Assignment

Computer Networks

Submitted to: Sir Usman

Created by: Ghulam Murtza

Roll # --- S17-1003

Program --- BS-SE
Semester --- 5th
Lahore Leads University.

APPLE TALK
AppleTalk is a set of local area network
communication protocols originally created for Apple
computers. An AppleTalk network can support up to
32 devices and data can be exchanged at a speed of 230.4 kilobits per second
(Kbps). Devices can be as much as 1,000 feet apart. AppleTalk's Datagram
Delivery Protocol corresponds closely to the Network layer of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model.

ARP
Stands for "Address Resolution Protocol." ARP is a protocol used for
mapping an IP address to a computer connected to a local network LAN. Since
each computer has a unique physical address called a MAC address, the ARP
converts the IP address to the MAC address. This ensures each computer has a
unique network identification.
The Address Resolution Protocol is used when information sent to a network
arrives at the gateway, which serves as the entrance point to the network. The
gateway uses the ARP to locate the MAC address of the computer based on the
IP address the data is being sent to. The ARP typically looks up this information
in a table called the "ARP cache." If the address is found, the information is
relayed to the gateway, which will send the incoming data to the appropriate
machine. It may also convert the data to the correct network format if necessary.

ARPA

An agency of the United States Department of Defense, ARPA (Advanced

Research Projects Agency) underwrote development for the precursor of the
Internet, known as ARPANET. Initially a modest network of four
interconnected university computers, ARPANET's initial purpose was to enable
mainly scientific users at the connected institutions to communicate and share
resources. ARPANET took advantage of the new idea of sending information in
small units called packets that could be routed on different paths and
reconstructed at their destination. The development of theTCP/IP protocols in
the 1970s de it possible to expand the size of the network, which now had
become a network of networks, in an orderly way.
 Because ARPA's name was changed to Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1971, some people refer to ARPANET as
DARPANET. (DARPA was changed back to ARPA in 1993 and back to
DARPA again in 1996.)
BIT
A bit (short for "binary digit") is the smallest unit of measurement used to
quantify computer data. It contains a single binary value of 0 or 1.
While a single bit can define a Boolean value of True (1) or False (0), an
individual bit has little other use. Therefore, in computer storage, bits are often
grouped together in 8-bit clusters called bytes. Since a byte contains eight bits
that each have two possible values, a single byte may have 2 8 or 256 different
values.

DATA
Computer data is information processed or stored by a computer. This
information may be in the form of text documents, images, audio clips, software
programs, or other types of data. Computer data may be processed by the
computer's CPU and is stored in files and folders on the computer's hard disk.

DATA ENCAPSULATION
When a network device sends a message, the message will take the form
of a packet. Each OSI (open system interconnection) model layer adds a header
to the packet. The packet is then covered with some information directing it
onward to a destination; this is analogous to the address on a letter in which the
actual message is carried inside the envelope. Similarly, the message in the
packet is encapsulated with some information such as the address of next node,
protocol information, the type of data and the source and destination addresses.

FRAME
 One way to define frames in networking is that the frame is a primary
data unit within Level 2, or the data link layer of the OSI model. By contrast,
Level 3, or the networking layer of the OSI model uses the packet as a primary
data unit.
Frames and packets may have different terminology attached to their use
depending on the context or industry in question. In general, the frame is a
formatting resource for data that needs to be split up into recognizable pieces in
order to be interpreted by a receiver.

GATEWAY
A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between
two networks. It may be a router, firewall, server, or other device that enables
traffic to flow in and out of the network.
A router is a common type of gateway used in home networks. It allows
computers within the local network to send and receive data over the Internet. A
firewall is a more advanced type of gateway, which filters inbound and
outbound traffic, disallowing incoming data from suspicious or unauthorized
sources. A proxy server is another type of gateway that uses a combination of
hardware and software to filter traffic between two networks.

IEEE 802.11
In other words, IEEE 802.11 is the set of technical guidelines for
implementing Wi-Fi. Selling products under this trademark is overseen by an
industry trade association by the name of the Wi-Fi Alliance.
IEEE 802.11 has its roots from a 1985 decision by the U.S. Federal Commission
for Communication that opened up the ISM band for unlicensed use. The
standard was formally released in 1997. That original standard was called IEEE
802.11-1997 and is now obsolete.

MAC Address
Stands for "Media Access Control Address," and no, it is not related
Apple Macintosh computers. A MAC address is a hardware identification
number that uniquely identifies each device on a network. The MAC address is
manufactured into every network card, such as an Ethernet card or Wi-Fi card,
and therefore cannot be changed.

