Biology Fall Semester Exam Study Guide

Chapter 6
1. Atoms are the building blocks of matter. They are made up of
neutrons, particles with no charge, and protons, positively charged
particles, in the center nucleus. They also contain electrons, negatively
charged particles, moving around the nucleus in different energy
levels.
2. Element- a pure substance that cannot be broken down by physical or
chemical means and are made up of only one type of atom
3. Compound- a pure substance formed when two or more different
elements combine
4. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the rate of chemical
reactions in biological processes.
5. The specific reactants an enzyme acts on are the substrates.
6. Enzyme-Substrate Complex

7. High temperatures and extreme PHs can denature enzymes.

8. Activation energy- the minimum amount of energy needed for
reactions to form products in a chemical reaction; Activation energy
applies to enzymes because enzymes speed up the reaction by
lowering the activation energy.
9. Enzymes are not affected when in use and can be reused.
10. Water covers about 70% of the Earth’s surface and is also about 70% of
a cell’s mass. It is one of the most important molecules for life. Water is
a molecule made up of hydrogen and oxygen. The electrons are more
attracted to the nucleus in the oxygen, which causes an unequal
distribution of electrons in a water molecule. This makes the molecule
polar, because polar molecules have an unequal distribution of
charges.
11. Cohesion- the ability of water molecules to stick together (held by
hydrogen bonds); water is attracted to other water
12. Adhesion- the ability of water molecules to stick to other materials;
water is attracted to other materials
13. Capillary Action- the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to
be drawn into small openings
14. Cohesion allows water to stick to other water materials.
15. A solute is the substance dissolved in the solution.
16. A solvent is the substance in which the solute is dissolved.
17. Aqueous solutions have water as the solvent.
18. Macromolecules:
• Carbohydrates
-­‐ Store energy and provide structural support
-­‐ Starches and sugars
• Lipids
-­‐ Store energy and provide barriers
-­‐ Fats, waxes, and oils
• Proteins
-­‐ Transport substances, speed up reactions, provide structure
support, and make hormones
-­‐ Meats and hemoglobin
• Nucleic Acids
-­‐ Store and communicate genetic information
-­‐ DNA and RNA
19. Amino acids are the “building blocks” of proteins.
20. Peptide bonds hold amino acids together.
21. Nucleotides are the “building blocks” of nucleic acids.
22. Nucleic acids contain instructions for making proteins and other
molecules
23. The monomers of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol.
24. The monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides (glucose,
fructose, galactose).
25. The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides.

Chapter 7
1. Cell Theory:
• All living things are composed of one or more cells.
• Cells are the basic structure and organization of all living
organisms.
• Cells arise only form previously existing cells, with cells passing
copies of their genetic material on to their daughter cells.
2. Robert Hooke was the first see cells. He also gave them their name.
3. Comparison of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Membrane-bond No Yes
organelles?
 Nucleus? No Yes
Can be unicellular? Yes Yes
Can be multicellular? Rarely Yes
a. Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, while eukaryotes do.
b. They both have cytoplasm, a plasma membrane, ribosomes,
and can have cell walls (in plant cells).
c. Examples:
• Prokaryotes
-­‐ Bacteria
• Eukaryotes
-­‐ Animal and plant cells
4. Organelles are specialized structures that work together within the cell.
5. Organelles and Their Functions
Organelle Function
Plasma Membrane “Gatekeeper” of the cell
Nucleus Controls all cell activity
Nucleolus Produces ribosomes
Mitochondria Produces energy for the cell
Golgi Apparatus Packages proteins for distribution outside of the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum Finishes making ribosomes and lipids
Vacuole Stores waste within the cell
Lysosome Breaks down waste products
Centriole Help with cell division
Ribosome Produce proteins
Chloroplast (Plant Cells) Makes food
Cell Wall (Plant Cells) Protects and provides support
Cilia Helps the cell “swim” and move
Flagella Helps the cell “swim” and move
6. You would find chloroplast, a large central vacuole, and a cell wall in
a plant cell.
7. Phospholipids make up the cell membrane. It is composed of two
layers of phospholipids.
8. Phospholipid bilayer means that the cell membrane is made up of two
layers of phospholipids.
9. The cell membrane controls the ease with which substances pass into
and out of the cell. For this reason, the cell membrane is said to be
semi-permeable.
10. Selectively permeable is an appropriate term for the cell membrane
because it only lets certain things pass through.
11. The proteins in the cell membrane help with cell recognition. The
carbohydrates in cell diffusion
12. Cell Organelles

