Section 4

Application of Design Principles

& Standards
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

4 APPLICATION OF DESIGN PRINCIPLES & STANDARDS .................................................................. 4-1

4.1 Design Philosophy ........................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Freeways.......................................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.2 Freeway Design Speed] ........................................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.3 Freeway Level of Service ......................................................................................................... 4-3
4.2.4 Freeway Alignment ................................................................................................................... 4-3
4.2.5 Freeway Cross Section............................................................................................................. 4-4
4.2.6 Freeway Operations ................................................................................................................. 4-4
4.3 Urban Arterial & Sub-Arterial Roads (Excluding Freeways) ............................................................ 4-5
4.3.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 4-5
4.3.2 Urban Arterial and Sub-Arterial Design Speed......................................................................... 4-6
4.3.3 Urban Arterial & Sub-Arterial Level of Service ......................................................................... 4-6
4.3.4 Urban Arterial & Sub-Arterial Alignment ................................................................................... 4-7
4.3.5 Urban Arterial & Sub-Arterial Cross Section............................................................................. 4-7
4.3.6 Urban Arterial & Sub-Arterial Operations ................................................................................. 4-7
4.4 Collector roads & Local Streets ..................................................................................................... 4-13
4.5 Other Roads................................................................................................................................... 4-14
4.5.1 Collector-Distributor Roads..................................................................................................... 4-14
4.5.2 Frontage Roads ...................................................................................................................... 4-14
4.5.3 Temporary Roads ................................................................................................................... 4-15
4.6 References..................................................................................................................................... 4-16
4.6.1 Books ...................................................................................................................................... 4-16
4.6.2 Software.................................................................................................................................. 4-16
4.7 Relationship to Other Chapters...................................................................................................... 4-16
4.8 Relationship to Other Manuals....................................................................................................... 4-16

TABLES
Table 4.2.1-A:- Property Access Control for Each Road Class...................................................................... 4-2
Table 4.2.2-A:- Minimum Speed Environment for Design of Freeways ......................................................... 4-3
Table 4.2.4-A:- Desirable Standards for Urban Freeways ............................................................................. 4-4
Table 4.2.4-B:- Acceptable Standards for Inner Urban Freeways ................................................................. 4-4

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4 APPLICATION OF DESIGN PRINCIPLES &

STANDARDS
4.1 Design Philosophy
Design is an activity in which judgement and experience play significant roles. Designers choose the
features of the road and dimensions of the primary design elements. They may use judgement, technical
references and calculations to assist in selecting the appropriate design elements, but selection of design
elements in isolation from each other is not design. Designers must also know the effect of combining
design elements under different circumstances. Because of the nature of the process, the design that
emerges cannot generally be called “correct” or “incorrect”, but rather more or less efficient (in terms of
moving traffic), safe (in terms of collision rate), or costly (in terms of construction costs, lifecycle costs and
environmental impacts).

This manual provides designers with the background to the methods adopted and the reasons for the
approach to selecting design elements. A wide range of dimensions for various parameters is provided with
comment on the circumstances for their use. The decision on the level to adopt is one to be made in the
context of the complex range of issues that apply in individual circumstances. The competing alternatives
must be properly considered within the framework of the particular case to ensure that the appropriate
solution is adopted. An essential part of this framework is the long-term vision for the road network, which
includes an objective assessment of the affordable standard appropriate for the various roads of the network
(see Section 1). The standards to be adopted are based on a large range of issues including the purpose of
the road, community expectations, natural and constructed environment, anticipated funding levels and
anticipated benefits. Projects are selected to implement this long-term vision. Projects should be designed
in accordance with the overall road upgrading strategies developed for the road in question to provide
consistency in the standards over the length of the link. Driver expectancy is for a consistent standard over
significant lengths of road in similar terrain. They do not expect significant changes in the standard for no
apparent reason. Road upgrading strategies define the proposed road standards in accordance with the
chosen investment strategy for the road. These will take account of requirements for specific traffic needs
such as over-dimensional and special vehicles level of access, flooding immunity and travel speeds. The
functional classification of the road also provides an indication of the standard of road that should be
available. The purpose of this Section is to provide an overview of the general thinking on the appropriate
form expected for the various categories of road under the control of AACRA. This indicates the
expectations of the community for roads of these types and provides the basis for selecting suitable
dimensions for the design elements for the design of these roads. Details of the derivation of the individual
elements are to be found in the appropriate sections of this manual.

A well designed road will provide an acceptable balance between level of service, cost, environmental
impact and level of safety.

