Assignment no.

-1
Q1. What do you understand by Nanoelectronics? Give length units ofinterest in nanotechnology and small
objects with their dimensions?

Answer:- Nanotechnology (or "nanotech") is manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and

supramolecular scale. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology[1][2] referred to the
particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of
macroscale products, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology. A more generalized description
of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which
defines nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100
nanometers. This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this
quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research
category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of
matter which occur below the given size threshold. It is therefore common to see the plural form
"nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research and
applications whose common trait is size.
Q2. Give a brief idea of band structure of metals, insulators and semiconductors?

Answer:- A useful way to visualize the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors is
to plot the available energies for electrons in the materials. Instead of having discrete energies as in the
case of free atoms, the available energy states form bands. Crucial to the conduction process is whether
or not there are electrons in the conduction band. In insulators the electrons in the valence band are
separated by a large gap from the conduction band, in conductors like metals the valence band overlaps
the conduction band, and in semiconductors there is a small enough gap between the valence and
conduction bands that thermal or other excitations can bridge the gap. With such a small gap, the
presence of a small percentage of a doping material can increase conductivity dramatically.

An important parameter in the band theory is the Fermi level, the top of the available electron energy
levels at low temperatures. The position of the Fermi level with the relation to the conduction band is a
crucial factor in determining electrical properties.

Q3.Explain the “Top-Down” approach related to nanotechnology in detail?

Answer:- There are two types of approaches for the synthesis of nanomaterial and fabrication of
nanostructure.
 • top-Down approaches refers to slicing or successive cutting of bulk material to get nano-sized
particles.there are two types *attrition ,* milling

Bottom-up refers to methods where devices 'create themselves' by self-assembly. Chemical synthesis is
a good example. Bottom-up should, broadly speaking, be able to produce devices in parallel and much
cheaper than top-down methods, but getting control over the methods is difficult when things become
larger and bulkier than what is normally made by chemical synthesis. Of course, nature has had time to
evolve and optimize self-assembly processes that can do wonders.
 Assignment no. - 02
Q1.Describe the MOCVD technique in detail along with suitablediagrams.

Answer:- The MOCVD technique enables very thin layers of atoms to be deposited on a semiconductor
wafer and is a key process for manufacturing III-V compound semiconductors, especially gallium nitride
(GaN)-based semiconductors.Other names for the MOCVD process include: organo-metallic chemical
vapor deposition (OMCVD), organo-metallic vapor phase epitaxy (OMVPE) and metal organic vapor
phase epitaxy (MOVPE). The Close Coupled Showerhead and the Planetary Reactor technology are the
two different technologies offered by AIXTRON for MOCVD deposition processes.

Q2.How Si is processed? Give the Si processing methods in detail.

Answer:- The starting material for Si wafer manufacture is called Electronic grade Si(EGS). This is an ingot
of Si that can be shaped and cut into the final wafers.EGS should have impurity levels of the order of
ppb, with the desired doping levels, so that it matches the chemical composition of the final Si wafers.
The doping levels are usually back calculated from resistivity measurements. To get EGS, the starting
material is called Metallurgical grade Si (MGS). The first step is the synthesis of MGS from the ore The
starting material for Si manufacture is quartzite (SiO2) or sand. The ore is reduced to Si by mixing with
coke and heating in a submerged electrode arc furnace. The SiO2 reacts with excess C to first form SiC.
At high temperature, the SiC reduces SiO2 to form Si. The overall reaction is given

SiC (s) + SiO2 (s) → Si (l) + SiO (g) + CO (g)..................................... (1)

metallic impurities are Al and Fe. Further purification is needed to make EGS since the impurity
concentration must be reduced to ppb levels. One of the techniques for converting MGS to EGS is called
the Seimens process. In this the Si is reacted with HCl gas to form tricholorosilane, which is in gaseous
form.

Si (s) + 3HCl (g) → SiHCl3 (g) + H2 (g)....................................................... (2)

This process is carried out in a fluidized bed reactor at 300◦C, where the trichlorosilane gas is removed
and then reduced using H2 gas.

2SiHCl3 (g) + 2H2 (g) → 2Si (s) + 6HCl (g).................................................. (3)

The process flow is shown in figure 2. A Si rod is used to nucleate the reduced Si obtained from the silane
gas, as shown in figure 3. During the conversion of silicon to trichlorosilane impurities are removed and
process can be cycled to increase purity of the formed Si. The final material obtained is the EGS. This is a
polycrystalline form of Si, like MGS, but has much smaller impurity levels, closer to what is desired in the
final single crystal wafer. The impurities in EGS are tabulated in 3. EGS is still polycrystalline and needs to
be converted into a single crystal Si ingot for producing the wafers.

Q3. Briefly explain nanolithography and also explain different nanolithography techniques.

