INTRODUCTION

Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that
determine his unique adjustments to the environment (Allport, 1927). Personality describes a
measurable set of traits that define a person’s psychological and psychosocial functioning and
adjustment from the other.

Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally
and deal effectively with his environment (Weschler, 1944). Allport (1927) mentioned that
intelligence is one of the supporting elements for personality. Intelligence, however, may support
components of personality but are not personality characteristics of personality.

Intelligence and personality both are mental constructs that influence the way individuals comprehend
themselves and their world. Harrod and Scheer (2005) claim that EI or Emotional Intelligence is
closely related to the “theory of social intelligence”. Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined EI as the
“ability to monitor one’s own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to
use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Harrod and Scheer, 2005, p. 205).

Though this kind of ability appears distinctly linked with the elements of personality, including traits
of sensing and feeling, there is a distinct difference between personality and intelligence. Intelligence
can be defined as a foundational component that supports personality, but not a construct of
personality itself. Some theorists concluded that intelligence test performance may be influenced by
some non-ability traits, but that IQ and personality are two independent constructs (Zeidner and
Matthews 2000). Yet Cattell (1971, 1987) and Ackerman (1996a, 1996b, 1999) found that personality
traits, especially Openness, may play a significant role in the development of intellectual skill
acquisition.

Research have shown that various intelligence factor are associated with various personality disorders.
Schizoid PD of childhood involves solitariness, impaired empathy, emotional detachment, rigidity of
mental set with single-minded pursuit of special interests, increased sensitivity, odd styles of
communication (including overcommunicativeness), odd gaze and gestures, and unusual fantasies.
This is usually in the setting of average or superior intelligence but there may be specific
developmental delays, especially of language-related skills. Such children present problems to teachers
and parents; they do not conform socially and react to constraints with outbursts of weeping, rage or
aggression. (Personality Disorders --- Recognition and Clinical Management, p. 49).

Cleckly, in his book “Mask of Sanity” (5th Ed, 1976) provided a clinical picture of ‘Psychopaths’,
modernly called ‘Anti Social Personality Disorder’ (ASPD) where he had listed 16 features of
psychopathy, good intelligence being one of them.

In describing the common features of ASPD in adolescence, West (1983) mentioned that failure to
acquire social skills is shown by carelessness and slovenliness, poor educational attainment in
comparison with measured intelligence, clumsiness and uncooperativeness in team efforts, restlessness
and inattentiveness in school, and frequent absences from class (Personality Disorders --- Recognition
and Clinical Management, p. 62-63).

People with ASPD, those who are cool and calculative, non violent and manipulative, tend to have
higher intelligence, while those who are less calculative and of violent nature, tend to have lower
intelligence. In general, age and intelligence are inversely related to future violence for those with
antisocial PD (Klassen & O'Connor, 1988).
1
Pfeiffer (2001) argues that many psychological assessments that are used to determine the capacity for
learning are grounded in intelligence assessments that do not take that do not take into account various
emotional factors. As a result, personality and intelligence tests are often conducted together in order
to determine correlates between aspects of personality and capabilities related to intelligence.

In R. J. Sternberg and P. Ruzgis (Eds.), Personality and intelligence (pp. 3–31), New York:
Cambridge University Press). The results of this study show that personality dimensions measured by
the NEO Personality Inventory stay clearly apart from academic abilities and psychometrically
measured intelligence. Correlation and joint factor analyses demonstrated that most of the valid
variance in academic achievement and intelligence was not related to personality measures in the
Estonian population forming a separate dimension of individual differences. The lack of correlation
between academic abilities and personality, however, does not exclude that individuals with low or
high intellectual abilities might use their intellectual resources differently for the expression of their
individuality. It was found that low-intelligence persons use their intellectual abilities primarily for
seeking excitement and elaborating fantasies; high-intelligence persons, in contrast, use their intellect
for regulating and controlling their affective lives.

Traditional study of personality and intelligence has focused on individual differences--searching for
traits or relatively stable characteristics along which people differ (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985;
Howard, 1993). This line of research is based on the assumption that an improved scientific
understanding of the nature of psychological functions can be achieved only by taking into account
information about overall levels of performance and between-subjects variability and covariability.
While the emphasis in individual differences research has been on multivariate procedures,
experimental psychology has been almost exclusive in its focus on univariate designs. Multivariate
research is closely linked to the development of psychological measuring instruments which are
widely used in educational, industrial, and clinical settings. More recently, psychobiological
explanations of personality and ability constructs have been sought (e.g., Zuckerman, 1991), opening
the way for more sophisticated understanding of the neuropsychological and neuroendocrinological
mechanisms underlying personality and ability traits. Hence, it is possible to claim that studies of
intelligence and personality based on these combined approaches have made a more significant
contribution to our social life in general than many other areas of psychological research (cf. Goff &
Ackerman, 1992).

Early views (e.g., Lombroso, 1891) held that high intelligence was associated with insanity or a
propensity for adjustment problems. This negative stereotype was largely refuted by Lewis Terman's
longitudinal studies (Terman et al., 1925-1959). Terman and colleagues demonstrated convincingly
that highly intelligent children, defined by Stanford-Binet IQs greater than 140, tended to be better
adjusted than the norm on a wide range of adjustment variables. Research with other samples has
supported this view (Kelly & Colangelo, 1984; Lehman & Erdwins, 1981; Reynolds & Bradley,
1983).

Concern over the adjustment of gifted-level children, however, has not abated. Even at the time of
Terman's landmark work, another respected authority in the field, Leta Hollingworth (1942),
contended that highly intelligent children were prone to develop social and emotional adjustment
problems. Similar concerns have been repeated by many others (Austin & Draper, 1981; Janos &
Robinson, 1985; Lajoie & Shore, 1981; Powell & Haden, 1984; Roedell, 1984; Schauer, 1976).

Thus, it appears that two distinct, seemingly antithetical, views exist regarding the adjustment of
highly intelligent children. Research in the Terman tradition generally indicates that high intelligence
2
is associated with healthy adjustment. What might be termed the Hollingworth perspective regards
high intelligence as associated with adjustment problems (Hollingworth, 1942). Taken to its logical
conclusion, one view leads to the hypothesis that there is a positive correlation between intelligence
and adjustment. In contrast, the other view suggests that the correlation would be negative.