The degree of property access control is one of the fundamental aspects affecting both the planning of new
developments and the design of the road infrastructure. Table 4.2.1 A gives details of the level of property
access control to be applied in new development areas, together with standards that may have to be
accepted for upgrading of existing roads.

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Table 4.2.1-A:- Property Access Control for Each Road Class

Road Class Degree of property access control
New road Upgrading of existing road
Freeway Full Full
Arterial road Full Limited
Sub-arterial road Full Limited/Nil
Collector roads Limited Nil
Local streets Meet design criteria Nil

Full control of access means no driveways from adjacent properties are permitted except to a service road.
Limited access means property access may be restricted by the construction of a median that only allows
right turns into properties and right turns out. Criteria for the location of property access to new local streets
include distance from intersections and sight distance required.

4.2 Freeways
4.2.1 General
Freeway status is applied only to high speed, high volume arterial roads with full control of access.
Freeways are grade separated multi-lane roads with no property access allowed. Certain classes of vehicles
may be precluded from using a freeway.

These characteristics lead to the need for high standards producing a very safe driving environment.
Freeway standard roads may be constructed in stages, the first stage being a two-lane two-way road with
the interchanges constructed in the first stage. The design of the interchange ramps for these roads requires
special consideration to avoid inappropriate movements at the ramp terminals on the freeway. If no median
is introduced, wrong way movements may be attempted and entering vehicles may move into the oncoming
lane with hazardous consequences. A median must therefore be introduced through the interchange.
Section 16.8.7 sets out the requirements for these conditions.

4.2.2 Freeway Design Speed]

On freeways, generous horizontal and vertical alignments resulting from high design speeds are typical
characteristics. In urban areas, the design speed will depend on the area being traversed and the level of
development in the area. On freeways, drivers are not subject to the same restrictions experienced by
drivers on other arterial roads. There are no at grade intersections and no property access; entering and
exiting traffic occurs at reasonably large spacing. Drivers will therefore expect to travel at a reasonably high
speed and the design will have to cater for this behaviour. The speed adopted by drivers will depend largely
on the horizontal alignment (see Section 6) so operating speeds can be controlled by judicious use of
horizontal curvature. Careful design of the transitions between different speed environments is required. In
inner urban areas, where development is intense and property values are high, considerable restrictions on
the possible alignment of roads exist. In these circumstances, a speed environment of 80km/h is
satisfactory. In outer urban areas where development is less intense and property values are much lower, a
speed environment of at least 100km/h would be expected. Table 4.2.2 A sets out the minimum speed
environments expected.

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Table 4.2.2-A:- Minimum Speed Environment for Design of Freeways

Area Minimum Speed Environment
Outer Urban 100km/h
Inner Urban 80km/h

4.2.3 Freeway Level of Service

Level of service is discussed in Section 5. For freeways, the assessment of level of service is undertaken
using the methodology of TRB, 2000 (with HCS 2000 software) and/or CALTRANS, 2001 (nomograph
solution for weaving analysis). This requires a detailed analysis of the conditions over the length of the
project and the adjacent sections of freeway.

In urban areas, it is desirable for the design level of service to be set at C but the demands may be such that
this cannot be achieved and a minimum level of D may be acceptable. In any case, the design of urban
freeways must be undertaken within the context of the transport strategy for the whole system and their
capacity and the level of service provided must be in accordance with the role played by the freeway in the
system. It is essential that the design of the freeway provide a proper balance in the lane numbers with
flexibility to meet changing circumstances as the area develops.
Consistency of operating conditions is both expected and efficient. The design should therefore provide
consistency in the Level of Service at whatever level it is set. This requires a consistent basic number of
lanes with proper lane balance over the length of the facility (see Section 16).

4.2.4 Freeway Alignment

The alignment design must be consistent with the speed environment adopted for the facility. Given the
style of road expected of a freeway, standards should be set at the upper band of the allowable parameters.
For example, sets out desirable standards for urban roads built to freeway standard.

Table 4.2.4-B provides guidelines for acceptable standards for inner urban freeways in an 80km/h speed
environment.

The highest standards consistent with economy should be adopted where they can be achieved with minimal
impact. Proper alignment coordination in accordance with Section 10 is expected. The use of large
horizontal curves will result in sight lines staying on the carriageway, thus avoiding obstruction by roadside
furniture, barriers, and bridge substructures.

The use of curves that do not require superelevation may be advantageous, as relatively flat areas
associated with superelevation transitions are avoided.