Answer:- Nanolithography is a growing field of techniques within nanotechnology dealing with the
engineering (etching, writing, printing) of nanometer-scale structures. From Greek, the word can be
broken up into three parts: "nano" meaning dwarf, "lith" meaning stone, and "graphy" meaning to
write, or "tiny writing onto stone." Today, the word has evolved to cover the design of structures in
the range of 10−9 to 10−6 meters, or structures in the nanometer range. Essentially, field is a
derivative of lithography, only covering significantly smaller structures. All nanolithographic
techniques can be separated into two categories: those that etch away molecules leaving behind the
desired structure, and those that directly write the desired structure to a surface (similar to the way
a 3D printer creates a structure).

The field of nanolithography was born out of the need to increase the number of transistors in an
integrated circuit in order to maintain Moore's Law. While lithographic techniques have been
around since the late 18th century, none were applied to nanoscale structures until the mid-1950s.
With evolution of the semiconductor industry, demand for techniques capable of producing micro-
and nano-scale structures skyrocketed. Photolithography was applied to these structures for the
first time in 1958 beginning the age of nanolithography. Since then, photolithography has become
the most commercially successful technique, capable of producing sub-100 nm patterns. There are
several techniques associated with the field, each designed to serve its many uses in the medical
and semiconductor industries. Breakthroughs in this field contribute significantly to the
advancement of nanotechnology, and are increasingly important today as demand for smaller and
smaller computer chips increases. Further areas of research deal with physical limitations of the
field, energy harvesting, and photonics.

Important techniques:-

1. Optical lithography

2. Electron-beam lithography

3. Scanning probe lithography

4. Nanoimprint lithography
 Assignment no. - 03
Q1. Write a short note on X-ray lithography method.

Answer:-X-ray lithography, is a process used in electronic industry to selectively remove parts of a

thin film. It uses X-rays to transfer a geometric pattern from a mask to a light-sensitive chemical
photoresist, or simply "resist," on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then engraves the
produced pattern into the material underneath the photoresist.

Q2. Explain the Raman spectroscopy technique in detail with suitable diagrams.

Answer:- Raman spectroscopy relies upon inelastic scattering of photons, known as Raman
scattering. A source of monochromatic light, usually from a laser in the visible, near infrared, or
near ultraviolet range is used, although X-rays can also be used. The laser light interacts with
molecular vibrations, phonons or other excitations in the system, resulting in the energy of the laser
photons being shifted up or down. The shift in energy gives information about the vibrational
modes in the system. Infrared spectroscopy typically yields similar, complementary, information.

Typically, a sample is illuminated with a laser beam. Electromagnetic radiation from the illuminated
spot is collected with a lens and sent through a monochromator. Elastic scattered radiation at the
wavelength corresponding to the laser line (Rayleigh scattering) is filtered out by either a notch
filter, edge pass filter, or a band pass filter, while the rest of the collected light is dispersed onto a
detector.

Spontaneous Raman scattering is typically very weak; as a result, for many years the main difficulty
in collecting Raman spectra was separating the weak inelastically scattered light from the intense
Rayleigh scattered laser light (referred to as "laser rejection"). Historically, Raman spectrometers
used holographic gratings and multiple dispersion stages to achieve a high degree of laser rejection.
In the past, photomultipliers were the detectors of choice for dispersive Raman setups, which
resulted in long acquisition times. However, modern instrumentation almost universally employs
notch or edge filters for laser rejection. Dispersive single-stage spectrographs (axial transmissive
(AT) or Czerny–Turner (CT) monochromators) paired with CCD detectors are most common
although Fourier transform (FT) spectrometers are also common for use with NIR lasers.

The name "Raman spectroscopy" typically refers to vibrational Raman using laser wavelengths
which are not absorbed by the sample. There are many other variations of Raman spectroscopy
including surface-enhanced Raman, resonance Raman, tip-enhanced Raman, polarized Raman,
stimulated Raman, transmission Raman, spatially-offset Raman, and hyper Raman.

Q3. What do you understand by dynamic light scattering techniques? Also write its application.
Answer:-Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is a technique in physics that can be used to determine the
size distribution profile of small particles in suspension or polymers in solution. In the scope of DLS,
temporal fluctuations are usually analyzed by means of the intensity or photon auto-correlation
function (also known as photon correlation spectroscopy or quasi-elastic light scattering). In the
time domain analysis, the autocorrelation function (ACF) usually decays starting from zero delay
time, and faster dynamics due to smaller particles lead to faster decorrelation of scattered intensity
trace. It has been shown that the intensity ACF is the Fourier transformation of the power spectrum,
and therefore the DLS measurements can be equally well performed in the spectral domain. DLS can
also be used to probe the behavior of complex fluids such as concentrated polymer solutions.

Applications

• DLS is used to characterize size of various particles including proteins, polymers, micelles,
vesicles,[18] carbohydrates, nanoparticles, biological cells[19] and gels.[20] If the system is
not disperse in size, the mean effective diameter of the particles can be determined. This
measurement depends on the size of the particle core, the size of surface structures, particle
concentration, and the type of ions in the medium.
• Since DLS essentially measures fluctuations in scattered light intensity due to diffusing
particles, the diffusion coefficient of the particles can be determined. DLS software of
commercial instruments typically displays the particle population at different diameters. If
the system is monodisperse, there should only be one population, whereas a polydisperse
system would show multiple particle populations. If there is more than one size population
present in a sample then either the CONTIN analysis should be applied for photon
correlation spectroscopy instruments, or the power spectrum method should be applied for
Doppler shift instruments.