Multiplexing & Demultiplexing

Multiplexing is the process in which multiple Data Streams, coming from
different Sources, are combined and Transmitted over a Single Data Channel or
Data Stream. In Electronic Communications, the two basic forms of
Multiplexing are Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM).
Multiplexing is done by an equipment called Multiplexer (MUX). It is placed at
the Transmitting End of the communication link. At the Receiving End, the
Composite Signal is separated by an equipment called Demultiplexer
(DEMUX). Demultiplexer performs the reverse process of Multiplexing and
routes the separated signals to their corresponding Receivers or Destinations.

Network address
The network layer, or Layer 3, logical address contains information
required to deliver the IP packet from the source device to the destination
device. A Layer 3 IP address has two parts, the network prefix and the host part.
The network prefix is used by routers to forward the packet to the proper
network. The host part is used by the last router in the path to deliver the packet
to the destination device.
An IP packet contains two IP addresses:
 Source IP address - The IP address of the sending device.
 Destination IP address - The IP address of the receiving device. The
destination IP address is used by routers to forward a packet to its
destination.

Data-link address
The data link, or Layer 2, physical address has a different role. The
purpose of the data link address is to deliver the data link frame from one
network interface to another network interface on the same network. Before an
IP packet can be sent over a wired or wireless network it must be encapsulated
in a data link frame so it can be transmitted over the physical medium, the
actual network. Ethernet LANs and wireless LANs are two examples of
networks that have different physical media each with its own type of data link
protocol.
 Source data link address - The physical address of the device that is
sending the packet. Initially this is the NIC that is the source of the IP
packet.
 Destination data link address - The physical address of the network
interface of either the next hop router or the network interface of the
destination device.

PACKET
A packet is a small amount of data sent over a network, such as a LAN or
the Internet. Similar to a real-life package, each packet includes a source and
destination as well as the content (or data) being transferred. When the packets
reach their destination, they are reassembled into a single file or other
contiguous block of data.

PDU
Stands for "Protocol Data Unit." A PDU is a specific block of
information transferred over a network. It is often used in reference to the OSI
model, since it describes the different types of data that are transferred from
each layer. The PDU for each layer of the OSI model is listed below.

1. Physical layer – raw bits (1s or 0s) transmitted physically via

the hardware
2. Data Link layer – a frame (or series of bits)
3. Network layer – a packet that contains the source and destination
address
4. Transport layer – a segment that includes a TCP header and datra
5. Session layer – the data passed to the network connection
6. Presentation layer – the data formatted for presentation
7. Application layer – the data received or transmitted by a
software application

RFC
A Request for Comments (RFC) is a formal document drafted by the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) that describes the specifications for a
particular technology. When an RFC is ratified, it becomes a formal standards
document.
RFCs were first used during the creation of the ARPANET protocols that came
to establish what became today's Internet. They continue to be issued on an
ongoing basis as the technology underlying the Internet evolves.
Segmentation
In data communications networks, packet segmentation is the process of
dividing a data packet into smaller units for transmission over the network.
Packet segmentation happens at layer four of the OSI model; the transport layer
Segmentation may be required when:
 The data packet is larger than the maximum transmission unit supported by
the network
 The network is unreliable and it is desirable to divide the information into
smaller segments to maximize the
 probability that each one of them can be delivered correctly to the
destination

TCP
Stands for "Transmission Control Protocol." TCP is a
fundamental protocol within the Internet protocol suite — a collection of
standards that allow systems to communicate over the Internet. It is categorized
as a "transport layer" protocol since it creates and maintains connections
between hosts.

IMAP
Stands for "Internet Message Access Protocol" and is pronounced "eye-
map." It is a method of accessing e-mail messages on a server without having to
download them to your local hard drive. This is the main difference between
IMAP and another popular e-mail protocol called "POP3." POP3 requires users
to download messages to their hard drive before reading them.

The advantage of using an IMAP mail server is that users can check their mail
from multiple computers and always see the same messages. 

FTP
 Stands for "File Transfer Protocol." FTP is a protocol designed for
transferring files over the Internet. Files stored on an FTP server can be
accessed using an FTP client, such as a web browser, FTP software program, or
a command line interface.

UDP
User datagram protocol is an open systems interconnection (OSI)
transport layer protocol for client- server network applications. UDP uses a
simple transmission model but does not employ handshaking dialogs for
reliability, ordering and data integrity. The protocol assumes that error-checking
and correction is not required, thus avoiding processing at the network interface
level.
UDP is widely used in video conferencing and real-time computer games. The
protocol permits individual packets to be dropped and UDP packets to be
received in a different order than that in which they were sent, allowing for
better performance.