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Table 4.2.4-A:- Desirable Standards for Urban Freeways

Speed Environment of 100km/h

Element General Minimum Intermediate Preferred

Horizontal Radius R=1000m minimum R=1400m to avoid formation R>3000m to avoid need
widening for horizontal sight for superelevation #
distance
Sag Vertical Curve R=10000 R>15000m
Crest Vertical R =9600* R>13500m
Superelevation 3% maximum #
Grade 7% maximum 5% maximum 3% maximum
* Use lower values (minimum 6300m) only to avoid excessive earthworks.
# It may be advantageous to adopt horizontal alignments that do not require superelevation (see Section 11).

Table 4.2.4-B:- Acceptable Standards for Inner Urban Freeways

Speed Environment of 80km/h
Element General Minimum Intermediate Preferred
Horizontal Radius R=500m minimum R=600m to avoid R>960m to avoid need
formation widening for for superelevation #
horizontal sight distance
Sag Vertical Curve R=5000 R>10000m
Crest Vertical R =6300* R>9600m
Superelevation 3% maximum #
Grade 7% maximum 5% maximum 3% maximum
* Use lower values (minimum 4250m) only to avoid excessive earthworks.
# It may be advantageous to adopt horizontal alignments that do not require superelevation (see Section 11).

4.2.5 Freeway Cross Section

Chapter 7 defines the requirements for cross section elements and clearances. Typical cross sections for
freeways are provided in that chapter. Lane widths on freeways should not be less than 3.5m. Shoulder
widths should not be less than 2.0m on the near side and 1.0 m on the off side (median). In some cases,
shoulder widths of 3.0m will be justified. Where the first stage construction includes only a single two-lane,
two-way pavement, the constructed pavement should have lane widths of 3.5m and two shoulders not less
than 2.0m. Through the interchanges, a median of 2.0m width should be introduced from a point 100m
upstream of the entry ramp for the opposite direction to a point 100m downstream of the entry ramp for the
same direction of travel (see Section 16.8.7). Clearances should be at the desirable end of the range (see
Section 7).

4.2.6 Freeway Operations

Efficient freeway operations depend on:
• spacing interchanges appropriately
• providing properly designed merge and diverge areas at interchanges
• minimising weaving manoeuvres
• providing for High Occupancy Vehicle and/or bus lanes
• providing appropriate facilities for handling disabled vehicles (break down, crashes)

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This assumes that the geometry of the road is appropriately designed (see relevant Sections). Section 16
provides details of the required spacing of interchanges. The design of the merge and diverge areas is also
covered. If an exit ramp is within about 1500m of an upstream entry ramp, the roadway between the ramps
tends to operate as a weaving section. Longer spacings tend to operate as a merge followed by a diverge.

A weaving section handles two classes of traffic:

• traffic entering, passing through leaving the section without crossing the normal path of other
vehicles
• traffic which must cross the paths of other vehicles after entering the section
Weaving should be avoided (if possible) by locating exit ramps 1500m or more downstream from the nearest
entry ramp. (This requires a minimum interchange spacing of about 2km if conventional interchanges are
used).

Where weaving sections are included, they require analysis to ensure that the operation is as effective as
possible and that a consistent level of service is maintained over the length of the freeway. Weaving
sections less than 600m long should be provided with an auxiliary lane between the entry ramp and the exit
ramp. Auxiliary lanes may also be desirable on longer weaving sections, and the Highway Design Manual
(CALTRANS, 2001) provides an alternative methodology for ascertaining the number of lanes and the
characteristics of the weaving section to that contained in TRB, 2000 and HCS, 2000.

The overall level of service provided by a freeway system may depend on the proper use of collector
distributor roads and frontage roads. These provide for the efficient collection and distribution of traffic
between the local road system and the freeway. Section 4.5 provides details of these roads.

Providing for disabled vehicles is an important consideration in ensuring efficient operation on a freeway.
The shoulder of the freeway is available for this purpose and the width required is designed for this purpose.
Where there is only a narrow shoulder, emergency stopping bays should be provided at regular intervals to
accommodate vehicles that have to stop.

4.3 Urban Arterial & Sub-Arterial Roads (Excluding Freeways)

4.3.1 General
Urban arterial and sub-arterial roads are the major traffic routes in Addis Ababa. Freeways are a special
type of arterial road and are dealt with separately in Section 4.2. Urban arterials are usually dual function
facilities providing service to:
• through traffic (primary function)
• local traffic and property access (secondary function)
In some cases, the two functions are separated with a roadway for each function. In other cases, the
secondary function is completely suppressed and access points are limited to fairly widely spaced
intersections (e.g. a bypass road).

Roads are an integral part of the urban fabric providing services to a wide range of users. Careful attention
to the needs of all users (vehicles, cycles, public transport, pedestrians, public utility authorities) is required.
The impact on urban form and the requirements of the Addis Ababa Master Plan must also be considered
(refer to Section 2).

