International Journal of Osteoarchaeology

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)

Published online 19 December 2012 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.2294

SPECIAL ISSUE PAPER

Entheseal Changes: Do They Reflect

Socioeconomic Status in the Early
Medieval Central European Population?
ice – Klásterisko, Great Moravian
(Mikulc
Empire, 9th – 10th century)
P. HAVELKOVÁ,a* M. HLADÍKb AND P. VELEMÍNSKÝa
a
Department of Anthropology, National Museum in Prague, Cirkusová 1740 Praha 9, Horní Poc  ernice, Czech Republic
b
Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic Brno, v.v.i, Královopolská Brno, Czech
Republic

ABSTRACT Entheseal changes (EC) of skeletons are supposed to reflect the physical activity of our ancestors. Similarly, the
elements of the burial rite (e.g. grave goods, burial depth) are presumed to be related to the social status of
individuals. The aim of this study was to verify the existence of relationships between EC distribution and
archaeological descriptors providing information on social status.
Fibrocartilaginous entheses of upper and lower limb bones of 115 individuals (aged 20–50 years) from the
early medieval burial site Mikulc ice – Klásterisko were evaluated using Villotte’s method (2006). Factor ana-
lysis (FA) was applied two times with two different combinations of descriptors: (i) FA-1 based on the archaeo-
logical characteristics; (ii) FA-2 based on the distribution of EC for males and females separately. The second
step was important for the validation of results acquired from archaeological data.
It is possible to link several models of EC distribution with selected archaeological characteristics. (i) The
relationship between EC and archaeological descriptors is more visible in males than females. (ii) Males with
warrior equipment and deep graves very probably belonged to the higher social class and are characterised
by the loading of the triceps brachii on the olecranon and of the gluteus medius on the femur. (iii) Males with
shallower graves and objects of daily use more typically demonstrate an occurrence of EC at the insertion site
of the wrist flexors or extensors. The clear links demonstrated in males were absent in females. There exists
only a weak relationship between the descriptor jewellery and the incidence of EC at the insertion sites of the
shoulder and certain insertion sites of the lower limbs (especially the hip rotators). This poorly significant
relationship supports our previous hypothesis that females from Mikulc ice performed the same activities
regardless their socioeconomic status. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Key words: Early Middle Ages; enthesopathies; factor analysis; grave goods; musculoskeletal stress
markers; social status

Introduction ligament attachment sites - entheseal changes (EC),

Anthropological research focusing on the study of
the way of life of past populations is frequently asso-
ciated with attempts at reconstructing the habitual
activities of the individuals studied. The various
biological markers, including changes at muscle and
* Correspondence to: Petra Havelková, Department of Anthropology,
National Museum in Prague, Cirkusová 1740, 193 00 Praha 9 - Horní
Pocernice, Czech Republic.
E-mail: havelkova.petra@gmail.com
should to a certain extent reflect the undergone activ-
ity pattern (e.g. Dutour, 1986; Hawkey and Merbs,
1995). They are frequently linked to selected arch-
aeological data which are assumed to be connected
with social status, distribution of work between
the sexes or life conditions (e.g. Robb et al., 2001;
al-Oumaoui et al., 2004; Eshed et al., 2004; Molnar,
2010). However, any specific relationship between
the distribution of EC and archaeological descriptors
has not yet been proved.

