● Matter - Anything that has mass and volume

● Substance (Pure Substance) - Matter with a uniform and definite composition

● Physical Property - A quality or condition of a substance that can be observed without
changing the substance’s composition

Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite

Volume Definite Definite Indefinite

Expansion on Heating Slight Moderate Great

Compressibility Near Incompressible Near Incompressible Compressible

● Physical Change - A change which alters a given material without changing its
composition
● Mixture - A physical blend of substances
○ Heterogeneous Mixture - A mixture not uniform in composition
○ Homogeneous Mixture - A mixture uniform in composition
● Phase - A part of a system with uniform composition and properties
● Compounds - Substances that can be separated into simpler substances only by
chemical means
● Chemical Reaction - The process by which one or more reactants is changed into
products
○ Energy is given off or absorbed
○ Change in color or odor
○ Production of a gas or solid from a liquid
○ Usually irreversible
● Chemical Property - A quality or condition of a substance observed through chemical
reactions
● Molecule - The smallest electrically neutral unit of a substance that still has the same
properties
● Molecular Compound - Compounds composed of molecules
● Ions - Atoms or groups of atoms with a charge
○ Cation - Positive charge
○ Anion - Negative charge
● Ionic Compound - Compound composed of a metal cation and a nonmetal anion
● Chemical Formula - Formula with the kind and number of atoms in the smallest
representative unit of a substance
● Molecular Formula - Formula found with the kind and number of atoms present in a
molecule of a substance
● Formula Unit - The lowest whole-number ratio of ions in a compound
● Polyatomic Ions - Tightly bound groups of atoms that carry a charge
● Acid - A polar covalently bonded compound that produces H​+​ ions when dissolved in
water
● Lewis Dot Structure
1. Put least electronegative atom in the center if a molecule
2. Draw the number of valence electrons around the atomic symbol, first putting one
on each side and then adding a second to each side
3. Connect with covalent bonds (lines or pairs of dots) or ionic bonds (next to each
other with charge shown)
4. Helium is often “He:”

● Lone Pair - A pair of electrons that are not bonded

● Bohr Model
1. Protons and Neutrons in Center
2. Electrons in Electron Shells (2, 8, 8)
● Octet Rule - Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons in order to gain a full set of
valence electrons
● Core Electrons - Electrons in the inner electron shells
● Valence Electrons - Electrons in the outermost electron shell
● Orbitals - Shows the likely location of electrons
○ Each orbital holds 2 electrons
○ The order of the orbitals is: s, p, d, and f
○ S has 1 orbital, p has 3, d has 5, and f has 7
○ There is a 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, etc.
○ The electron configuration is listed in increasing energy, starting with 1s​1​,
representing 1 electron (exponent) in the orbital set and the first s orbital (the
coefficient)
● Ionic Bond - Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
● Covalent Bond - Pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms to satisfy the octet
rule (notated with line)
● Coordinate Covalent Bond - A covalent bond where an atom provides both electrons in
the pair (notated with arrow)
● (s) - Solid
● (l) - Liquid
● (g) - Gas
● (aq) - Aqueous
● ↓ - Formation of a solid precipitate
● ↑ - Formation of a gas
● Stoichiometric Coefficients - The numbers in front of the symbols in a chemical equation
● Skeleton Equation - An unbalanced chemical equation
● Word Equation - An equation of words
● Naming
○ Binary Ionic Compounds - Metal + Nonmetal + “-ide”
○ Ionic Compounds with Polyion - Metal + Polyion
○ Ionic Compounds with Transition Metals - Metal + (Positive Charge in Roman
Numerals if More than One) + Nonmetal + “-ide”
○ Binary Acids - “Hydro” + Nonmetal + “-ic” + “acid”
○ Oxyacid with Polyion Ending in “-ate” - Polyion + “-ic” + “acid”
○ Oxyacid with polyion Ending in “-ite” - Polyion + “-ous” + “acid”
○ Hydrogen with Polyion (Mostly) - “bi” + Polyion
○ Binary Molecular Compounds - Prefix + Element 1 + Prefix + Element 2 + “-ide”
■ Prefixes: Mono, Di, Tri, Tetra, Penta, Hexa, Hepta, Octa, Nona, Deca
■ Omit “Mono” on First Element
■ Omit Last “O” or “A” Prior to a Vowel
● Group - A column of the periodic table
● Period - A row of the periodic table
● Atomic Radius - The radius of an atom (Increases ↙)
● Ionic Radius - The radius of an ion of an atom (Increases ↙)
○ Anion is bigger than original atom
○ Cation is smaller than original atom
● Ionization Energy - The amount of energy needed to remove an electron from a gas
(Increases ↗)
● Electronegativity - The tendency of an atom to attract shared electrons more often,
ranging from 0 to 4 (Increases ↗)
 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

