method is used to check the stability of individual columns
when designing columns using P-Delta method. This procedure make sure that each column bending
in single curvature should be taken properly.

Eurocode checks:

Global bucking is one of complicated subject in structural system. In post tension building, with
decreasing of height of the floor and optimization of materials, the budligns become more slender.
For this reason, the structure is to be checked the global instabitly effects. In Eurocode 2 states that
second order effects are ignored if the they are less than 10% of first order effects. Crtical bucking
load is used for checking whether global second order effects need to be considered or not in
system. Depending on magnitude of critical bucling load, global second order effect may be
neglected or considered indirectly in to simplified methods

There are so many methods to check the second order effects wheather it is significant or not in
concrete structure. Those methods are Equivalnet column method, Vianellos method, Linear bucking
analysis or simplified criteria in the Eurocode.

Accordign to Eurocde 2, global seond order effecs may be disregared if total vertical load FV .Ed
meets the folllowing the criteria

ns
∗∑ E cd I c
n s+ 1.6
F v . Ed ≤
L2

L is the total height of the building above a level of moment restraint, n s is the number of stories,
Ecd is the design value of the modules of elasticity of concrete and I c is the second moment of area
(uncracked concrete section) of bracing members. The value of k 1 may be found in National Annex,
but the recommended value is 0.31. This simplification is only valid if loads on each story is close to
the same ,the structure is reasionably symmetrical and the stiffness is reasonably constant. The
bracing members also need to be fixed at the base to prevent rotation. The structure should also not
be experiencing torsional instability or global shear deformations for this simplification to be
appropriate.

if above criterion is not fulfilled, the Eurocdoe have a second option that consider both global
bending and shear deformation. in case of no shear deformation in building that accounts only for
bending, the following conditions should be checked to ignore the second order effects

F v .BB =∈
∑ ω Ecd I c (5.2)
2
L
ns 1
∈= 7.8 (5.3)
ns +1.6 1+ 0.7 k m
0m EI
k m= (5.4)
M LB

ϵ is a coefficient depending on number of stories , variation of stiffness,rigidity of base

restraint and load distributions. The base restraint, k m ' is dependent on rotation for bending
moment, 0 m' the stiffness and the height of the bracing unit. This relationship only valid to be
used if the structure has a constant EI and loading along the whole height of the bracing
system.
In the case where significant shear deformation is present the critical buckling load is calculated
according to the following expression :

F v . BB
F v .B =
F (5.5)
1+ v .BB
F v . BS

Where F v .BB is calculated according to the presented path for the first case where the system has no
significant shear deformation and F v .BS is the total shear stiffness of bracing units. Finally after
calculatingthe critical buckling load F v .B or F v .B . B the code presented the following criteria to allow
considering the structure to be safe without carrying on a secong order analysis.

F v .B ≥ 10 F v . Ed with significant shear deformation (5.6)

F v .BB ≥ 10 F v . Ed without significant shear deformation (5.7)

Ductile moment frames:

Ductile moment frame is more suitable for earthquake regions where the flexibility of structure is
more important to absorb the vibration caused by horizonal forces act back and forth. Ductile
moment frames are invariable of reinforced concrete with non-prestressed steel reinforcements and
prestressing strands are not allowed to have in the frames [ Anthony-Christ]. Since, axial load is not
present in beam, the beam is designed only for shear and flexure. However extra reinforced is
required to form hinges at the beam ends. Columns are designed for axial forces, shear forces and
moments resulting from combination of vertical loads and horizontal loads.

Fig1. Failure mechanism of reinforced concrete frames [Anthony P-Christ]

When columns are assumed or designed more stronger than beams under lateral load, the beam
gets yielding first throughout the structure. resulting, it leads to beam sway mechanism. Column
mechanism occurs an opposite way of beam sway mechanism. so that, Strength of beams are
stronger than columns. Building codes suggest that designer must be ensure that frames are
designed based on beam sway mechanism. The plastic hinges at column ends may lead to structure
failure without warning but it cannot avoid completely to form hinges the columns. for this reason,
confinement reinforcement must be given throughout the column. The joints should be designed for
a combination of tension, compression and shear and checked reinforcement bond strength which
pass through the joint.