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CME 321
Chapter 8
8-2
Block Diagram
Controller:
software component implements math
hardware component provides calibrated signal for actuator
Actuator:
physical (with dynamics) process triggered by controller
directly affects process
Sensor:
monitors some property of system and transmits signal back to controller
8-3
Definitions
Set point: desired value of the controlled variable
Load: a change in any variable that may cause the control variable to change
Closed-loop or feedback system: means measured value of the controlled
variable is returned or “fed back” to a device called comparator.
Comparator: a device to compare controlled variable with the set point
8-4
The typical control problems
Regulatory control
– the task is to counteract the effect of external
disturbances in order to maintain the output at its
constant set-point (disturbance rejection)
Servo control
– the objective is to cause the output to track the
changing set-point
sensor
Ym(s)
Gm
disturbance
comparator manipulated
ysp variable y
+ controller process
– error
set-point controlled
variable
transmitter
Controller Algorithms
The actions of controllers can be divided into
groups based upon the functions of their control
mechanism.
Continuous controllers
Types of Controllers
On-off
Proportional (P)
Integral (Reset Action Mode) (I)
Derivative (D)
Proportional Integral (PI)
Proportional Derivative (PD)
Proportional Integral Derivative (PID)
On/Off Controllers
Discrete controllers (ON/ OFF): These
controllers have only two modes or positions:
on and off (two step). This type of control
doesn’t actually hold the variable at setpoint,
but keeps the variable within proximity of
setpoint in what is known as a dead zone.
Two-step is the simplest of all the control
modes. The output from the controller is either
on or off with the controller's output changing
from one extreme to the other regardless of the
size of the error.
On-Off Controllers
Synonyms: “two-position” or “bang-bang” controllers.
• Simple
• Cheap
• Used in residential heating and domestic refrigerators. Limited use in process
control due to continuous cycling of controlled variable excessive wear on
control valve.
p (t )
pmin if e0
close
Advantages
simple & easy to design
inexpensive
easily accepted among operators
Pitfalls
The process oscillates.
The final control element (usually a control valve) is
always opening and closing and this cause excessive
wear.
There is no fixed operating point.
Continuous Control
There are three basic control actions that are
often applied to continuous control:
1. Proportional (P)
2. Integral (I)
3. Derivative (D)
It is also necessary to consider these in
combination such as P + I, P + D, P + I + D.
Although it is possible to combine the different
actions, and all help to produce the required
response, it is important to remember that both
the integral and derivative actions are usually
corrective functions of a basic proportional
control action.
Continuous Control
Controllers automatically
compare the value of the
PV to the SP to
determine if an error
exists. If there is an error,
the controller adjusts its
output according to the
parameters that have
been set in the controller.
The tuning parameters essentially
determine:
How much correction should be made? The
magnitude of the correction (change in controller
output) is determined by the proportional mode of
the controller.
p= k(SP-M) + bias
p (t ) p K C e(t )
The bias is the value of the controller output which, in
manual mode, causes the measured process variable to
maintain steady state at the design level of operation
[e (t )=0] when the process disturbances are at their
expected values
The bias value is assigned at the controller design level,
and remains fixed once the controller is put in automatic
p (t ) p K c e(t ) p K c ysp (t ) ym (t )
where
p (t ) controller output
p = bias value (adjustable)
K c controller gain (dimensionless, adjustable)
e(t ) error signal
Transfer Function
p t p t p P s
Gc s Kc
e t e t 0 E s
An inherent disadvantage of proportional-only control is that a
steady-state error occurs after a set-point change or a sustained
disturbance.
The key concepts behind proportional control are the following:
2. Proportional action responds faster than the open-loop process, Speeding the process is
the primary benefit of P-control
Kc3 > Kc2 > Kc1
3. An inherent disadvantage of proportional-only control is
that a steady-state error occurs after a set-point change or a
sustained disturbance. This steady state error is referred to
as: OFFSET
4. In general as: Kc↑ Offset↓
STABILITY ????
Low Gain
Set value
Deviation Offset
Process variable
time
High gain
Set value
Offset
Deviation
time
- smaller offset
- less damping of measured value
CP0560
Example
qi qo at steady state
Residual error
Design the controller:
(2.2)
(2.3)
3-37
Integral control:
3-38
3-39
3-40
3-41