● Red - Alkali Metals

● Orange - Alkaline Earth Metals
● Yellow - Boron Group
● Green - Carbon Group
● Light Blue - Nitrogen Group
● Blue - Oxygen Group
● Dark Blue - Halogens
● Purple - Noble Gases
● Magenta - Transition Metals
● Brown Border - Metals
● No Border - Semimetals
● Red Border - Nonmetals
● Groups 1 to 2 - S-Block
● Groups 3 to 12 - D-Block
● Groups 13 to 18 - P-Block
● Lanthanides and Actinides - F-Block
● S-Block and P-Block - Representative Elements

● Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory - Electron pairs will repel each other
○ Electron Domain - Includes lone pairs
○ Molecular Geometry - Does not include lone pairs
○ 2: Linear
 ○ 3: Trigonal Planar, Bent
○ 4: Tetrahedral, Trigonal Pyramidal, Bent
○ 5: Trigonal Bipyramidal, Seesaw, T-Shaped, Linear
○ 6: Octahedral, Square Pyramidal, Square Planar, T-Shaped, Linear
● Nonpolar Bond - A bond with an electronegativity difference in the interval [0, .4]
● Polar Bond - A bond with an electronegativity difference in the interval (.4, 2.0)
○ Marked with arrow with bar at end, pointing towards electronegative atom
○ δ+ δ−
● Ionic Bond - A bond with an electronegativity difference greater than or equal to 2.0
● Molecular polarity is determined by bonds and shape (vector addition)
● Intermolecular Forces - Forces between molecules
○ London Dispersion Forces - Attraction between temporarily induced dipoles in
molecules
○ Dipole-Dipole Forces - Attraction between permanent dipoles
○ Hydrogen Bonding - Exceptionally strong attraction between a hydrogen atom
bonded to fluorine, nitrogen, or oxygen and neighboring lone pairs of electrons
● Intramolecular Forces - Forces within molecules
○ Covalent Bond - Electrons are shared between atoms
○ Ionic Bond - Electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions
○ Metallic Bond - Bond between groups of metal atoms
■ Electron Sea Model - Metal’s valence electrons are shared by all of the
metal cations

Phase Melting/Boiling Other Conductivity

Ionic Solid High Brittle, Crystalline Only in aq or l

Covalent Varies Varies Varies Mostly No

Metallic Mostly Solid Mostly High Mostly Crystalline, Good

Malleable, Ductile

● Temperature - A measure of the average kinetic energy of particles

○ Absolute Zero - The temperature at which molecular motion stops
● Thermochemistry - Study of the heat changes that occur during chemical reactions
● Heat (q) - Energy that transfers from one object to another because of a temperature
difference between them
● Universe - The system and its surroundings
● calorie - The quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g H​2​O by 1˚C (cal)
○ Calorie - The dietary measure of energy equal to 1000 cal (Cal)
● Heat Capacity - The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of an object by
1˚C ( cal J
˚C or ˚C )
 ○ Specific Heat Capacity (C) - The amount of heat needed to increase 1 g of an
cal J
object by 1 ˚C ( g˚C or g˚C )
q
■ C= mΔT
cal
■ C H 2 O = 1 g˚C
● Calorimetry - The accurate and precise measurement of heat change for chemical and
physical processes
○ Calorimeter - An insulated device used to measure the absorption or release of
heat in chemical or physical processes
■ Bomb Calorimeter - Burns sample in steel bomb surrounded by water
● Enthalpy (H) - The heat content for systems at constant pressure
○ q = ΔH = mCΔT
○ ∆H < 0 → Exothermic
○ ∆H > 0 → Endothermic
● Thermochemical Equation - An equation that includes heat change
○ Adding the heat into the equation or specifying the ∆H
● Heat of Reaction (∆H) - The heat change for a reaction ( kcal kJ
mol or mol )
○ Heat of Combustion - The heat of reaction for the complete burning of one mole
● Phase Diagrams