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

238
The main question addressed by this work is whether
it is possible to define a specific relationship between
occurrence and distribution of EC and selected archaeo-
logical indicators of social status of individuals within
early medieval society.
To determine the relationship between these factors,
we selected a burial site from the Mikulcice agglomeration
suburbium, which is sufficiently large (313 graves), is well-
documented archaeologically and is neither a burial site of
the elite nor a typical agricultural hinterland.
We based our work on the following assumptions:
1) EC at fibrocartilaginous entheses reflect to a certain
degree past physical activity. Nevertheless, we are
aware of the multifactorial origin of EC (age, sex,
genetic predisposition, hormonal influence, etc.)
and the importance of the factors that may play a
role in their development as well as of the possible
limitations associated with EC evaluation (Mariotti
et al., 2007; Jurmain and Roberts, 2008; Alves
Cardoso and Henderson, 2010; Villotte et al., 2010;
Meyer et al., 2011).
2) The character of grave goods and other archaeo-
logical descriptors reflect the social status of an
individual within society (Pearson, 2005). One of the
general premises with which we are working presumes
that the social status of the individual is reflected in
the burial rite (Chapman and Randsborg, 1981).
However, the premise that mortuary practices
passively reflect the abstract concept of society and
social structure cannot be accepted unreservedly.
In many societies, the funeral does not represent a
simple affirmation of social status (Pearson, 2005;
Williams, 2005). According to the previous archaeo-
logical research of the Great Moravian settle ments
(e.g. Polácek, 2005; Machácek, 2007), we may sup-
pose that all selected archaeological descriptors reflect
the socioeconomic status of the individuals inhumed at
the burial site Mikulcice – Klásterisko.
Archaeological background
Over the 6th–8th centuries, one of the crystallising
nuclei of the first historically documented Slavic proto-
state, Great Moravia, developed in the region of the
Middle-Danube Basin. The time of its greatest political
conquests was during the rule of Prince Svatopluk
(871–894) in the second half of the 9th century
(Figure 1a). The social elite resided in agglomerations
with central fortified sections (Polácek, 2005; Machácek,
2007; Dresler, 2011). Such fortified space often
extended over several tens of hectares. The fortified
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
P. Havelková et al.
acropolises were surrounded by open settlements. The
social status of the inhabitants concentrated in these
settlements evolved from their relationship with the elite.
According to previous research, these inhabitants mainly
included members of the lower nobility, the military
entourage and members of the servant and economic
community who safeguarded day to day livelihood within
the agglomeration (e.g. Polácek, 2009). Non-fortified
agricultural or craft settlements were found more exten-
sively in the nearest economic hinterland, and these
secured the basic needs of the populous agglomerations
(Dresler and Machácek, 2008; Hladík, 2011). The results
of archaeological research suggest that the highest
concentration of political power was at Mikulcice – Valy
(Figure 1b) and Staré Mesto.
We focused on the burial site located in the suburbium
of the Mikulcice settlement agglomeration called
‘Klásterisko’ (see Figure 1b). This is an independent burial
area located at a distance of approximately 300 m from
the castle acropolis and the nearest church contains 313
graves (Stloukal and Hanáková, 1985; Hladík, 2010).
The importance of this burial site is that it provides
an opportunity to interpret the socioeconomic status
of those buried there in relation to the fortified centre
on the one hand and to the economic hinterland on
the other. In terms of the burial rite, we observe several
differences compared to the burial sites located in the
castle. The character and quantity of grave goods as
well as certain elements of the burial rite indicate that
the socioeconomic status of the community was closer
to that of the communities living in the centre’s
economic hinterland than to that of the higher classes.
The location of this burial site in the immediate
vicinity of the castle, however, raises questions regard-
ing the status (function) of such a community within
the central agglomeration. Another related question
surrounds the habitual activities performed by this com-
munity or the degree of physical loading involved.
Material
EC were evaluated in a total of 115 adult individuals
aged 20 to 50 years from the Mikulcice – Klásterisko
burial site. Age at death and sex estimation was taken
from Stloukal and Hanáková (1985). Individuals with
traumatic injuries or other pathological conditions
were not included in the sample selected for EC
evaluation. Diagnostic criteria to exclude possible
cases of spondyloarthropathies were based on Rogers
and Waldron (1995) and Martin-Dupont et al. (2006).
Criteria used to diagnose cases of DISH were based
on Utsinger (1985).
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)
Entheseal Changes and Socioeconomic Status in the Great Moravia 239

Figure 1. (a) Extension of Great Moravia and neighbouring European empires in latter third of 9th century and the location of Great Moravia in Europe
(modified illustration according to Sláma and Vavrínek, 1996) (b) Schema of the Mikulcice settlement agglomeration and plan of the Klásterisko burial site.

The incompleteness of the sources, such as unknown graves for analysis. Out of the overall number of
archaeological characteristics or badly preserved 115 evaluated graves, all archaeological descriptors
attachment sites, did not allow us to use all evaluated were known only for 98 individuals, and all entheses

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)
240 P. Havelková et al.