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Sub-arterial roads are the less important roads with a through traffic function. They would be expected to
carry lower volumes of traffic, and may be single carriageway roads.

4.3.2 Urban Arterial and Sub-Arterial Design Speed

Overall travel speeds on urban roads vary considerably, depending on the spacing of intersections, the type
of abutting development and the time of day. Off peak speeds of 30 –40km/h are common in sections
heavily influenced by conflicting traffic movements and pedestrians. Off peak speeds of 50 – 60km/h are
typical where local traffic is separated from the through traffic and intersections are reasonably widely
spaced (posted speed of 60km/h). Speeds of 80km/h will occur where the road has minimal property
access, the local function has been suppressed and intersections are widely spaced. Design speed relates
to free flow conditions and is based on the expected 85th percentile speed of the traffic in these conditions.
Uniformity of design speed over long sections enhances safety by promoting operational consistency and
transitions between speed environments should be done gradually (see Sections 6 and 11). However, free
flow conditions rarely occur on urban arterial roads and some design elements (e.g. steep grades, start of
climbing lanes) require consideration of peak hour speeds to determine realistic solutions. The operating
speed is affected by:
• traffic volume
• width of carriageway
• grades
• parking
• intersections
• property access

Roads with few delay-producing characteristics exhibit little increase in overall travel time until flows reach
saturation. Roads with many delay-producing characteristics exhibit a marked increase in travel time with
increasing flow.

4.3.3 Urban Arterial & Sub-Arterial Level of Service

The Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2000) and supporting software HCS 2000 sets out the approach to
assessing capacity and level of service in interrupted flow conditions. It is desirable to aim for Level of
Service C for off peak travel, accepting that peak hours will operate closer to capacity conditions. It is
important to provide a design that has balance between the mid-block and intersection capacity so that the
road operates as an entity rather than as a series of discrete segments.

The level of service is enhanced by providing:

• full lane widths (see Section 7)
• appropriate storage lanes at intersections
• left turn lanes at intersections and accesses where appropriate
• control or absence of crossing or entering traffic at minor intersections
• control or absence of parking
• control or absence of left turns by banning left turns at difficult intersections
• good coordination of traffic signals
• good lighting of the road for night time driving

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Intersection analysis and level of service assessment is usually undertaken using computer programs such
as aaSIDRA 2 (see Chapter 13).

This tool should not be regarded as a “black box” that always gives the right answer. Users must understand
the data input requirements and the significance of the many parameters used. While the default
parameters will often be appropriate, the user must understand when the particular circumstances prevailing
require different parameters.

aaSIDRA gives extensive output detailing the performance of the intersection, movements and lanes using
many parameters. It is important for the user to be able to extract the pertinent information for the case at
hand from these results. The aaSIDRA User Guide provides these details.

4.3.4 Urban Arterial & Sub-Arterial Alignment

The alignment of many urban arterials is determined by the constraints of development adjacent to the road
and the access requirements (both property and side road). Design elements should reflect the expected
operating speeds, recognising that the speed is governed more by the horizontal alignment than the vertical.
It is important that the vertical alignment is consistent with the horizontal alignment in terms of sight distance
available and speed on grades. If grades are significant, the capacity and level of service are affected and
analysis should be carried out to ensure that there is consistency in the operating characteristics over
significant lengths of the road. Refer to Sections 11,12, 13 and 14 for details under various circumstances.

4.3.5 Urban Arterial & Sub-Arterial Cross Section

The cross section elements of urban arterials will depend on a range of factors including available right of
way. Chapter 7 provides guidance on the range of parameters to use to suit the various conditions
encountered.

4.3.6 Urban Arterial & Sub-Arterial Operations

Operations on urban arterials are affected by:
• intersection spacing
• lane changing
• weaving
• merging
• spacing of median crossings
• reverse flow and tidal traffic
• pedestrians
• cyclists
• parking
• bus stops
• property access

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(a) Intersection Spacing

The proximity of intersections on many arterial roads creates operational problems, and
consideration of distances necessary for lane changing, merging, or weaving is necessary. Where
adequate distances as defined below cannot be achieved for the particular operation required,
control measures such as turn restrictions, signals or the formation of culs-de-sac may become
necessary.

(b) Lane Changing

Except when forced, lane changing normally absorbs approximately 4 seconds of travel time. Thus
lane change distance in metres can be taken as approximately equal to V, where V is speed in
km/h. As traffic density increases, the number of drivers wishing to change lanes increases, and
the opportunity to make the change decreases. Considerably longer distances then become
necessary, and the problems then become similar to those of merging and weaving.