One possible explanation is that the relationship between IQ and adjustment is curvilinear, changing
from positive to negative at some point within the gifted range. However, determination of the point at
which IQ becomes a liability rather than an asset to healthy adjustment is difficult.

A number of studies have claimed poor adjustment in very high IQ children, but these studies were
based on uncertain adjustment criteria and typically did not include appropriate comparison groups
(Kincaid, 1969; Selig, 1951; Zorbaugh, Boardman, & Sheldon, 1951). Studies that contrasted higher
and lower IQ groups directly suggest a different view. Gallagher and Crowder (1957) found that 35
children with 150+ IQs were generally well adjusted, despite a few exceptions. Gallagher (1958)
found that 150+ IQ (Stanford-Binet) children were among the most popular children in their respective
classes and found no differences between subgroups of 150-164-IQ and 165-205-IQ children. Lewis
(1943), however, did report greater maladjustment and underachievement in a higher (145+) IQ group
than in a lower (125-144) IQ group.

John Parkinson of York University (TORONTO, ONTARIO, CANADA) and Simon Taggar of
Wilfrid Laurier University (WATERLOO, ONTARIO, CANADA) tested intelligence and personality
traits as the predictors of performance on a case study and found that openness to experience was
significantly positively correlated with an individual’s score on problem identification and that
intelligence was significantly positively correlated with an individual’s score on analysis.
Additionally, there was a positive relationship between extraversion and agreeableness and an
individual’s analysis score and a significant negative relationship between conscientiousness and an
individual’s score on problem identification. Moreover, intelligence and conscientiousness interacted
to predict an individual’s analysis score with high conscientiousness partially compensating for an
individual’s relatively low intelligence.

Friesen lists a number of characteristics that he claims are typical of MPD counselees: high
intelligence, high creativity, high suggestibility, urgency about time, a sense of extreme deprivation, a
high need to please others, secretiveness, amnesia, headaches, sudden shifts in mood and/or voice,
flashbacks of traumatic experiences, inner dialogue, uneven school achievements, sleep disturbances,
difficulty finding parked car, indecision about clothes to wear, and denial of actions clearly observed
by others (p. 123). A high incidence of these factors may indicate dissociation.

The present study therefore attempts to ascertain the personality profile of people with high
intelligence and also to ascertain the difference in personality profiles, if any, between high
intelligence and average intelligence groups.

PERSONALITY & INTELLIGENCE

This chapter would focus upon personality and intelligence as viewed from various perspectives.
Personality has been studied from the following aspects:

• Trait Theories
• Type Theories
• Psychoanalytic Theories

3
 • Humanistic-Existential Theories

• TRAIT THEORY ---- GORDON ALLPORT, RAYMOND CATTELL, HANS EYESENCK,

LEWIS GOLDBERG

Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual
patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion.[1] According to this perspective, traits are relatively stable
over time, differ among individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing whereas others are shy), and
influence behavior. Eminent trait theorists include ---

• Gordon Allport delineated different kinds of traits, which he also called dispositions. Central
traits are basic to an individual's personality, while secondary traits are more peripheral.
Common traits are those recognized within a culture and thus may vary from culture to culture.
Cardinal traits are those by which an individual may be strongly recognized.

• Raymond Cattell's research propagated a two-tiered personality structure with sixteen

"primary factors" (16 Personality Factors) and five "secondary factors."

• Hans Eysenck believed just three traits—extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism—were

sufficient to describe human personality. Differences between Cattell and Eysenck emerged
due to preferences for different forms of factor analysis, with Cattell using oblique, Eysenck
orthogonal, rotation to analyse the factors that emerged when personality questionnaires were
subjected to statistical analysis. Today, the Big Five factors have the weight of a considerable
amount of empirical research behind them, building on the work of Cattell and others.

• Lewis Goldberg proposed a five-dimension personality model, nicknamed the "Big Five":
1. Openness to Experience: the tendency to be imaginative, independent, and interested
in variety vs. practical, conforming, and interested in routine.
2. Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, careful, and disciplined vs.
disorganized, careless, and impulsive.
3. Extraversion: the tendency to be sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate vs. retiring,
somber, and reserved.
4. Agreeableness: the tendency to be softhearted, trusting, and helpful vs. ruthless,
suspicious, and uncooperative.
5. Neuroticism: the tendency to be calm, secure, and self-satisfied vs. anxious, insecure,
and self-pitying. [2]

The Big Five contain important dimensions of personality. However, some personality researchers
argue that this list of major traits is not exhaustive. Some support has been found for two additional
factors: excellent/ordinary and evil/decent. However, no definitive conclusions have been established.
[2]

• TYPE THEORIES --- Personality type theories are theories that tend to classify people into
different categories based on some of their personality traits. Each theory divides people into
different groups based on some common traits. [3]

4
The Four Humors - Ancient Greeks (~2000 BC - 0 AD)

Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates 400 BC and Galen, 140/150 AD classified 4 types of
"humors" in people. Each type was believed to be due to an excess of one of four bodily fluids,
corresponding to their character. The personalities were termed "humors". [4]

• Sanguine (Optimism) [5]

• Choleric (Irritability)
• Melancholic (Depression)
• Phlegmatic (Sluggishness)

Hippocrates believed that a person’s personality is influenced by the balance of fluids (humours) in the
body.

Optimism: A person with a sanguine personality (optimism), would have a lot of the humour blood.
Irritability: A person with a choleric personality (irritability), would have a lot of the humour yellow
bile.
Depression: A person with a melancholic personality (depression), would have a lot of the humour
black bile.
Sluggishness: And a person with a phlegmatic personality (sluggishness), would have a lot of the
humour phlegm.

Somatotypes - William Sheldon, 1940's [4]

William Sheldon (1940, 1942, cited in Phares, 1991) classified personality according to body type. He
called this a person’s somatotype.