Table 1. Individuals form the burial site Klásterisko by sex
(M: males, F: females, FA-1: factor analysis based on
archaeological data, FA-2: factor analysis based on EC)
total M F
Total 115 55 60
FA-1 98 51 47
FA-2 36 19 17
could only be evaluated in 36 individuals. The number
of individuals used for both parts of the factor analysis
(FA) is summarised in Table 1.
The archaeological descriptors included information
related to the given grave burial depth (as the relative
distance from the surface), skull level (as the absolute
value – meters above the sea level – measured in the
area of the skull), presence or absence of a pit and the
type of grave goods. The frequency of these descrip-
tors is detailed in Table 3, separately for males and
females. Descriptors with a frequency of less than 5%
were not included in the analysis. In the case of male
graves, this frequency was not met by the presence of
jewellery, vessel and spindle whorl. On the contrary, in
female graves, it was not met by the presence of warrior
equipment, textile, razor, fitting, iron and steel.
Methods
The evaluation of EC was performed using Villotte’s
method (2006) and involved only fibrocartilaginous
entheses. FA was based on the study of only the
presence or absence of EC. The entheses evaluated
are summarised in Table 2.
The variability of the burial rite, the number of
documented sources, as well as the degree of their
preservation all represent the fundamental premises
which decisively influenced the choice of method for
data synthesis. We applied a multivariate statistical
method, so-called FA, to search for structures (patterns)
of distribution within the sources. This analysis is
based on examining the structures of the interdependent
variables based on the assumption that these inter-
dependencies are the result of the effect of a certain
smaller number of non-quantifiable or unobserved
entities (variables) in the background (Hebák and
Hustopecký, 1987).
We must keep in mind that the FA used in this work
is more of an exploratory rather than a typical statis-
tical method, and its application aims to reveal basic
relationships between the entities studied.
In the first step of the analysis, we drew up the
descriptive system. In this system, we defined the indi-
vidual graves or remains of individual graves as the
basic described objects (entities). We entered into the
database the properties - descriptor and type of grave
goods or biological markers. The resulting descriptive
matrix became the starting point for the FA.
All the values that were entered into the FA were
either real numbers (e.g. burial depth, skull level) or
dichotomous variables that described the presence
(1) or absence (0) of the descriptor for the individual
graves (e.g. the presence or absence of a pit, fitting, knives
or the presence/absence of EC). The archaeological
and anthropological characteristics that we worked with
in the resulting matrix are listed in Tables 2 and 3.
We included in the analysis only those archaeo-
logical descriptors with a frequency of at least 5%.
The reason was to avoid the distortion of results by
sporadic findings (e.g. one vessel in males or one piece
of iron in females).
To define the sets of objects (graves) and their
variables, we set about calculating the factors. This
computation was performed for four independent groups

Table 2. Attachment sites evaluated on the appendicular skeleton

Code Enthesis Location

HSC Insertion of the m. subscapularis Lesser tubercle of the humerus

HSI Common insertion of the mm. supraspinatus and infraspinatus Greater tubercle of the humerus
HEL Common origin of wrist extensors (mm. extensor carpi radialis Lateral epicondyle of the humerus
brevis, extensor digitorum, extensor digiti minimi, extensor carpi
ulnaris and m. supinator)
HEM Common origin of wrist flexors (mm. flexor carpi radialis, Medial epicondyle of the humerus
flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor palmaris longus)
RBB Insertion of the m. biceps brachii Radial tuberosity
UTB Insertion of the m. triceps brachii Olecranon
CSB Common origin of the mm. biceps femoris, semitendinosus Ischial tuberosity of the coxal bone
and semimembranosus
FPF Insertion of the m. gluteus minimus Greater trochanter of the femur
FMF Insertion of the m. gluteus medius Greater trochanter of the femur
FIP Insertion of the m. iliopsoas Lesser trochanter of the femur

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)
Entheseal Changes and Socioeconomic Status in the Great Moravia 241

Table 3. List and frequences of archaeological descriptors factors in order to facilitate their interpretation. There
used for FA-1 for males and females (N: number of presented
descriptors, FA*: descriptors included in the analysis) are several rotary techniques that are equivalent from a
statistical point of view. We applied the Varimax rota-
MALES FEMALES tion because it minimises the number of variables highly
Archaeological descriptor N % FA N % FA
correlated with each factor. The rotation reduces the
number of variables with which the factor correlates
burial depth 51 100.0 * 47 100.0 * weakly, allowing for these factors be interpreted. Factor
skull level 51 100.0 * 47 100.0 * loadings state to what extent each of the descriptors is
pit grave 20 39.2 * 27 57.4 *
warrior equipment 5 9.8 * 0 0.0 typical for each extracted factor. The last step of the
jewellery 1 2.0 8 17.0 * analysis, which was important for the interpretation of
vessel 1 2.0 3 6.4 * results, represented the computation of the factor score.
textile 4 7.8 * 1 2.1
knife 11 21.6 * 7 14.9 * The factor score refers to the typicality of each of
razor 4 7.8 * 0 0.0 the factors for each of the graves from the original
flint 9 17.6 * 5 10.6 * descriptive matrix. It is this step that enables us to test
fitting 7 13.7 * 0 0.0
iron 8 15.7 * 1 2.1 the validity of the structures (factors) uncovered in the
spindle whorl 1 2.0 3 6.4 * individual groups of data. STATISTICA 7.0 and
steel 3 5.9 * 0 0.0 Microsoft Office Excel 2003 software were used for the
statistical evaluation.
The archaeological evaluation of material from graves
of data. This involved the FA based on archaeological
conducted in the past (Hladík, 2010) explained the
data (FA-1) independently for males and females and
significant sexual specificity of the individual elements
the FA based on EC (FA-2) independently for males
of the burial rite. This assumption was supported by
and females. The important step affecting the results of
preliminary FA not separating the sexes where the first
the whole analysis involves the ‘correct’ determination
strongest factor was typically male and the second one
of the number of factors (Neustupný, 2005). The
female with no informative value about EC distribution.
number of factors that we chose in the process of data
For this reason, we carried out the FA separately for male
analysis took into consideration the following condi-
and female graves.
tions: (i) the eigenvalues of the factors were greater
than 1, (ii) the eigenvalues explained more than 5% of
the overall variability of the evaluated sample in the
comparative matrix, (iii) eigenvalues of the selected Results
factors explained jointly around 60% of the overall vari-
ability of the evaluated sample. FA based on archaeological data (FA-1)
Consequently, we calculated (extracted) the factor
loadings, i.e. the rotated factor coefficients. Extracted It was possible to compute the FA-1 for 98 individuals,
factors correlate weakly with a number of original i.e. for 85% of the evaluated individuals. Eigenvalues
variables what makes virtually impossible their inter- were obtained for four factors which explain overall
pretation. This problem was solved by rotation which 66% of the variability of the evaluated sample. In view
is an application of linear transformations on the of the character of the grave goods of which most are