(c) Weaving

(i) Analysis of weaving is usually only applicable in freeway or near freeway conditions. The
procedures described in the Highway Capacity Manual are not applicable to roads with
interrupted flow conditions. A weaving section handles two classes of traffic:
traffic entering, passing through leaving the section without crossing the normal path of other
vehicles

(ii) traffic which must cross the paths of other vehicles after entering the section

On a well designed but short weaving section operating below capacity, the two classes tend to
separate themselves from each other almost as positively in practice as they do in theory for
simple weaving configurations. However, most urban arterial roads have to function, on occasions,
under forced flow conditions. Weaving operations in such cases become virtually impossible, and
for this reason, weaving sections should, where practicable, be avoided in arterial road design.

(d) Merging
Merging is required when a carriageway transitions from 2 lanes to 1, or at the end of an
acceleration lane. Section 15.8.2 includes details of the calculation of merging lengths for auxiliary
lanes. The treatment of acceleration lanes is given in Section 13.

(e) Median Openings

The control of the spacing of median openings is a means of balancing the local service function
with the through traffic function of an arterial road. Thus as the importance of the through traffic
function increases, so also does the desirability of increasing the median opening spacing. On
urban arterial roads with an important local service function, and with medians sufficiently wide to
accommodate right turn lanes, a spacing of 120 m will permit successive development of right turn
lanes. Greater spacing is required where high storage demands occur. On roads with a similar
function but with narrow medians, median openings should be provided at all but the most minor
streets. This avoids the right turn demand being concentrated at a small number of locations and
allows the turning vehicles to take advantage of the gaps that occur in the opposing traffic stream.
This will also minimise the length of travel of drivers and provide more ready access to the local
area. A minimum demand of 20 vehicles per day is a reasonable starting point for consideration of
provision of a median opening. However, as with all conflict points, adequate sight distance must
always be provided.

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On arterial roads where coordination of signals will ultimately be adopted, a space-time diagram
should be plotted to verify the adopted spacing. Signalised intersections equally spaced (350 m to
450 m, or multiples of such) will facilitate signal coordination in both directions of travel
simultaneously.

Many practical constraints exert major influences on the spacing that can be achieved, particularly
in the common case of reconstruction within an existing right-of-way with an established street
pattern.

The location of openings is normally obtained by the following procedure:

(i) rank the more important cross streets in terms of those at which openings must be provided,
those where they should be provided, and those where they could be provided

(ii) examine the geometric constraints of alignment, cross section and visibility to ensure that
these are compatible with the provision of openings at those locations where they must be
provided

(iii) select intermediate openings to provides adequate local service, to comply with the
functional requirements outlined above

(iv) satisfy the geometric design standards

(f) One-way Streets

Conversion of two existing two-way streets to a one-way pair is an inexpensive method of arterial
road development, and for streets carrying high volumes, a considerable improvement to the level
of service often can be achieved by this technique.

Accident rates at intersections are lowered since the number of conflicts is reduced. Head-on
collisions from opposing vehicles are also reduced, although wrong way movements can occur.

Where signals are required, simple two-phase systems rather than three phases or four are
normally adequate, thus reducing lost time and thereby increasing the level of service.
Progression through the signals along the arterial is also easier to establish.

Lane marking is necessary, particularly with narrow pavements, to encourage maximum lane
utilisation. There is evidence that on relatively narrow, unmarked one-way streets, vehicles tend to
queue in one lane rather than develop tight two-lane operation, and under these unmarked
circumstances, greater capacity may be achieved with two-way flow.

The disadvantages that accrue are those of encouragement of extra speed, while at the same time
some loss of sight distance of vehicles approaching from the left occurs. Pedestrians who are
strangers to the locality may tend to step onto the path of vehicles approaching from the right.
Increased travel distances caused by “out of direction” movements result in increased traffic
densities and personal inconvenience, although the quality of flow may nevertheless be improved.

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The following design requirements should be fulfilled:

(i) the streets forming the one-way pair should desirably be not more than 150 m apart and
never more than 200 m apart

(ii) cross streets should be permitted to intersect at intervals of 100 to 150 m

(iii) transition roadways with easy curvature should be provided at the ends of the one-way
system

(g) Reverse Flow and Tidal Traffic

Maximum utilisation of carriageway widths can be achieved in cases where the directional
distribution of traffic in peak hours is greatly unbalanced by allocating a greater number of lanes to
the predominant traffic.

Such a technique is often of value in stage construction, and in other temporary works, but it is not
normally to be used in the design of permanent projects.