Sheldon identified three main somatotypes:

Sheldon's Somatotype Character Shape Picture

relaxed, sociable, tolerant, plump, buxom, developed

Endomorph [viscerotonic]
comfort-loving, peaceful visceral structure

active, assertive, vigorous,

Mesomorph [somatotonic] muscular
combative

quiet, fragile, restrained,

Ectomorph [cerebrotonic] lean, delicate, poor muscles
non-assertive, sensitive

5
 • PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES

• Drive School ⇒ Sigmund Freud

• Ego Psychology School ⇒ Anna Freud, Eric Erikson, Heinz Hartmann
• Object Relations School ⇒ Margaret Mahler, Otto Kernberg, Melanie Klein, Donald
• Winnicott
• Self Psychology ⇒ Heinz Kohut

DRIVE SCHOOL ---- SIGMUND FREUD

Freud’s perspective: Behavior is determined by ----

♠ Irrational forces
♠ Unconscious motivations
♠ Biological and instinctual drives as they evolve through the 5 psychosexual stages of life.

INSTINCTS:

♠ Eros – Life instinct (Libido – sexual energy) – survival of the individual and human race-
oriented towards growth, development & creativity – Pleasure principle – goal of life gain
pleasure and avoid pain.

♠ Thanatos --- Death instinct – accounts for aggressive drive – to die or to hurt themselves or
others.

THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY:

♠ THE ID — The Demanding Child ---

• Ruled by the pleasure principle
• Basic psychic energy and motivations

♠ THE EGO — The Traffic Cop ---

• Ruled by the reality principle
• Deals with real world, solves problems by planning & acting

♠ THE SUPEREGO — The Judge ---

• Ruled by the moral principle
• Internalized social norms & moral forces pressing on and constraining individual action

PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

♠ ORAL STAGE (First year)

♠ ANAL STAGE (Ages 2-4)
♠ PHALLIC STAGE (Ages 4-6)
♠ LATENCY STAGE (Ages 5-11)
6
 ♠ GENITAL STAGE (Ages 12-60)

EGO-DEFENSE MECHANISMS

♠ Are normal behaviors which operate on an unconscious level and tend to deny or distort reality
♠ Help the individual cope with anxiety and prevent the ego from being overwhelmed
♠ Have adaptive value if they do not become a style of life to avoid facing reality
♠ To protect the ego against the painful and threatening impulses arising from the id we distort
the reality
♠ The processes that distort the reality for the ego are called defense mechanisms

TYPES OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS

♠ Repression
♠ Reaction Formation
♠ Denial
♠ Projection
♠ Displacement
♠ Sublimation
♠ Regression
♠ Rationalization

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE MIND:

♠ The conscious system in Freud's topographical model is the part of the mind in which
perceptions coming from the outside world or from within the body or mind are brought into
awareness. Consciousness is a subjective phenomenon whose content can be communicated
only by means of language or behavior. Freud assumed that consciousness used a form of
neutralized psychic energy that he referred to as attention cathexis, whereby persons were
aware of a particular idea or feeling as a result of investing a discrete amount of psychic energy
in the idea or feeling.

♠ The preconscious system is composed of those

mental events, processes, and contents that can be
brought into conscious awareness by the act of
focusing attention. Although most persons are not
consciously aware of the appearance of their first-
grade teacher, they ordinarily can bring this image
to mind by deliberately focusing attention on the
memory. Conceptually, the preconscious interfaces
with both unconscious and conscious regions of
the mind. To reach conscious awareness, contents
of the unconscious must become linked with words
and thus become preconscious. The preconscious
system also serves to maintain the repressive barrier and to censor unacceptable wishes and
desires.

7
 ♠ The unconscious system is dynamic. Its mental contents and processes are kept from
conscious awareness through the force of censorship or repression and it is closely related to
instinctual drives. At this point in Freud's theory of development, instincts were thought to
consist of sexual and self-preservative drives, and the unconscious was thought to contain
primarily the mental representations and derivatives of the sexual instinct.

LIMITATIONS OF FREUD’S WORK

♠ Pessimistic and deterministic approach to personality

♠ Pathology based theory
♠ Hydraulic model of psychic energy exaggerated
♠ No controlled studies-poor research
♠ Overemphasis on differences between men and women
♠ Unconcerned with interpersonal relations, individual identity and adaptation over one’s
lifetime

EGO PSYCHOLOGY --- ANNA FREUD, HEINZ HARTMANN, ERIK ERIKSON

♠ Emphasizes on the functions of the ego

♠ Improving the concept of ego defense mechanisms

ANNA FREUD: [6]

♠ Was more interested in the dynamics of the psyche than in its structure, and was particularly
fascinated by the place of the ego in all this.
♠ She pointed out, the ego is the "seat of observation" from which we observe the work of the id
and the superego and the unconscious generally, and deserves study in its own right.
♠ Dealt and were devoted to the analysis of children and adolescents, and to improving that
analysis. Because children's problems are more immediate, she reconceptualized them in terms
of the child's movement along a developmental time-line. A child keeping pace with most of
his or her peers in terms of eating behaviors, personal hygiene, play styles, relationships with
other children, and so on, could be considered healthy. When one aspect or another of a child's
development seriously lagged behind the rest, the clinician could assume that there was a
problem, and could communicate the problem by describing the particular lag.

HEINZ HARTMANN: [7]

After Freud's death, Heinz Hartmann expanded some ideas that he had presented earlier, proposing
that the ego's most significant function was adaptation, made possible by virtue of the ego's two forms:
on the one hand, the ego ruled by the instincts, and on the other, an ego free of conflict, which
Hartmann called the self. For Hartmann the ego was entirely defined by its functions. He also held that
a conflict-free ego was present from birth. Aberrant human behavior was in large measure the result of
a failure to adapt to social conditions. This outcome occurred quite independently of the instincts, and
it also had constitutional determinants. The "autonomous" ego could be overwhelmed by the
aggressive instinct, which was the path to psychosis.

ERIK ERIKSON: [8]

8
Erikson is most famous for his work in refining and expanding Freud's theory of stages. Development,
he says, functions by the epigenetic principle. This principle says that we develop through a
predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is in part
determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages.

Each stage involves certain developmental tasks that are psychosocial in nature. Although he follows
Freudian tradition by calling them crises, they are more drawn out and less specific than that term
implies.

Each stage has a certain optimal time as well. It is no use trying to rush children into adulthood, as is
so common among people who are obsessed with success. Neither is it possible to slow the pace or to
try to protect our children from the demands of life. There is a time for each task.