Table 4. Summary of the factor analysis in males (%: percent of the variability of the evaluated sample for given factor)

MALES

FA-1 Factor Eigenvalue % Archaeol. descriptor untypical Entheseal changes

1 4.43 40.3 razor, warrior equipment HEM-L, HEM-R
2 1.44 13.1 textile, iron HEM-L
3 1.26 11.5 burial depth, warrior skull level UTB-L
equipment
FA-2 Factor Eigenvalue % Entheseal changes untypical Archaeol. descriptor burial depth
1 2.61 26.1 FMF, RBB, UTB razor, warrior equipment, steel more than 90 cm
2 1.79 17.9 HEM, HEL flint, iron, textile 20–50 cm
3 1.57 15.7 FPF CSB vessel, fitting, razor, warrior more than 90 cm
equipment
4 1.28 12.8 HSI vessel, steel, fitting, knife 50–70 cm
5 1.07 10.7 FIP textile, flint 70–90 cm

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)
242 P. Havelková et al.

significantly sex specific, it is not surprising that
individual factors (especially the first and second) also
reflect almost exclusively gender affiliation. In order
to avoid distortion of subsequent results, we decided
to perform the FA separately for males and females.
FA-1 Males
The characteristics jewellery, vessel and spindle whorl, which
are more characteristic of females, were left out in the
FA due to their low incidence. Table 3 lists the overview
and incidence of the evaluated descriptors. It was thus
possible to evaluate FA-1 in males for 51 valid cases and
to obtain eigenvalues for three factors, which explain
overall 65% of the sample variability (Table 4).
Factor 1
The first, strongest factor explains more than 40% of
the variability in the evaluated male population. Typical
descriptors of this factor are razor and warrior equipment
(Figure 2A). A high factor loading number was also
recorded in the case of steel and knife. In plotting the factor

Figure 2. Results of the factor analysis based on the archaeological descriptors (FA-1) in males. Graphical representation of the factor loadings of the arch-
aeological descriptors (A), (C), (E) and comparison of the medians of the factor scores among the evaluated entheses (B), (D), (F) for first three factors.