Its application to four lane roadways is, however, severely restricted. In this case, the opposing
traffic in peak periods is reduced to one lane. Overtaking opportunities are therefore denied and
long queues develop. Vehicle breakdowns reduce the flow to zero, unless special breakdown
provision is made.

Advance signing is necessary. Control devices are normally in the form of signals or illuminated
signs over each lane at approximately 300m intervals. Because of the inherent danger of head-on
collision, the following warrants must be satisfied:

(i) the difference between the flows in the two directions is substantial, being at least sufficient
to justify an extra lane in the direction of major flow and the ratio of major to minor
movements being at least 2:1 and preferably 3:1

(ii) design controls and right of way limitations are such that it is not feasible to provide greater
width or provide a parallel roadway

(iii) adequate level of service cannot be obtained by restricting parking, right turn traffic or other
such means

(iv) where only one lane is available for the lesser flow, there should nevertheless be provision
for a disabled vehicle to be overtaken i.e. at least a 5 m width should be provided, and
parking denied

(v) satisfactory terminal design can be implemented

(h) Pedestrians
Pedestrian accidents are almost invariably of considerable severity and, on heavily trafficked
roads, special facilities are necessary to promote pedestrian safety. In addition, pedestrian
movements, especially when not incorporated as a design feature, can act restrictively on roadway
level of service.

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Pedestrians tend to take the shortest path to their destination, and thus often cross in mid-block
locations, and also fail to stay within the crossing itself. They tend also to avoid changing grades
when crossing roadways, and thus careful siting of grade separated pedestrian facilities to
eliminate or reduce this requirement is a feature of good design.
Where a signalised pedestrian crossing is installed adjacent to an intersection, it is essential that
the intersection itself be signalised. Otherwise drivers of vehicles approaching the pedestrian
crossing could interpret a green signal indication as applying to the intersection as well the
pedestrian crossing.

Considerable care is required in taking decisions on the need for, and type of, pedestrian facilities.
Installing formal devices is not always the best solution, and providing pedestrian refuges may be
more appropriate.

Section 5.4 provides a more comprehensive discussion of pedestrian characteristics and

requirements, with guidelines on the design of pedestrian crossing facilities.

(i) Cyclists
Specific provision for bicycles on urban arterials should be made in accordance with Chapter 5.

(j) Parking
The provision of parking on arterial roads recognises the local service function of the facility.
However, as the through traffic function increases in its relative importance over the local service
function so also does the necessity to deny kerbside parking adjacent to the traffic flow increase in
importance.

Kerbside parking on arterial roads materially increases accident exposure, both pedestrian and
vehicular, and considerably reduces the level of service to through traffic. Where alternative
accommodation can be provided adjacent to existing arterial roads, or where new arterial road
deviations are being designed, kerbside parking on the through carriageway should be avoided
wherever possible.

Where, however, it is necessary to provide a parking lane, recognition of possible future or peak
hour usage of the parking lane as a through lane requires that a full lane width be provided (see
Chapter 7 – Cross Section). The greater the separation between parked vehicles and through
traffic the lesser is the accident potential and the greater is the capacity. In addition, with full width
parking lanes, disabled vehicles can find some shelter between parked vehicles and the through
lanes, and cause only minor inconvenience to the through traffic flow. Further details of on street
parking requirements are dealt with in detail in Chapter 7. Off street parking is dealt with in Section
19.

(k) Bus Stops

Careful consideration of the siting and operation of bus stops is necessary to avoid traffic hazards
and delays. A spacing of not less than 400m is necessary to maintain reasonable operating
speeds and minimise traffic interference, but pedestrian access and passenger desires are prime
considerations. Removal of the buses from the through lanes for embarkation and disembarkation
purposes causes the least delays to following vehicles, but promotes hazards on re-entering the
through lanes unless special design precautions are taken. Where service roads are available bus
stops may be provided only on the service road. For more details on urban bus stop
considerations, refer to Section 20.

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(l) Property Access

A major aspect of the detailed geometric design of an urban roadway is providing access to
commercial, industrial, public and private properties. Each access point is a minor intersection and
thus the basic design features applicable to intersections apply to property entrances (see Section
13). Thus in the design of entrances the designer should:

(i) minimise the number of conflict points

(ii) minimise the area of conflict

(iii) avoid weaving problems on the arterial road occasioned by entering or departing vehicles

(iv) keep entrances and exits as square to the roadway as practicable

(v) maintain adequate sight triangles

(vi) provide sight distance in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 13

Access levels at property boundaries should be maintained as near as possible to the existing
level. Access grades desirably should not exceed 1 on 10 at commercial and industrial
establishments, and 1 on 6 at private entrances, but at least 1.2 metres of the footpath should have
a slope not exceeding 2.5% (desirably 2% max.) for pedestrian accommodation (see Sections 5
and 7). Steeper access grades are possible and occasionally essential, but in such cases their
effects on through traffic operations should receive special consideration. Where an existing
access is to be made steeper, the proposed grade is to be discussed with the relevant property
owner. Vertical curves are often necessary to maintain vehicle clearance, and templates are
commonly used to check suspect cases (see Section 7).