If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will help us
through the rest of the stages of our lives.

OBJECT RELATIONS SCHOOL --- MARGARET MAHLER, OTTO KERNBERG, DONALD

WOODS WINNICOTT

BASIC TENETS:

♠ Emphasize between the infantile relationship between the child and the mother.
♠ Mother is the primary love object.
♠ Over-satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the primary love object creates pathology.
♠ Relationships in later life (adolescence & adulthood) are interpreted on the basis of this
infantile relationship.
♠ The child feels omnipotent and yet idealizes the parents.
9
Object relations theory is a modern adaptation of psychoanalytic theory that places less emphasis on
the drives of aggression and sexuality as motivational forces and more emphasis on human
relationships as the primary motivational force in life. Object relations theorists believe that we are
relationship seeking rather than pleasure seeking as Freud suggested. The importance of relationships
in the theory translates to relationships as the main focus of psychotherapy, especially the relationship
with the therapist.

Within modern object relations theory, objects can be people (mother, father, others) or things, such as
transitional objects with which we form attachments. These objects and the developing child's
relationship with them are incorporated into a self, and become the building blocks of the self-system.
Some have asked, why not just call it "human relations" instead "object relations"? Kernberg has
suggested that we could do this without changing the meaning of the theory. However, I believe it is
important to continue using the term object because we form relationships with things other than
people. In childhood, we form relationships with our stuffed animals, toys and pets (transitional
objects). Later in life, some people form intense and even self-destructive relationships with food and
alcohol, as well as with other people. So the term object is more inclusive for our understanding of
how humans form and preserve a sense of self, as well as relationships with others.

This blueprint of a self-structure is formed early in life out of our relationships with the objects
(significant others, and parts of significant others) around us. Once formed, the blueprint can be
modified, but our basic tendency is to seek out others (friends, spouses) who will reaffirm these early
self-object relationships. It is as if in early childhood we create a script for a drama and then spent the
rest of our lives seeking out others to play the parts. This does not mean the script cannot be changed.
However, the more traumatic our early self-object relations, the more rigid and resistant to change we
become. [9]

SELF PSYCHOLOGY --- HEINZ KOHUT

♠ Emphasized on the ‘Self’ the most --- this is where he differed from Sigmund Freud and other
psychodynamic schools.
♠ ‘Self’ is made up of ‘Object’ --- ‘Object’ is the image of the ‘Ideal Parents’.
♠ ‘Subject’ is the grandiose self --- the concept that ‘all my needs shall be gratified’.
♠ ‘Self Object’ is not any specific individual (or any whole love object) but patterns or thoughts
or images that are representations of other.
♠ ‘Narcissism’ or self love is the basis of development and growth of any individual, but not in a
pathological way.

Self psychological theory proposes that healthy self-development proceeds from adequate
responsiveness of caregivers to the child's vital emotional needs, including alterego needs, idealizing
needs, and mirroring needs.

Alterego Needs: Idealizing Needs: Mirroring Needs:

Children need to have Children need to feel attached to Children need to feel understood
involvement with other beings an emotionally stable caregiver and appreciated, that their
like themselves. who can soothe and calm them. feelings mean something.

If these needs are not met in childhood, and throughout the lifespan, problems will occur. Neglectful
parenting - either physical or emotional neglect or worse - abuse - can result in derailments of self

10
development and impair the individual's ability to form healthy relationships. Adequate parental
responsiveness to the child's affect states (moods and feelings) is particularly vital if the child is to
achieve affect differentiation (emotional health and stability) and tolerance.

Self psychology stresses that individuals need relationships throughout life (relationships that serve to
evoke and maintain the integrity and cohesiveness of the self will always be required). Insufficient self
object responsiveness may lead to fragmentation, a distressing affective (emotional) and cognitive
(mental - thoughts) state indicating threatened self-cohesion. Fragmentation experiences may range
from mild dysphoria (a general feeling of ill being, anxiety, discontent, and physical discomfort) to a
panicked sense of impending annihilation or disintegration. [10]

• HUMANISTIC/EXISTENTIAL THEORIES --- ERICH FROMM, CARL ROGERS,

ROLLO MAY, VICTOR FRANKL, ABRAHAM MASLOW

Humanistic Psychology gets its name from its belief in the basic goodness and respect of humankind.
Its roots are based in existential psychology or the understanding and acceptance of one's own
existence and responsibility. Two American psychologists, Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers paved
the way for this new approach to understanding personality and improving the overall satisfaction of
individuals.

The basic ideas behind humanistic psychology are simple, some may say overly simple. Humanists
hold the following beliefs:

1. The present is the most important aspect of the person and therefore humanists focus on the
here and now rather than looking at the past or trying to predict the future.
2. Humanistic theory is reality based and to be psychologically healthy people must take
responsibility for themselves, whether the person's actions are positive or negative.
3. The individual, merely by being human, posses an inherent worth. Actions may not be positive
but this does not negate the value of the person.
4. The goal of life should always be to achieve personal growth and understanding. Only through
self-improvement and self-knowledge can one truly be happy. [11]

According to the existentialists human beings have no existence apart from the world. Being-in-the-
world or dasein is man’s existence. Dasein is the whole of mankind’s existence. The basic issue in life
is that life inevitably ends in death. Thus we experience angst or anguish because of our awareness of
death’s inevitability.

So we either retreat into nothingness or have the courage to BE. The extreme of the retreat into
nothingness is suicide but we can also retreat into nothingness by not living authentic lives.

From this perspective it is extremely important that we BE, that we live authentically. This entails
living a life that is honest, insightful and morally correct. Authenticity is about living genuinely with
one’s angst and achieving meaning despite the temporary nature of one’s existence. Life has no
meaning, unless you create it.

11
We are all responsible for our choices but even honest choices won’t always be good ones. You will
still feel guilty over failing to fulfill all the possibilities in your life. Existential guilt, or existential
anxiety or ANGST is inescapable.

♠ Ludwig Biswanger, an existential psychologist, suggested in 1958 that in order to understand

how existence feels, which is at the heart of the phenomenological approach, we need to
understand our experiences at three different levels. That is, that the conscious experience of
being alive has three components: biological (Umwelt), social (Mitwelt) and inner or
psychological experience (Eigenwelt).