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)
Entheseal Changes and Socioeconomic Status in the Great Moravia
score of the individual graves on a graph based on the
presence of EC, the highest median value for this factor
was recorded for the common origin of the wrist flexors
(HEM) on both sides (Figure 2B).
Factor 2
The second factor explains 13% of the sample variabil-
ity and is typically characterised by textile and iron
(Figure 2C). Fitting also carries a higher value of factor
loading. If we plot the factor score of individual graves
onto the box-plot on the basis of the presence of EC
for an individual enthesis, the highest median value
was unequivocally attained again by the common
origin of the wrist flexors (HEM), this time only on
the left side (Figure 2D).
Factor 3
The third factor explains 12% of the variability and is
considerably bipolar (Figure 2E). A typical descriptor
is burial depth as well as the presence of warrior equipment.
The most significant negative value is attained and
is thus least typical for the attribute of skull level. In
view of the fact that greater burial depth is characteris-
tic of factor 3, it is natural that skull level demonstrates
negative values at the opposite pole of factor loading
(deep graves have a lower absolute value of altitude).
The presence of EC on the left triceps brachii is typical
for this group (UTB; Figure 2F).
FA-1 Females
As in the case of males, certain archaeological descriptors
whose frequency did not reach 5% were omitted in
females (warrior equipment, textile, razor, fitting, iron, steel).
The frequency of the descriptors used is described in
Table 3. It was possible to use 47 females for the ana-
lysis itself. We obtained eigenvalues for three factors,
which explain overall 60% of the sample variability
(Table 5).
Table 5. Summary of the factor analysis in females (%: percent of the variability of the evaluated sample for given factor)
FEMALES
FA-1 Factor Eigenvalue % Archaeol. descriptor
1 2.13 26.6 jewellery, pit grave, spindle whorl, burial depth
2 1.40 17.5 flint
3 1.30 16.2 skull level
FA-2 Factor Eigenvalue % Entheseal changes
1 3.63 36.3 HEL, HSI, HEM, FIP
2 1.82 18.2 FMF, RBB
3 1.45 14.5 FPF
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
243
Factor 1
The first strongest factor that explains almost 27% of
the variability is characterised by the presence of
jewellery and the presence of a pit grave (Figure 3A). The
highest values of the median factor score are achieved
by graves with the presence of EC predominantly at
four entheses, always on the left side of the body
(Figure 3B). On the upper limb, these involve the com-
mon insertion site of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus
muscles (HSI), the enthesis of the subscapularis (HSC)
and the common origin of the wrist extensors (HEL).
On the lower limb, these involve the attachment site of
the gluteus medius (FMF).
Factor 2
The second factor explains 17% of the variability and is
bipolar. Most typical of this factor is the presence of
flint and least typical is the presence of knife (Figure 3C).
This factor is typically characterised by the presence of
EC again on the left side - the common origin of the
wrist extensors (HEL) and the attachment site of the
subscapularis (HSC) on the upper limb and the attach-
ment site of the gluteus minimus (FPF) on the lower limb
(Figure 3D).
Factor 3
The third factor explaining 16% of the variability
differs from the others. It is again considerably bipolar,
with the highest absolute value of factor loading
demonstrated by the descriptor vessel. This value,
however, is negative, and thus this is the least typical
descriptor (Figure 3E). On the contrary, the skull level
is a typical descriptor for this factor. The highest
median value of the factor score is attained here by
individuals in whom EC occur at the common insertion
site of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles (HSI)
and iliopsoas muscle on the lesser trochanter of the
femur (FIP). Both insertion sites are located on the right
side (Figure 3F).
untypical Entheseal changes
HSI-L, HSC-L HEL-L, FMF-L
knife HEL-L, HSC-L, FPF-L
vessel HSI-R, FIP-R
untypical Archaeol. descriptor burial depth
knife, jewellery 70–90 cm
pit grave, flint 20–50 cm
CSB jewellery 50–70 cm
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)
244 P. Havelková et al.

Figure 3. Results of the factor analysis based on the archaeological descriptors (FA-1) in females. Graphical representation of the factor loadings of the
archaeological descriptors (A), (C), (E) and comparison of the medians of the factor scores among the evaluated entheses (B), (D), (F) for first three factors.

FA based in EC (FA-2)
Of the overall number of 115 individuals, only 6 indivi-
duals (i.e. 5%) exhibited entheses that were all evaluable.
At this burial site, no significant lateral asymmetry was
discovered in any attachment site, not even when males
and females were evaluated separately (at the level
a=0.01). This is why we evaluated attachment sites on
the right and left sides together. We thus increased the
number of valid cases to 36. Unfortunately, the preserva-
tion of the bone surface is very limiting for this type of
analysis. We performed the FA based on EC separately
for males and females in order to prevent the distortion
of results. As shown by the results of FA-1, the groups
involved are diverse, based on both the aspect of the
character of grave goods as well as the type of loading.

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Entheseal Changes and Socioeconomic Status in the Great Moravia 245

FA-2 Males
It was possible to use 19 valid cases for the FA-2. The
eigenvalues were calculated for five factors, which
overall explain 83% of the variability. The first three
strongest factors explain 60% of the variability, and it
is these that we will primarily focus on (Table 4).
Factor 1
The first factor explains a full 26% of the variability in
males with EC particularly at entheses of the gluteus
medius (FMF) on the lower limb and of the biceps (RBB)
and triceps brachii (UTB) on the upper limb (Figure 4A).
On the basis of the factor score median values for the
individually evaluated graves, it may be stated that the
components of grave goods in male graves with these
distribution of EC included predominantly warrior
equipment, razor and steel, but the differences are not signifi-
cant (Figure 4B). The most typical burial depth is
represented by graves deeper than 90 cm.
Factor 2
The second factor explains nearly 18% of the variability
and is characterised by the incidence of EC especially in

Figure 4. Results of the factor analysis based on the presence of EC (FA-2) in males. Graphical representation of the factor loadings of the evaluated
entheses (A), (C), (E) and comparison of the medians of the factor scores among the archaeological descriptors (B), (D), (F) for first three factors.