Guidelines for footpath crossing are:

(i) a vehicle template with a 3-metre wheel base and a 7½º angle of departure will provide a
fully acceptable entrance
(ii) a profile with a 3-metre wheel base and 10º angle of departure will be acceptable, but care is
required in negotiating the crossing with a heavily loaded car
(iii) a crossing that will not pass a 3 metre x 10º profile should be redesigned

Where driveway entrance speeds fall below 15 km/h, a rapid increase in interference to through
vehicles occurs. Thus, except for minor entrances, the turning geometry should be designed to
encourage exit movement from the through traffic at 15 to 25 km/h. This can be achieved by
providing horizontal geometry allowing curves of 10m to 15m radii to be negotiated, and vertical
geometry suitable for this speed. Where practicable, tapers or three centred curves from the
through lane should be provided.

(m) Driveway Spacing and Intersection Clearances

The location of driveways and property accesses can have a significant effect on the operation of
an arterial road. Care is required in determining the location of these facilities to minimise their
effect and provide a reasonable level of service to the user of the access. The impact of these
entrances may be assessed by assuming them to be intersections and analysing them in
accordance with the methodologies set out in Section 13. The spacing and location of the
accesses can then be determined by comparing the resulting traffic flow characteristics with the
required Level of Service for the road in question.

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4.4 Collector roads & Local Streets

The road layout should conform to the requirements of the external road network and satisfy the transport
provisions of the City Master Plan.

The external road network should be designed and located to provide routes which are more convenient for
potential through traffic within the network. Major roads should be provided at intervals of not more than
1.5km and should be complete and of adequate capacity to accommodate through network movements.
The internal road system should not provide through routes that are more convenient than the external road
network. Where a road is needed that provides a convenient through route, then a sub-arterial road (local
crossing route) could be considered with appropriate capacity and abutting land use.

Designers are encouraged to develop road layouts that will promote the objectives of the road hierarchy.
Innovation can lead to improvements in amenity, safety and other elements such as streetscape, legibility
and on going maintenance costs.

The design features of each type of road convey to the driver its primary functions and encourage
appropriate driver behaviour. This can be achieved by complying with the following requirements wherever
possible:

• traffic volumes and speeds on any collector and local road should be compatible with the residential,
school, industrial or shopping functions of that road
• limiting the length of a local should ensure its status as a access street is retained, where the traffic,
in terms of speed and volume will enable the integration of pedestrian, bicycle and vehicular
movements
• limiting the length will also ensure that access convenience is not unduly impaired as a result of
speed restraints.
The length of collector roads within a development should be minimised. If a bus route through a precinct is
required, then this must be along a collector road located to service those parts of the area not served by
bus routes on the peripheral arterial or sub-arterial roads. If no internal bus route is required, short “stub”
collector roads branching out into local roads via a roundabout could be considered.

The time required for drivers to travel on all access streets within the development should be minimised.

Where access streets form part of a pedestrian or bicycle network, access links should provide suitable
connectivity with adjoining access streets or open space systems so as to ensure such pedestrian and
bicycle networks are functionally efficient.

The road network should ensure that no road links with another road which is more than two levels higher or
lower in the hierarchy.

Connections between internal roads should be T-junctions or controlled by roundabouts.

It is preferred that the access road network layout should be such that speed control is inherent in the layout
design, i.e. bends and some intersection types provide speed calming rather than devices such as speed
bumps, raised platforms or chicanes.

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4.5 Other Roads

This section deals with a range of roads under the following headings:
• Collector-Distributor Roads – one way carriageways used in on the outside of freeways to enhance
their capacity
• Frontage Roads –one way or two way roads used in conjunction with freeways and arterial roads to
provide access to abutting property (and sometimes provide some through traffic function to
supplement the arterial road or freeway capacity)
• Temporary Roads – this covers side tracks and other temporary roads for construction purposes

4.5.1 Collector-Distributor Roads

(a) General
Collector-distributor roads consist of one way carriageways parallel to the main through
carriageways of a road but separate from them as described in AASHTO (1994). Their function is
to enhance the capacity of the road by:

(i) providing extra road space

(ii) providing an area for manoeuvres such as weaving, away from the main traffic flow

As their name indicates, these roads collect traffic from the local street system and distribute it to
the major road (usually freeway) in such a way that the operations of the major road are optimised.
By using collector-distributor roads, a desirably long spacing of interchanges on the major road can
be designed while providing a high standard connection to the major road from local roads at a
much closer spacing. In addition, weaving manoeuvres can be eliminated from the through
pavements of a freeway by the judicious use of collector-distributor roads.