• Umwelt: In order to understand how existence feels we need to be aware of our physical
sensation such as pain, pleasure, hunger, warmth, cold etc.
• Mitwelt: In order to understand how existence feels we need to be aware of our social
relations. What we think and feel as a social creature who exists in a world with other people.
Your thoughts and feelings about others and the thoughts and feelings you receive from them is
your experience of Mitwelt.
• Eigenwelt: This could be simply classified as �introspection�. In order to understand how
existence feels we need to be aware of the inner workings of ourselves. This is all about our
attempt to understand ourselves: the experience of experience itself.

♠ Rollo May accepted many psychodyanmic principles (such as neurosis, repression and
defense). May believed that individuals can only be understood in terms of their subjective
sense of self. He felt that abnormal behaviour is often just a stratagem for protecting the centre
this is the subjective sense of self) against perceived threats. The person may give up on self-
growth if he or she feels his centre is threatened and retreat to the secure, known centre.

May was concerned with people’s loss of faith in values. If we lose our commitment to a set of values
we will feel lonely and empty. Life will be meaningless. Ultimately we need therefore to take
responsibility for ourselves and find meaning in our lives.

♠ Viktor Frankl spent from 1942-1945 in Nazi concentration camps.

During his time in the camps, he observed people who survived horrific circumstances but were able
to resist despair. He felt that those who were able to do so were people who found some spiritual
meaning in their lives. He believed that the prime motive of human behaviour is the ‘will-to-meaning’.
In order to find a meaning in our troubled existence we need to discover meaning through values and
we have a moral duty to discover these values. And we discover our values through work, through
love for others and through confrontation with our own suffering.

According to the R. D. Laing, the British psychiatrist and existentialist the mind of modern man is a
divided entity: the false self and the true self. He believes that modern social communication and the
family in particular is very damaging. He believes the family requires us to stifle our true feelings and
to pursue meaningless goals. According to Laing, the family discourages authentic (real) behaviour.
By the time we reach adulthood we are cut off from our ‘true self’. We might seem normal but we are
really deeply impaired (Laing, 1967). According to Laing, abnormal behaviour a function of
relationships. Schizophrenia, according to Laing (1979, p. 115), is ‘a special strategy that a person
invents in order to live in an unlivable situation’. Laing conceded that there may be some biological
predisposition towards schizophrenia but he firmly believed that interpersonal stresses could lead

12
people to find they can no longer maintain their ‘false self’ and hence they retreat from reality into
their own inner worlds. [12]

Charles Spearman's "Model of Intelligence Theory". In the early 1900's Charles Spearman made an
observation that has sense continued to influence many of today's theories of intelligence. In this
observation, Spearman noted that all tests of mental ability are positively correlated. Spearman
discovered that people who score high on IQ or mental ability tests usually scored higher on other
types of tests, and people that scored lower generally had lower scores on other tests.

Spearman speculated that if all mental tests are positively correlated there must be some common
variable or factor that produces this positive correlation. In 1904 Spearman published and article that
used a statistical method to show that the positive correlations among mental tests indeed resulted
from a common underlying factor. This method is knows as factor analysis. Using factor analysis
Spearman believed it would be possible to identify clusters of tests that measure a common ability.

Based on his factor analysis techniques Charles Spearman stated that tow factors could directly affect
an individual's score on mental tests. "He called the first factor the general intelligence or the general
factor" (Encarta.msn, 2006). The general factor represented what all mental tests have in common.
Scores on all of these tests were positively correlated. He believed that this was because all of these
tests drew on the general factor.

The Second factor Charles Spearman identified was the specific factor. The specific factor related to
whatever unique abilities a particular test required so it differed from test to test. Spearman and his
followers place much more importance on general intelligence than on the specific factor. [13]

Raymond Bernard Cattell’s substantial contributions to psychology fall into three areas: He is credited
with developing an influential theory of personality, creating new methods for statistical analysis, and
developing the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, which was later elaborated by his most
renowned student, John Horn.

The Cattell-Horn theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence (R. B. Cattell, 1941, 1950; 1971; Horn,
1965; Horn & Cattell, 1966a, 1966b) proposes that general intelligence is actually a conglomeration of
perhaps 100 abilities working together in various ways in different people to bring out different
intelligences. Gf-Gc theory separates these abilities broadly into, first, two different sets of abilities
that have quite different trajectories over the course of development from childhood through
adulthood.

Fluid abilities ( Gf ) drive the individual's ability to think and act quickly, solve novel problems, and
encode short-term memories. They have been described as the source of intelligence that an individual
uses when he or she doesn't already know what to do. Fluid intelligence is grounded in physiological
efficiency, and is thus relatively independent of education and acculturation (Horn, 1967). The other
factor, encompassing crystallized abilities ( Gc ), stems from learning and acculturation, and is
reflected in tests of knowledge, general information, use of language (vocabulary) and a wide variety
of acquired skills (Horn & Cattell, 1967). Personality factors, motivation and educational and cultural
opportunity are central to its development, and it is only indirectly dependent on the physiological
influences that mainly affect fluid abilities. [14]

13
LITERTURE REVIEW

1. Intelligence, academic abilities, and personality

Jüri Allik and Anu Realo

Department of Psychology, University of Tartu, Tiigi 78, Tartu, EE-2400, Estonia

It has been proposed that personality (in the narrow sense) and intelligence are uncorrelated and
essentially independent constructs (Eysenck, H. J., 1994, Personality and intelligence: psychometric
and experimental approaches. In R. J. Sternberg and P. Ruzgis (Eds.), Personality and intelligence (pp.
3–31), New York: Cambridge University Press). The results of this study show that personality
dimensions measured by the NEO Personality Inventory stay clearly apart from academic abilities and
psychometrically measured intelligence. Correlation and joint factor analyses demonstrated that most
of the valid variance in academic achievement and intelligence was not related to personality measures
in the Estonian population forming a separate dimension of individual differences. The lack of
correlation between academic abilities and personality, however, does not exclude that individuals
with low or high intellectual abilities might use their intellectual resources differently for the
expression of their individuality. It was found that low-intelligence persons use their intellectual
abilities primarily for seeking excitement and elaborating fantasies; high-intelligence persons, in
contrast, use their intellect for regulating and controlling their affective lives. [15]