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)
246
the region of the elbow (HEM, HEL; Figure 4C). The
most typical objects among the grave goods characteris-
tic of this factor are flint, iron and textile (Figure 4D). These
common objects also correspond to a shallower grave
pit, i.e. 20 – 50 cm.
Factor 3
The third factor is considerably bipolar and is typically
characterised by predominant lower limb loading
(Figure 4E). It explains 16% of the sample variability
with typical EC involving the enthesis of the gluteus
minimus (FPF) and the least typical changes involving
the ischial tuberosity (CSB). On the basis of the factor
score medians, we may state that these males most often
included in their grave goods fitting, razor and warrior
equipment (Figure 4F). The highest factor score was noted
in the individual with vessel, but unfortunately this finding
is rare in males. The significantly highest median for
factor 3 is demonstrated by graves deeper than 90 cm.
FA-2 Females
It was possible to compute the FA based on EC in only
17 valid female cases. This resulted in eigenvalues for
three factors, which explain nearly 70% of the sample
variability (Table 5). The related archaeological charac-
teristics had to be reduced due to the absence of certain
grave goods.
Factor 1
The first factor explains 36% of the variability.
Changes at four entheses – three on the upper limb
and one on the lower limb – are typical for this factor
(Figure 5A). The strongest factor loading was recorded
for the common origin of the wrist extensors (HEL),
for the common insertion site of the supraspinatus and
infraspinatus muscles (HSI) on the humerus and the
common origin of the wrist flexors (HEM). The third
highest factor loading was demonstrated by the
enthesis of the iliopsoas (FIP). On the basis of the factor
score medians, the presence of knife and jewellery is
typically characteristic of this factor (Figure 5B). Also,
characteristic is the burial depth of 70–90 cm.
Factor 2
The second factor that explains 18% of the variability of
EC presence in females is characterised especially by the
presence of EC on the attachment site of the gluteus medius
(FMF) as well as of the biceps brachii (RBB) (Figure 5C).
The fundamental archaeological descriptor are the
presence or absence of pit grave, flint and iron (Figure 5D).
The highest factor score median is related to graves
deeper than 90 cm. A single individual was buried deeper
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
P. Havelková et al.
than 90 cm and, as the second highest median was in the
shallowest graves, it is this second group which should
be considered typical for this factor.
Factor 3
The third factor, in contrast to the previous ones, is
considerably bipolar. It explains 14% of the variability
and is nearly identical to the third factor in males. It
typically involves changes at the insertion of the gluteus
minimus (FPF) and least typically changes at the site of
the ischial tuberosity (CSB; Figure 5E). However, the
typical archaeological descriptor in this case is jewellery
and the presence of vessel (Figure 5F). As to burial
depth, graves 50–70 cm deep appear to be most
typical.
Discussion
The attempt to elucidate mutual relationships among a
wide range of variables has led to the use of multivariate
statistical methods in anthropology.
The application of multivariate analysis is not a novel
approach to EC evaluation. Already in 1998, Robb
applied a cluster analysis in an attempt to determine
whether there exists a relationship between the distribu-
tion of EC and various parameters associated with social
status. Among more recent works, we should mention
the study of Stefanović and Porcic (2011), in which the
PCA method was used to detect the prevailing models
of EC in relation to the division of labour among males
and females
The FA used in our work is a method that reduces
the number of initial traits. In contrast to PCA, FA
attempts to explain the dependency of these traits.
However, its drawbacks include the necessity to
select a number of common factors before performing
the analysis itself (Meloun et al., 2005). However, the
greatest limitation of all these aforementioned multivari-
ate methods lies in the pre-condition that all input data
must be complete, a fact that significantly decreases the
number of compared individuals.
Males
The results of the FA in males single out relatively
unequivocally two basic structures. The first structure
links graves containing predominantly objects of daily
use (textile, iron, flint, razor) with loading of the wrist flexors
(HEM) or extensors (HEL), while the second structure is
typically characterised by the presence of warrior equipment
and burial depth in association with loading of the entheses
of the triceps brachii (UTB) and of the gluteus medius (FMF).
The character of the archaeological descriptor enables us
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)
Entheseal Changes and Socioeconomic Status in the Great Moravia 247

Figure 5. Results of the factor analysis based on the presence of EC (FA-2) in females. Graphical representation of the factor loadings of the evaluated
entheses (A), (C), (E) and comparison of the medians of the factor scores among the archaeological descriptors (B), (D), (F) for first three factors.