(b) Access Control

Collector-distributor roads require complete control of access to accommodate high volumes and
complex manoeuvre patterns occur on the roadways. The collector-distributor is an integral part of
the freeway. This is a distinguishing feature of collector-distributor roads.

(c) Design Standards

For collector-distributor roads associated with freeways, design elements should be the same as
those of the main through pavements except that the design speed may be lower.
The distance between the through lanes and a collector-distributor roadway is in general a function
of the level difference and the batter slope. However where transfer roadways between the two are
required, sufficient distance to permit standards equal to that required for exit and entrance ramps
is necessary.

4.5.2 Frontage Roads

(a) Functions
Frontage roadways are those contiguous with, and running generally parallel to, a freeway or
arterial road.

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They serve one or more of the following basic functions:

(i) maintain local traffic circulation

(ii) provide property access

(iii) collect and distribute traffic crossing a freeway

(iv) collect and distribute traffic to freeway interchanges or intersections with arterial roads

(v) The geometric standard may vary greatly depending on the particular situation.

(b) Continuity
Where continuity of a frontage road connected to a freeway exists over a reasonably long distance,
the operational flexibility of the freeway is improved. Traffic may be bypassed to the frontage road
following an accident on the freeway or during maintenance operations.

However, continuity also bestows on the frontage road the capability of serving as a supplementary
through route, carrying the freeway (or arterial road) overloads during peak periods. Such over
usage is disadvantageous in the case of a frontage road whose prime function is that of residential
property access, and continuity in such circumstances is normally to be avoided.

(c) Design Considerations

The basic design decision is that of one-way or two-way operation. Traffic efficiency on the
frontage road is enhanced and traffic operations at conflict points simplified by one way frontage
roads. Frontage roads that serve as property access roads only are often two-way. When serving
as combined major road and property access roads they are commonly one way.

A non-continuous frontage road should terminate in a local street where this is convenient.
Otherwise connection to an arterial roadway is satisfactory, provided adequate clearance to other
intersections is available. Continuous frontage roads must intersect with connecting roads to the
freeway or arterial road. The design of suitable intersections with adequate spacing to the arterial
road intersections or freeway interchanges is the principal problem associated with continuous
frontage roads.

If a new arterial road or freeway cuts through an established local street pattern, two linkages
between successive pairs of severed roadways may be provided to reduce trip lengths for delivery
and service vehicles while avoiding traffic attraction of continuous frontage roads in a residential
environment. Footpath linkages between the frontage road segments should be provided, and
local road design standards are appropriate.

The outer separator width and desirable treatments required are discussed in detail in Chapter 7.

In most cases, the operating speed (and design speed) on non-continuous frontage roads will be
similar to that of local streets viz. 50 to 60km/h.

4.5.3 Temporary Roads

Temporary roads are those used for construction purposes to facilitate the movement of traffic during
construction.
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4.6 References
4.6.1 Books
AASHTO (1994) A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets
CALTRANS (2001) Highway Design Manual
TRB (2000) Highway Capacity Manual

4.6.2 Software
aaSIDRA (www.aatraffic.com)
HCM 2000

4.7 Relationship to Other Chapters

Refers to principles espoused in Section 1 for the overall approach to design standards.

The technical sections provide the detail for application in this section.

Issues arise in several of the other sections, in particular:

• Section 5 – Traffic Parameters and Human Factors;
• Section 7 – Cross Section;
• Section 10, 11 and 12 – Alignment;
• Section 13,14,15 and 16 – Intersections, Auxiliary Lanes and Interchanges;
• Section 19 Parking
• Section 20 – Stopping Places

4.8 Relationship to Other Manuals

• Guideline 1 Traffic & Axle Load Study (TAL)
• Guideline 2 Pavement Design Manual (PMD & MRM)
• Guideline 3 Geometric Design Manual (GDM)
• Guideline 4 Bridge Structures Design Manual (BCSDM)
• Guideline 5 Soils & Materials Manual (SMM)
• Guideline 6 Drainage Design Manual (DDM)
• Guideline 7 Street Lighting Design Manual (SLDM)
• Guideline 8 Technical Specifications (TS)
• Guideline 9 Bidding Documents (BD) & Conditions of Contract (COC)

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