2. Personality and intelligence

Adrian Furnham1, Liam Forde2 and Tim Cotter2

1
Department of Psychology, University College, 26 Bedford Way, London, England
2
Management Technology Systems, Auckland, (and London), New Zealand

A total of 233 subjects completed the Eysenck Personality Profiler (EPP), which measures the three
primary (superfactor) traits, as well as 21 second-order factors; the Wonderlic Personnel Test, which is
a brief measure of general cognitive ability/intelligence, and the Baddeley Reasoning Test (sentence
verification intelligence test). Correlational and regressional analysis showed that scores on these
highly inter-correlated intelligence measures (r = 0.62) were associated with stability (rather than
neuroticism), introversion (rather than extraversion) and low psychoticism. The time taken to complete
the computer administration EPP (response latency) was, along with stability, the most powerful
predictor of intelligence test scores, suggesting that test-taking style is an important factor in terms of
intelligence test scores. [16]

Resilience in relation to personality and intelligence

Authors: Friborg Oddgeir; Barlaug Dag; Martinussen Monica; Rosenvinge Jan H.; Hjemdal
Odin
Source: International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, Volume 14, Number 1, January
2005 , pp. 29-42(14)

Resilience is a construct of increasing interest, but validated scales measuring resilience factors among
adults are scarce. Here, a scale named the Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA) was crossvalidated and
compared with measures of personality (Big Five/5PFs), cognitive abilities (Raven's Advanced
Matrices, Vocabulary, Number series), and social intelligence (TSIS). All measures were given to 482
applicants for the military college.
14
Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the fit of the five-factor model, measuring 'personal strength',
'social competence', 'structured style', 'family cohesion' and 'social resources'. Using Big Five to
discriminate between well adjusted and more vulnerable personality profiles, all resilience factors
were positively correlated with the well adjusted personality profile. RSA-personal strength was most
associated with 5PFs-emotional stability, RSA-social competence with 5PFs-extroversion and 5PFs-
agreeableness, as well as TSIS-social skills, RSA-structured style with 5PFs-conscientiousness.
Unexpectedly but interestingly, measures of RSA-family cohesion and RSA-social resources were also
related to personality. Furthermore, the RSA was unrelated to cognitive abilities.
This study supported the convergent and discriminative validity of the scale, and thus the inference
that individuals scoring high on this scale are psychologically healthier, better adjusted, and thus more
resilient. [17]

Personality and intelligence

In a recent study of nearly 400 people, researchers found some interesting links between intelligence
and personality traits. This press release from EurekAlert describes the results. The participants in the
study were divided into three groups: younger people, older people with similar cognitive abilities to
the younger group, and older people whose cognitive performance was better than that of the other two
groups. The personality tests used the Five-Factor Model of personality, which analyzes personalities
based on the Big Five personality traits of neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness. For the younger group, scoring higher on openness to
experience and lower on extraversion was linked to better cognitive performance, but that was not the
case for the cognitively similar older group, where personality was not as strongly linked to
intelligence. For the smarter older group, however, a lower score for agreeableness was correlated with
a higher degree of cognitive functioning. By the way, in case you were wondering what
“agreeableness” means in this particular context, the six facets of agreeableness are trust,
straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, and tendermindedness. [18]

Personality Disorders and Intelligence

Journal of Individual Differences

Adrian Furnham --- Department of Psychology UK

Over 500 working adults completed two intelligence tests: the GMA (Graduate Management
Assessment) and the WG (Watson-Glaser), a measure of the Big-Five personality traits (NEO-FFM),
and a personality disorders measure (Hogan Development Survey). Regressing first the Big-Five
personality traits, then the personality disorders, onto the two different measures of intelligence
suggested evidence for the incremental validity of personality disorders, which in both studies
accounted for an additional 5% of the variance. Results were slightly different in the two analyses
though clearly obsessive-compulsiveness is negatively correlated with intelligence test scores. [19]

Self-reported emotional dysregulation but no impairment of emotional intelligence in

borderline personality disorder: an explorative study.

Beblo T, Pastuszak A, Griepenstroh J, Fernando S, Driessen M, Schütz A, Rentzsch K, Schlosser

N.
Department of Research, Evaluation and Documentation, Clinic of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy
Bethel, Remterweg, Bielefeld, Germany. thomas.beblo@evkb.de

15
Emotional dysfunction is a key feature of patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) but
emotional intelligence (EI) has rarely been investigated in this sample. This study aimed at an
investigation of ability EI, general intelligence, and self-reported emotion regulation in BPD. We
included 19 patients with BPD and 20 healthy control subjects in the study. EI was assessed by means
of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso emotional intelligence test and the test of emotional intelligence. For the
assessment of general intelligence, we administered the multidimensional "Leistungsprüfsystem-
Kurzversion." The emotion regulation questionnaire and the difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale
were used to assess emotion regulation. The patients with BPD did not exhibit impairments of ability
EI and general intelligence but reported severe impairments in emotion regulation. Ability EI was
related both to general intelligence (patients and controls) and to self-reported emotion regulation
(patients). In conclusion, emotional dysfunction in BPD might primarily affect self-perceived behavior
rather than abilities. Intense negative emotions in everyday life may trigger dysfunctional emotion
regulation strategies in BPD although patients possess sufficient theoretical knowledge about optimal
regulation strategies. [20]

Cognitive Function and Symptoms in Adolescents with Schizotypal Personality

Disorder

Hanan Trotman, Amanda McMillan and Elaine Walker --- Department of Psychology, Emory
University