13. Passive and Active Transport:

• Passive Transport- transport of a substance across a cell
membrane through diffusion; energy is not required
• Active Transport- when cells move something from low to high
concentration against the concentration gradient; energy is
required
14. Passive Transport:
• Simple Diffusion- moves from high to low concentration
• Facilitated Diffusion- uses transport proteins to move from high to
low concentration
• Osmosis- the diffusion of water though a membrane to a region
with a lower concentration of water
15. Active Transport:
• Primary active transport- directly utilizes chemical energy to
move molecules through a membrane (Example: Sodium-
potassium pump)
• Secondary active transport- molecules are moved through a
membrane as the direct result of the diffusion of another
substance
16. Water moves into the cell when the solution surrounding the cell is
hypotonic (less water outside the cell)
17. Water moves out the cell when the solution surrounding the cell is
hypertonic (more water outside of the cell)
18. Isotonic, Hypertonic, and Hypotonic Solutions:
19. Endocytosis and Exocytosis:
• Endocytosis- moving stuff into the cell
• Exocytosis- moving stuff out of the cell
20. Cells use endocytosis and exocytosis to transfer materials in and out of
the cell.
21. Endocytosis:
• Pinocytosis- takes liquids into the cell with a vesticle; “cell
drinking”; requires energy
• Phagocytosis- takes large particles into vesticles; “cell eating”;
requires energy
Chapter 14
1. Fossils:
• Trace Fossil- any indirect evidence left by an organism
• Molds- an impression of an organism
• Casts- a mold filled with sediment
• Petrified (pre-mineralized)- empty pore spaces that are filled in
by minerals
• Amber- preserved tree sap that is capable of trapping an entire
organism
• Original material- mummification or freezing preserves original
organisms
• Replacement- original material of an organism replaced with
mineral crystals that leave detailed replicas of hard or soft parts
of an organism
2. Geologic Time Eras
Era Name How Long it Lasted Organisms Changes
Cenozoic 65 mya – present Mammals, plants, Climate gets
and birds colder
Mesozoic 248 – 65 mya Plants, birds, and Tropical climate
dinosaurs
Paleozoic 540 – 248 mya Reptiles, fish, ferns, Tropical climate
and amphibians
Neoproterozoic 1000 – 540 mya Eukaryotes, Where oldest
prokaryotes, and fossils came from
soft-bodied
organisms
3. The theory of spontaneous generation was disproved because during
the experiment, scientists saw that nothing occurred to the meat in the
flask when it was closed off. This theory was replaced with the theory
of biogenesis.
4. Biogenesis is the theory that states that only living things can produce
other living things.
5. The endosymbiont theory says that eukaryotic cells may have evolved
from prokaryotic cells.
6. Prokaryotic cells were the first organisms to appear on Earth. The
endosymbiont theory helped scientists prove this theory.
Chapter 15
1. Charles Darwin is famous for proposing the idea of natural selection,
which lead to the idea of evolution.
2. Darwin traveled on a boat called the HMS Beagle.
3. Darwin traveled to the Galapagos Islands.
4. While in the Galapagos Island, Darwin observed finches.
5. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution was based on variation, heritability,
overpopulation, and reproductive advantage.
6. The word ‘evolve’ means “change over time”.
7. Vestigial structures are the reduced forms of functional structures.
8. Penguins, bats, humans, and alligators all share similar limb vestigial
structures.

Chapter 16
9. The major characteristics of primates are opposable thumbs, binocular
color vision, large brain volume, and flexible joints.
10. Lemurs, monkeys, apes, and humans are the major primate groups.
11. Taxonomy for Human Beings:
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Cordata
Class Mammalia
Order Primates
Family Hominids
Genus Homo
Species Sapien
12. Scientists believe humans evolved from an ape-like ancestor because
they share many characteristics (primate characteristics).

Chapter 17
1. Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species are the
taxa in order from largest to smallest.
2. Biology Kingdoms:
• Archarbacteria
-­‐ Prokaryotic
-­‐ Unicellular
-­‐ Autotrophic or heterotrophic
• Eubacteria
-­‐ Prokaryotic
 -­‐ Unicellular
-­‐ Autotrophic or heterotrophic
• Protista
-­‐ Eukaryotic
-­‐ Unicellular or multicellular
-­‐ Autotrophic or heterotrophic
• Fungi
-­‐ Eukaryotic
-­‐ Unicellular or multicellular
-­‐ Heterotrophic
• Plantae
-­‐ Eukaryotic
-­‐ Multicellular
-­‐ Autotrophic
• Animalia
-­‐ Eukaryotic
-­‐ Multicellular
-­‐ Autotrophic
3. Fungi, Plantae, Animalia, and Protista are the four eukaryotic
kingdoms.
4. Archaebacteria and Eubacteria are the two prokaryotic kingdoms.
5. The three domains are the Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarka.
6. Archaea and Bacteria are the domains composed only of unicellular
organisms.
7. Based on their names, you know that the bears Ursus arctos and Ursus
maritimus do not belong to the same species but do belong to the
same genus.
8. The Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia belong to the Eukarya
domain.
9. A plant is multi-celled and eukaryotic.
10. Autotrophic refers to the ability to make its own food.
11. The cladogram pictures shows the characteristics acquired by phyla of
animals in order of increasing complexity
12. Sponges are the first organisms shown in the cladogram to have
multicellularity.
13. Mollusks are the first organisms shown to have a coelom.
14. Heterotropic means an organism hunts for its food and cannot
produce food for itself.
15. A compound light microscope can be used to observe living
organisms.
16. The whale shark, humpback whale, and kingdom and phylum.
17. The humpback whale and spider monkey are the tow organisms most
closely related to each other.
18. Corn is in class monocotyledons.