• Stability studies can be done conveniently using DLS. Periodical DLS measurements of a
sample can show whether the particles aggregate over time by seeing whether the
hydrodynamic radius of the particle increases. If particles aggregate, there will be a larger
population of particles with a larger radius. In some DLS machines, stability depending on
temperature can be analyzed by controlling the temperature in situ.
 Assignment no. - 04
Q1. What do you mean by active substrate materials?

Answer:-active substrate. A semiconductor or ferrite material in which active elements are formed;
also a mechanical support for the other elements of a semiconductor device or integrated circuit.
Active substrate materials are primarily used for sensors and actuators in

Microsystems

- Typical materials: Si, GaAs, Ge, and quartz.

- Have a cubic crystal lattice with tetrahedral atomic bond.

- Reason for active substrate materials: dimensional stability

→ Insensitive to environmental conditions.

→ A critical requirement for sensors and actuators with high precision. - Each

atom carries 4 electrons in the outer orbit, and shares these 4 electrons with

its 4 neighbors.

Q2.Explain:

(i) Device specific packing of nano structure

Answer:- Recent developments in nanoscience and nanotechnology intend novel and innovative
applications in the food sector, which is rather recent compared with their use in biomedical and
pharmaceutical applications. Nanostructured materials are having applications in various sectors of
the food science comprising nanosensors, new packaging materials, and encapsulated food
components. Nanostructured systems in food include polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes,
nanoemulsions, and microemulsions. These materials enhance solubility, improve bioavailability,
facilitate controlled release, and protect bioactive components during manufacture and storage.
This review highlights the applications of nanostructured materials for their antimicrobial activity
and possible mechanism of action against bacteria, including reactive oxygen species, membrane
damage, and release of metal ions. In addition, an overview of nanostructured materials, and their
current applications and future perspectives in food science are also presented.

(ii) Bio MEMS and fluidics packing.

Answer:- Fluidics, or fluidic logic, is the use of a fluid to perform analog or digital operations similar
to those performed with electronics.

The physical basis of fluidics is pneumatics and hydraulics, based on the theoretical foundation of
fluid dynamics. The term fluidics is normally used when devices have no moving parts, so ordinary
hydraulic components such as hydraulic cylinders and spool valves are not considered or referred
to as fluidic devices. A jet of fluid can be deflected by a weaker jet striking it at the side. This
provides nonlinear amplification, similar to the transistor used in electronic digital logic. It is used
mostly in environments where electronic digital logic would be unreliable, as in systems exposed to
high levels of electromagnetic interference or ionizing radiation. Nanotechnology considers fluidics
as one of its instruments. In this domain, effects such as fluid-solid and fluid-fluid interface forces
are often highly significant. Fluidics have also been used for military applications.

Q3.Explain the fabrication and working of a pressure sensor being made using MEMS technology.

Answer:- In the sensor packaging process, the principal concern is to protect the delicate
components of the sensor while retaining a sensing-channel above the silicon membrane. A variety
of sensor packaging techniques have been proposed in recent years [1-3]. Pressure sensors have
been packaged using a two-step process in which a pre-mold plastic host was embedded within a
lead-frame substrate. In an attempt to improve the throughput of the packaging process, while
reducing the cost and ensuring compliancy with the SMD process used throughout the electronics
and semiconductor fields, researchers have proposed a variety of packaging techniques [4-8] in
which the pressure sensor is initially adhered to a lead-frame substrate and then encapsulated
using a suitable plastic molding compound. Typical examples of such techniques include the so-
called Quad Flat Package (QFP), Dual In-Line Package (DIP), and Small Outline Integrated Circuit
(SOIC) packages. However, extra-space has to be reserved for the lead-frame substrates used in
these techniques, which inevitably increases the package size.

Conventional micro-machined piezoresistive pressure sensors have a silicon substrate with a

backetched membrane which supports four piezoresistors arranged in such a way that they
coincide with the positions of maximum sensitivity for pressure-induced deflections of the
diaphragm, as shown in Figure 1(a). A wet etching process is widely used to form the back-etched
hollow from the backside of the pressure sensor wafer. To make a closed vacuum chamber in the
pressure sensor, the pressure sensor wafer is bonded with a Pyrex glass wafer using an anodic
bonding process in a vacuum environment. The back-etched hollow of the pressure sensor and the
bonded Pyrex glass, therefore, form a closed vacuum chamber. In practice, the resistance changes of
the piezoresistors vary as a function of membrane stress and piezoresistive coefficients of the
piezoresistors of the pressure sensor in the longitudinal and transverse directions. The
piezoresistive coefficients of piezoresistors vary as a function of both the temperature and doping
concentration

Name :- Deepak Swami

Reg. No. :- PIET/17/EC/023