to presume that males in this second group belong to
higher social class (e.g. Polácek, 2009). However, these
two structures partially overlap in some of the factors.
The first factor of the analysis based on archaeo-
logical descriptors is characterised primarily by the
presence of razor as well as warrior equipment. Relatively
high factor loading is also attained by steel, knife, flint.
With the exception of warrior equipment, these are more
or less objects of daily use. For these individuals, the
presence of pit grave or burial depth is not particularly
significant. The descriptor warrior equipment may include
the presence of swords, spurs, axes, spear heads or
arrowheads. It should thus be associated with a warrior,
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
yet the axe which represents the most frequent
component of warrior equipment could also have served
merely as a work tool (Polácek, 2000).
Comparison of the factor score medians for the indi-
vidual graves and the evaluated entheses shows that this
factor is typically characterised by the presence of EC,
especially at the region of the common origin of the wrist
flexors (HEM) on both sides of the body. This does not
mean that the incidence of EC at this enthesis is highest
in males, but rather that is most typical for the given
factor. In fact, this is one of the least loaded entheses,
although its overall incidence is also relatively high
(21% on the right and 28% on the left side). Previous
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)
248
studies have shown that the presence of EC at this
enthesis is relatively rare (see Villotte et al., 2010;
Villotte and Knüsel, 2012). The incidence of EC at
this enthesis in modern as well as past populations is
most often seen to be associated with the hurling of
firmly clasped objects (e.g. Dutour, 1986; Ciccotti
et al., 2004). Based on the presence of spear heads in
this group, a certain connection could also exist in this
case, but the numbers are very low and certainly not
structuring for the given factor. Another possibility
could involve the frequent use of another component
of warrior equipment, namely the axe. The manner in
which the axe is used could be similar to that of the
spear, as the axe probably did not only serve for
hacking but also for throwing. This interpretation is
also supported by the fact that iron axes are among
the most frequent weapons of the Great Moravian
period as well as the aforementioned widespread use
of axes as tools (Polácek, 2000). The occurrence of
EC at the site of the medial epicondyle of the humerus,
this time only on the left side, is also typical for the
second factor, which is characterised by the presence
of the descriptors textile and iron and the shallowest
graves. These attributes are linked neither to warriors
nor to the higher social class. It thus appears that the
characteristic loading of the HEM attachment site at
our burial site is associated more with males of a lower
or middle social class. This assumption is also
confirmed by the second factor of the FA-2, which is
also typically characterised by changes at the HEM
enthesis together with changes at the HEL enthesis.
The typical archaeological descriptor in this case
involves the presence of flint, iron and textile.
However, FA based on archaeological data created
another completely different structure among males
(3rd factor; FA-1). The principal attributes in this case
include burial depth and warrior equipment. Together with
other descriptors with high factor loading such as razor,
pit grave or fitting, they indicate that this could be a
different group of males than in the case of the
first two factors. We could probably single out here a
group of males with a higher social position (e.g.
Polácek, 2009). If we focus on typical loading or stress
factors, we will especially discern the presence of EC
on the olecranon of the ulna on the left side (UTB-L).
Again, this is an enthesis with a relatively rare incidence
of enthesopathies (Galera and Garralda, 1993). In
literature, its loading is described in association with
several typical activities – fishing (e.g. Capasso et al.,
2004), working with wood (Galera and Garralda, 1993)
or archery in the case of EC incidence on the left
side (Dutour, 1986). In view of the non-significant
differences in the occurrence of EC between the left
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
P. Havelková et al.
and right insertion of the triceps brachii and also the near
negligible incidence of spear heads, the hypothesis
regarding archers may be discounted. Nonetheless, in
view of the presence of grave goods characteristic for
the cited factors, the individuals in question were very
probably representative of a higher social class, possibly
the prince’s military entourage (Kouril, 2005).
In any case, the association between EC at the inser-
tion of triceps brachii (UTB) and the presence of warrior
equipment in graves deeper than 90 cm was also demon-
strated in the second FA (1st factor; FA-2). In this case,
though, EC also occur in the case of another two
entheses. These mainly involve the insertion of the gluteus
medius (FMF) on the femur and the attachment site of the
biceps brachii (RBB) on the radius. The former also appears
as the second most typical enthesis in FA-1 (3rd factor) in
association with UTB. As in the case of most entheses of
the lower limb, it is difficult to define the physical activ-
ity that could have been associated with the recorded
changes. The reason is that locomotion itself plays an
important role. In physical anthropology, the lesions at
these attachment sites have been linked with activities
such as horseback riding, cart driving and jogging with
heavy loads in rough terrain or balancing the body’s
weight over the stance leg while walking (e.g. Lai and
Lovell, 1992; Pálfi, 1992; Molleson and Hodgson,
1993; Steen and Lane, 1998). Despite this fact, we
presume that most changes involving these entheses
are associated with habitual daily activities such as