Cognitive deficits have been documented in schizophrenia and spectrum disorders. This study
examines cognitive functioning and its relation to symptoms in adolescents with schizotypal
personality disorder (SPD). Participants are 89 adolescents recruited for a study of youth at risk for
Axis I disorders, especially psychosis. At intake, 34 met criteria for SPD, 38 for another Axis II
disorder and/or conduct disorder (Other disorder—OD), and 17 did not currently meet criteria for any
DSM-IV disorder (normal control—NC). At initial assessment, cognitive functioning was measured
using subtests from the Wechsler Intelligence Scales and Wechsler Memory Scales (WMS), and
symptoms were measured using the Structured Interview for Prodromal Symptoms (SIPS). At the time
of this report, 50 were readministered the SIPS at 1-year follow-up (T2). The SPD group scored
significantly below the NC group on the Arithmetic subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales, but
there was only limited evidence of group differences on the WMS. Poorer performance on the
Wechsler Intelligence Scales was associated with greater severity of negative and disorganized
symptoms. Deficits on the WMS were linked with more severe disorganized symptoms. The findings
reported here are consistent with previous reports of limited cognitive deficits in adolescents with SPD,
with the most marked deficits in mental arithmetic. The associations between symptoms and cognitive
scores parallel those observed in adults with schizophrenia and spectrum disorder, and they are
consistent with the notion that negative symptoms are more stable and partially reflect premorbid
cognitive functions. [21]

Self-Reported Emotional Dysregulation But No Impairment of Emotional Intelligence

in Borderline Personality Disorder: An Explorative Study

Beblo, Thomas PhD; Pastuszak, Anna Diplom; Griepenstroh, Julia Diplom; Fernando, Silvia
Diplom; Driessen, Martin MD, PhD; Schütz, Astrid PhD; Rentzsch, Katrin Diplom;
Schlosser, Nicole Diplom

Emotional dysfunction is a key feature of patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) but
emotional intelligence (EI) has rarely been investigated in this sample. This study aimed at an
16
investigation of ability EI, general intelligence, and self-reported emotion regulation in BPD. We
included 19 patients with BPD and 20 healthy control subjects in the study. EI was assessed by means
of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso emotional intelligence test and the test of emotional intelligence. For the
assessment of general intelligence, we administered the multidimensional “Leistungsprüfsystem-
Kurzversion.” The emotion regulation questionnaire and the difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale
were used to assess emotion regulation. The patients with BPD did not exhibit impairments of ability
EI and general intelligence but reported severe impairments in emotion regulation. Ability EI was
related both to general intelligence (patients and controls) and to self-reported emotion regulation
(patients). In conclusion, emotional dysfunction in BPD might primarily affect self-perceived behavior
rather than abilities. Intense negative emotions in everyday life may trigger dysfunctional emotion
regulation strategies in BPD although patients possess sufficient theoretical knowledge about optimal
regulation strategies. [22]

3. Life History strategy, Psychopathic Attitudes, personality, and general

intelligence

Paul Robert Gladden, Aurelio José Figueredo and W. Jake Jacobs

Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210068 Tucson, AZ 85721-0068, United
States

This study attempted to replicate recent findings that Life History (LH) strategy predicts neither
Psychopathic Attitudes (psychopathy, risk-taking, and mating effort) nor general intelligence (g).
Further, we examined relations among LH strategy, Psychopathic Attitudes, and the Big Five to
compare and contrast the personality correlates of these latent factors. Participants completed a
measure of general intelligence (APM-18) and completed questionnaires measuring life history
strategy, psychopathy, Risk-Taking Attitudes, mating effort, and Big-Five personality traits.

An exploratory factor analysis detected two uncorrelated latent factors: The K-Factor and
Psychopathic Attitudes. Neither the K-Factor nor Psychopathic Attitudes predicted general
intelligence. In contrast, the K-Factor correlated positively with Openness, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, and negatively with Neuroticism. Psychopathic Attitudes correlated
positively with Extraversion and negatively with Agreeableness. We discuss the implications of these
data for LH theory and its relation to intelligence and antisocial traits. [23]

4. Predicting Academic Success: General Intelligence, "Big Five" Personality

Traits, and Work Drive.

by Susan D. Ridgell , John W. Lounsbury

General intelligence, Big Five personality traits, and the construct Work Drive were studied in relation
to two measures of collegiate academic performance: a single course grade received by undergraduate
students in an introductory psychology course, and self-reported GPA. General intelligence and Work
Drive were found to be significantly positively related to both course grade and GPA, while one Big
Five trait (Emotional Stability) was related to course grade only. Hierarchical multiple regression
analysis revealed the incremental validity of Work Drive beyond Emotional Stability and over and
above general intelligence: Work Drive accounted for 7% and 14% of unique course grade and GPA
variance, respectively, when Emotional Stability was entered last; and Work Drive accounted for 6%
and 13% of unique course grade and GPA variance, respectively, when Work Drive was entered last.
In both cases, Emotional Stability did not provide significant unique variance. Findings are presented
17
and discussed in the context of examining how cognitive and non-cognitive variables predict academic
performance, and in terms of implications for using course grade versus GPA as a criterion for
collegiate academic performance. [24]

5. Can personality factors predict intelligence?

Joanna Moutafi, Adrian Furnham , and Laurence Paltiel

Department of Psychology, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London WCI OAP, UK

The present study investigated the relationship between personality traits and psychometric
intelligence. A total of 4859 participants completed the Critical Reasoning Test Battery (GRT2) and
the Fifteen Factor Questionnaire (15FQ). Of the second-order personality factors, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion and Neuroticism were significant predictors of general intelligence (g). Regressing
personality and demographic factors on g indicated that they accounted for 13% of its variance. The
investigation of personality predictors of specific mental abilities (numerical, verbal and abstract
reasoning) revealed that although some variables can be used to predict scores on all three abilities
(e.g. Conscientiousness, Extraversion), other variables can be used to predict only specific abilities
(e.g. Openness, Neuroticism). Regressing personality and demographic factors on specific abilities
indicated that they accounted for 9–17% of the variance in intelligence scores. [25]

6. Personality, intelligence and general knowledge

Adrian Furnham, Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic

Deparment of Psychology, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1H OAP, UK
Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths College London, UK

Three studies, all on student populations, looked at the relationship between a recently psychometrised
measure of General Knowledge [Irwing, P., Cammock, T., & Lynn, R. (2001). Some evidence for the
existence of a general factor of semantic memory and its components. Personality and Individual
Differences, 30, 857–871], both long and short versions of the Big Five Personality Inventory, one
measure of general [Wonderlic, E. (1992). Wonderlic personnel test. Libertyville, IL: Wonderlic] and
a short measure of fluid intelligence [Baddeley, A. (1968). A 3 min reasoning test based on
grammatical transformation. Psychonomic Science, 10, 341–342]. Results were fairly consistent
between studies indicating that General Knowledge was moderately correlated with general
intelligence (r between .30 and .62). Personality correlates of General Knowledge were less consistent
though, in two studies Conscientiousness and Openness was positively and significantly correlated
with the total score. The advantages and disadvantages of using General Knowledge as a proxy
intelligence test are considered. [26]

