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PHYSICS
Scalar Quantities are quantities specified by size or magnitude but not defined not
direction
Vector Quantities are quantities that are defined by direction as well as size
Vectors can be added to determine displacement using trignometry
MOTION
Objects can move without effective force acting on them
Distance is measure of total length of the path take during the motion of an object
Displacement is measure of change in position of an object
Speed is measure of the rate at which an object moves over a distance
• Instantaneous Speed is speed of at a particular instant of time
Velocity is defined by speed and direction of a moving object
• Velocity is relative to the observer who is measuring the velocity
• Negative velocity is going backwards
• Instantaneous Velocity is velocity at a particular instant of time – if average
velocity is constant the instantaneous velocity is the same
Speed formulas
Speed= =
Velocity =
Instantaneous speed =
Average speed = =
Area under graphs in velocity time graphs are used to determine distance
travelled
u = initial velocity
v = final velocity
End of Course Exam Notes
t = time
s = displacement
1. “A body persists its state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted upon by
an external unbalanced force” – The law of Inertia: The inertia of an object
is it tendency to resist changes in motion/velocity, it is not a force but
a property of all objects
3. “To every force there is an equal and opposite force” – When Object A exerts
a force (action) on object B, object B simultaneously exerts the equal force
(reaction) on object A, but in the opposite direction.
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End of Course Exam Notes
Momentum
Multiple bodies
When multiple bodies are attached by string etc. the accel. Of entire system can
be determined and using this it can be used in F=ma to determine the force acting
on each body.
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End of Course Exam Notes
MECHANICAL INTERACTIONS
Law of conservation of momentum
• When objects collide/interact Momentum is always conserved
• Total initial momentum = total final momentum
• Momentum is vector
In collisions:
• Momentum is always conserved
• KE is conserved in elastic (bouncy collisions)
• KE not conserved in inelastic collisions
• Total energy is always conserved – KE is converted into other forms of energy
Kinetic Energy
The energy of moving objects
Scalar Quantity
Change in KE Net Force acting on object
KE
Collisions (Interaction)
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End of Course Exam Notes
Impulse
In a graph of force vs. time the impulse can be determined from area under graph
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End of Course Exam Notes
ELECTRICITY
Electrical charges are caused by an excess or deficiency of electrons
A deficiency is a + charge
An excess is a – charge
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End of Course Exam Notes
Objects that become charged because of the influence of other charged objects
are called induced dipoles.
K=
d = distance (metres)
f = force (Newtons)
Coulombs
Charge on 1 electron = C
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Batteries push electron – they are electron pumps
Electrical potential energy difference =
A 1 volt battery does 1 joule of work to move 1 coulomb from one end to other or
gives 1coulomb an electrical PE of 1Joule
1V = 1 Joule / coulomb
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End of Course Exam Notes
Electrical Power
WAVES
Wavelength is smallest distance between 2 crests or troughs
Frequency is the number of crests going past a single point in one second or the
number of complete cycles of any point on the medium per second
Period is the shortest time for 1 point on the wave to return to its original position or
the time for 1 wavelength to pass a single point
Amplitude is the height of each wave or maximum distance the
Particles move from their original position also determines the
Volume of sound waves
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End of Course Exam Notes
frequency
wavelength
V velocity
In waves on springs
V (velocity) depends on tension mass/meter
(in springs)
Beats are loud soft cycles caused by the superposition of 2 sound waves of
slightly different frequencies.
Changing mediums
In particular mediums (velocity) is constant and
When waves pass from one medium to another (frequency) remains constant and
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Electromagnetic radiation can refract, reflect and be absorbed.
Refraction
When a wave moves from a fast (less dense) medium to a slow (denser) medium it
bends towards the normal.
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End of Course Exam Notes
Refractive index
I (intensity)
d (distance)
Critical Angles
The angle of incidence that results in an angle of refraction equaling 90 degrees is the
critical angle
If the angle if incidence exceeds this angle the light beam will reflect instead of
refract.
Critical angle is influenced by refractive index
If If
Antinodal line
Line where waves from two sources superimpose to form the a line of greatest amplitude
COSMIC ENGINE
1 Solar day – time form the sun is due north to the next time the sun is due north
Sidereal day – time from the time you face the stars to the next time you face the
same stars
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End of Course Exam Notes
Kepler’s laws
1. Law of ellipses: each planet moves in an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
2.
Law of areas: the area swept out by a planet as it orbits the sun is proportional
to the time taken or i.e. the closer they are to the sun the faster they travel
along their orbit
3. Law of periods
Gravitation force
G (gravitation constant) =
M (mass of object 1)
m (mass of object 2)
Acceleration of gravity
Brightness of stars
Hertzsprung-Russel diagram for classifying star clusters
Using v-filters (allows visible light through) and b-filter (colors that aren’t visible)
Color index of a star determined by subtracting visual magnitude from blue
magnitude
Absolute brightness found by comparing apparent brightness and distance
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End of Course Exam Notes
Spectra
The wavelengths of light emitted by certain atoms when energy is applied to them
Spectra can be detected by a spectroscope
Used as evidence in determining temperature of stars.
Examples
Spectra of Ionised helium = mega hot
Spectra of ionized calcium = hot
Spectra of calcium = cooler
Doppler Effect
Effect of the distortion of light waves due to the movement of observation point and
source
No color change BUT all spectra lines are shifted
Majority of stars are red shifted or majority of spectra lines are shifted towards the red
spectrum of light
Hertsprung-Russel diagrams
Is scatter graph of stars showing relationships between absolute
magnitude/luminosity , spectral types/classifications and effective
temperature.
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End of Course Exam Notes
Expanding universe
Edwin Hubble (1920s)
Measured:
1. Distance to galaxies
2. Doppler shift of galaxies :
• Found speed of galaxies
• Galaxies were moving away from each other
Concluded Universe is expanding
Hubble’s law
Genesis
Nothing
BIG BANG!
Quarks + electrons
Atoms (H + He)
Gas clouds
Stars
Galaxies
Gas
Cosmic background radiation is the EM energy that was not converted into matter
during BIG BANG , emanates from all of universe
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End of Course Exam Notes
RADIATION
α particles:
• Nucleus of a helium atom
• 2 units of positive charge
• Interacts strongly with matter – can ionize other atoms
• Rapidly slowed because of these interactions
• Weakly penetrating
β particles:
• Fast moving
• Negatively charged electron
• Can go through atoms before ionization occurs
• Strongly penetrating
rays:
• High frequency EM radiation
• No charge
• Can penetrate up to several centimeters of lead
• Low inonisation
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End of Course Exam Notes
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