walking or getting up from a seated position. It would
be interesting to place into context the presumed
archaeological descriptors of a ‘warrior’ with the incidence
of EC at the site of FMF, characterising equestrians.
Unfortunately, a connection between the incidence of
EC at this insertion site and horse riding has not been
confirmed by sports medicine (e.g. Auvinet, 1980; Pugh
and Bolin, 2004).
Females
The situation in the female sample is not as unequivocal.
This could be due to the lower initial number of archaeo-
logical descriptors, as it was necessary to rule out many
of these because of their low frequency. One of the
determining factors is the presence of jewellery and the
character of the grave pit (presence and depth). These
descriptors are then closely linked especially with EC
at the entheses of the shoulder and certain entheses of
the lower limb. A previous study focused on other burial
sites at Mikulcice (Havelková et al., 2011) discovered that
the highest incidence of EC in females involved the
forearm. However, the structuring anthropological
factors in individuals from Klásterisko mainly involve
EC whose incidence is among the lowest overall (i.e. in
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 237–251 (2013)
Entheseal Changes and Socioeconomic Status in the Great Moravia
females EC of the elbow and in males those of the
forearm). The entheses concerned are also mainly on
the left side of the body.
The strongest factor probably characterises a group
of females of higher social status (Polácek, 2009).
The typical descriptors in this case are jewellery, pit grave,
spindle whorl and burial depth. These characteristics are most
strongly associated with loading of the entheses of the
left shoulder (HSI, HSC), as well as loading of the
common origin site of the wrist extensors on the left side
of the body (HEL) and also of the enthesis of the gluteus
medius on the left femur (FMF). The presence of jewellery is
also associated with the incidence of changes at the HEL
and HSI attachment sites in the second part of FA. Here,
however, there are also significant changes at the
common origin site of the wrist flexors (HEM) and of
the iliopsoas (FIP) on the lower limb. In the latter case,
the descriptor knife also plays an important role. Unfortu-
nately, the results of the FA in females are not as
unequivocal as in the case of males, although certain
trends may be observed. Descriptors associated with
higher social status such as jewellery, burial depth or pit grave
are more frequently associated with the incidence of EC
on the shoulder or entheses of the wrist extensors. In the
case of common grave good objects, such as e.g. flint or
knife, a link is apparent not only with EC involving the
aforementioned entheses, but also with EC involving
the wrist flexors.
Regarding the not entirely unequivocal link between
the uncovered EC and archaeological descriptors in
females, similar findings were also demonstrated by the
Robb (1998). This conclusion corresponds to previous
results in females from the Mikulcice settlement agglom-
eration (Havelková et al., 2011). The overall differences
between the extents of the activity pattern in females
from different social groups were not statistically signifi-
cant. We may thus conclude that the activities
performed, such as weaving, grinding corn or carrying
wood, were not linked to the social status of females.
Conclusion
The connection between the real socioeconomic
status of individuals and archaeological descriptors as
well as the relationship between occurrence of EC and
past physical activity is still frequently discussed (e.g.
Williams, 2005; Jurmain and Roberts, 2008; Meyer
et al., 2011); however, the goal of this work was not to
prove either relationship. In the presented work, we
accepted the existence of these relationships as basic
premises, and we attempted to find specific links between
different elements of the burial rite (e.g. grave goods)
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
249
and occurrence/localization of EC. This study confirmed
that this kind of relationship between elements of the
burial rite and the incidence of EC in individuals from
the Klásterisko burial site does exist.
The separate evaluation of males and females was
shown to be decidedly important, as the uncovered
links between EC and archaeological descriptors differ
significantly between these two groups. Our study
demonstrated links especially in the case of males.
Individuals with warrior equipment and deep graves (very
probably representative of the social elite) are charac-
terised by the loading of the triceps brachii (UTB) and of
the gluteus medius (FMF). Individuals with shallower graves
and objects of daily use more typically demonstrate an
incidence of EC at the enthesis of the wrist flexors
(HEM), or at the wrist extensors (HEL). In females, the
most important descriptors seems to be the presence of
jewellery and the character of the pit grave in connection
with the incidence of EC at the attachment sites of the
shoulder and certain entheses of the lower limbs. The
presence of these descriptors is probably a characteristic
of females with higher socioeconomic status. Unfortu-
nately, such an evident relationship between archaeo-
logical descriptors and EC occurrence as for males was
not proved.
From a methodological aspect, this research demon-
strated the legitimacy of testing the validity of structures
uncovered in archaeological sources using independent
external evidence, which was in this case represented
by biological traits. It is necessary, however, to keep in
mind that our results are specific only for the burial
site at Mikulcice – Klásterisko and may not reflect
the situation at other Mikulcice burial sites or in
other populations.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the project NAKI
DF12P01OVV021. The authors thank all three
reviewers for their useful comments and Lauren Hosek
for correction of English text.
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