General intelligence, temperament, and the Matching Familiar Figures Test

Tatiana Czeschlik

To investigate the relationship between general intelligence g and temperament, highly intelligent 10-
year-old children (N = 151) were compared with classmates of the same gender and socio-economic
status but of average intelligence (N = 134). The two ability groups were administered the Matching
Familiar Figures Test (MFFT) during home visits. The parents and teachers rated the temperament of
the children. The results showed a consistent pattern: highly intelligent children are more task-
oriented, e.g. less distractible and more controlled than their average counterparts. In the MFFT, gifted

18
children not only gave a higher percentage of correct answers, but also showed longer (!) reaction
times. [27]

7. The relationship between temperament and intelligence: Cross-sectional study in

successive age groups

Agnieszka Miklewskaa, Magdalena Kaczmarekb and Jan Strelaub,

a
Jan Długosz Academy in Częstochowa, Bór 61, 43-200 Częstochowa, Poland
b
Warsaw School of Social Psychology, Chodakowska 19/31, 03-815 Warsaw, Poland

The aim of the study was to investigate the pattern of relationships between temperament and
intelligence in the successive groups of age covering all stages in human life. Three theoretical views
investigating the linkage between both concepts were considered: hypothesis of so-called “common
ground”, relationships via process of development and relationships via process of measurement. In
correspondence with Cattell’s theory fluid and crystallized aspects of intelligence were measured
consecutively by the Raven’s Progressive Matrices and by the Army General Classification Test
(civilian version). Temperament was measured by the Pavlovian Temperament Survey and the EAS
Temperament Survey. Overall 831 participants, divided into seven groups of age, took part in the
study. In the whole sample mobility of the nervous system was positively related to both aspects of
intelligence, emotionality was negatively related to gf, and activity—to crystallized intelligence. The
analyses in the sub-samples revealed crucial differences between children and the remaining groups.
In children the dimension describing the ability to process stimulation is positively related to gf. In
adolescents and adults crystallized intelligence was positively correlated with need for stimulation.
The results support mainly the hypothesis of influence of temperament on the development of
intelligence. [28]

OBJECTIVES

• The present study aims to delineate the differences between the personality profiles of a group
with high intelligence.
• To ascertain the differences, if any, between the profiles of people with high and average
intelligence.

METHODOLOGY

• SAMPLE: A total sample of 120 individuals were taken, which were divided into 2 groups of
high and average intelligence. The total number of subjects in each group was taken to be 60.

• INCLUSION CRITERIA:
• Age Range --- 18-40 years
• Sex --- both male and female
• Educational Qualification --- minimum higher secondary or any equivalent examination.

• EXCLUSION CRITERIA:
• History of substance abuse or present dependence.
• Suffering from life long diseases like thyroid, blood pressure, hypertension etc.

19
The exclusion criteria were met with the help of an interview with each person before the tests were
administered.

• PLAN OF THE STUDY:

• HYPOTHESIS:

The present study has two sets of hypotheses ---

 Hypothesis 1:

• H0: There is no significant relationship between intelligence and personality.

• HA: There is a significant relationship between intelligence and personality.

 Hypothesis 2:

• H0: There lies no significant difference between the personality profiles of people with
high intelligence and that of people with average intelligence.
• HA: There lies a significant difference between the personality profiles of people with
high intelligence and that of people with average intelligence.

• PROCEDURE:

 In the structured data sheet details about name, age, sex, domicile, mother tongue, marital
status, educational level, history of substance abuse and other medical conditions were taken.
20
  The researcher initially visited the colleges to collect the data from the required sample in the
normal population.

 The institutional heads were met with and briefed about the topic of the dissertation.

 On meeting the subjects, the inclusion criteria were met with by an interview. They were also
assured that all the information and data provided by them shall be kept confidential and will
used only for educational purposes.

 The datasheets were distributed and proper instructions were given about each test.

 After collection of the data, they were scored using appropriate scoring methods provided in
the manual.

 Statistical computations were done.

• TOOLS ADMINISTERED:

 Test of “g”: Culture Fair, Scale 3, Form A

 OMNI Personality Inventory

• DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS:

Test of “g”: Culture Fair, Scale 3, Form A: Scale 3 of this test comprises of 4 subtests ---

Test No. Description No. of Items Time Allotted

1 Series 13 3 minutes
2 Classification 14 4 minutes
3 Matrices 13 3 minutes
4 Conditions 10 2.5 minutes

• In the first subtest, individuals are presented with an incomplete progressive series. The task is
to select from among the choices provided the answer which best continues the series.

• In the second subtest, the task is to identify 2 figures which are in some way different from the
rest 3.

• In the third subtest, the task is to correctly identify and complete the matrix presented at the left
of each row.

• In the fourth subtest, the task is to select from the 5 choices provided, the one which duplicates
the conditions given in the box at the left of each row.

Administration: The subject is assisted through the examples and given the proper instructions.
He/she is then asked to complete as many as possible correctly within the allotted time.

21
Scoring: The total score was obtained by adding up the raw scores from all the subtests. The total raw
score was converted into the I.Q. equivalent using Table 5 of the manual, and conversion from I.Q. to
percentile ranks were done by using the Table 6.

Purpose of the Tool: For measuring the general intelligence in a comprehensive way but in a short
time.

OMNI Personality Inventory: It is a questionnaire aiming to determine the personality profiles of the
individuals taking the test. It has 210 statements, divided into 3 segments. The instructions for each
segment are provided in the questionnaire only. For each of the 210 statements, there are 7 degrees of
agreeability. The task is to write the degree of choice for each statement in the space provided in the
data sheet. It is not a time bound test.

Administration: The subject was given the data sheet. The instructions were verbally explained to
them and they were asked to start. They were asked to be careful so as to not leave out any statement.

Scoring: Each datasheet was reproduced in the OMNI Personality Inventory software and were
calculated and interpreted.

Purpose of the Tool: To determine the domains of personality in a quantitative way.

22