● Heating Curve
● Vaporization - Liquid to Gas ● Condensation - Gas to Liquid
● Melting - Solid to Liquid ● Solidification - Liquid to Solid
● Sublimation - Solid to Gas ● Deposition - Gas to Solid

● Vaporization - Liquid Escapes to Vapor

● Evaporation - Liquid Escapes From Surface into Gaseous Phase
○ Not at Boiling Point
○ Causes Average Kinetic Energy to Decrease (Cooling Process)

● Vapor Pressure - Pressure above a volatile liquid due to particles entering the vapor
phase
● Boiling Point - The temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the atmospheric
pressure

● Kinetic Molecular Theory (Gases):

○ Large particle distance (True)
○ No attractive or repulsive forces (False)
○ Particles have no volume (False)
○ All collisions are perfectly elastic (True)
● Kinetic Molecular Theory (Condensed)
○ Small particle distance
○ Large attractive and repulsive forces
○ Particles have volumes
○ Collisions are perfectly elastic
● Ideal Gas - A gas that follows the Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gasses (None are real,
but approximately true at low pressures and high temperatures)
● Collision Theory - In order for a chemical reaction to occur, particles must collide with
correct orientation and sufficient energy
● Potential Energy Curve
○ A catalyst lowers activation energy
○ Exothermic has a lower energy of products than reactants
○ Endothermic has a higher energy of products than reactants

● Kinetics - Study of the rates of reactions

○ Catalysts lower activation energy and thus increase rate
○ Temperature increases energy per collision and thus increases rate
○ Larger clumps of particles lowers chance of collisions and thus decreases rate
○ Mixing and stirring increase chance of collisions and thus increase rate
○ Increasing the concentration of reactants increases chance of collisions and thus
increases rate
○ Increasing the pressure of reacting gases increases the chance of a collision and
thus increases the rate
● Equilibrium Constant (K​eq​) - A ratio of the concentration of products to the concentration
of reactants at equilibrium
[C]c [D]d
○ K eq = [A]a [B]b
for aA(aq or g) + bB (aq or g) ⇌ cC (aq or g) + dD(aq or g)
○ Depends on nature of reaction and temperature
○ Only for aqueous and gas
● Chemical Equilibrium - A dynamic equilibrium reached when the rate of the forward
reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction

● Le Chatelier’s Principle - If a stress is put on a system at equilibrium, then the equilibrium

will shift in order to relieve the stress
Equilibrium K​eq
Increasing Concentration of Reactants Right Same
Decreasing Concentration of Reactants Left Same
Increasing Concentration of Products Right Same
Decreasing Concentration of Products Left Same
Increasing Temperature (Exothermic) Left Decrease
Decreasing Temperature (Exothermic) Right Increase
Increasing Temperature (Endothermic) Right Increase
Decreasing Temperature (Endothermic) Left Decrease
Increasing Pressure (More Moles of Reactant Gases) Right Same
Decreasing Pressure (More Moles of Reactant Gases) Left Same
Increasing Pressure (More Moles of Product Gases) Left Same
Decreasing Pressure (More Moles of Product Gases) Right Same

● Entropy (S) - A measure of the disorder of a system

○ Increasing temperature increases entropy
○ Increasing volume increases entropy
○ Gases have high entropy, while solids have low entropy
○ Mixing substances increases entropy
○ Composition of molecules influences entropy
○ Aqueous has a higher entropy than solid
● Gibbs Free Energy (G) - The amount of energy available to do work
○ ∆G = ∆H − T ∆S where T = ˚C + 273.15˚ (Temperature in Kelvin)
○ ∆G < 0 → Spontaneous
○ ∆G > 0 → Nonspontaneous
● Atomic mass on the periodic table is a weighted average, in comparison to the mass
number
● Nuclear Symbol:

● Dimensional analysis with moles:

○ The mass on the periodic table is in amu or g/mol
○ The sum of the masses of parts of a molecule gives the mass of the molecule
○ One mole of gas a 1 ATM takes up 22.4 L
● Limiting Reactant - The reactant that is used up first when a reaction approaches
completion
Actual Y ield
● Percent Yield = Expected Y ield * 100
● Combustion - Exothermic reaction where fuel and oxygen form water and carbon dioxide
● Synthesis - Reactants combine to form a product
● Decomposition - A reactant breaks down into products
● Single Replacement - An element takes the place of another element in a compound
● Double Replacement - Compounds swap an element