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Analytic Functions and Complex Integration

UNIT-III

ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

INTRODUCTION
In this Chapter we continue the study about the complex numbers. When x and y are real variables,z=x+iy is called
a complex variable. Let u ( x, y )andv ( x, y ) be two function of the variables x and y. Then
w = f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv(x, y ) is a function of the complex variable z = x + iy .
If w gives a unique value corresponding to a value of z then w is called a single valued function of z and if it
gives more than one value corresponding to a given value of z then it is called a multiple valued function of z.

Definition
A single valued function f ( z ) is said to have a limit w o as z → z 0 if
(i) f ( z ) is defined in a neighborhood of z 0
(ii) and if for every ∈> 0, we can find a positive number δ such that f ( z ) − w0 <∈ ∀z given by 0
< z − z0 < δ .
We Write Lim f ( z ) = w0.
z → z0
Analytic Function:

Definition
A function f ( z ) is said to be continuous at z = z 0 if f ( z 0 ) is defined and Lim f ( z ) = f ( z 0 ).
z → z0

Definition
f ( z + ∆z ) − f ( z )
A function f ( z ) is said to be differentiable at a fixed point z if Lim exists.
∆z
∆z → z0
This limit is called the derivative of f ( z ) at the point z and it is denoted by f ( z ) .

Note
Here z + ∆z is a neighbourhood point of z with small distance ∆z , can be chosen in any side of z. This is
an important aspect in the above definition.

Definition
A function f ( z ) is said to be analytic at a point z = a in a region R if
(i) f ( z ) is differentiable at z = a
(ii) f ( z ) is differentiable at all points for some neighbourhood of z = a .

Definition
A function f ( z ) is said to be analytic in a region R if f ( z ) is analytic at all points in the region R.
Note
Instead of the term analytic in R, the terms holomorphic I R and regular in R are also used.

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CAUCHY-RIEMANN EQUATIONS
We shall now obtain the necessary conditions for a complex function f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y )
to be analytic.

Let f ( z ) = u + iv be analytic in a region R in z plane.

⇒ f ( z ) is differentiable in R.
f ( z + ∆z ) − f ( z )
⇒ f ' ( z ) = Lim exists in R.
∆z
∆z → 0 … (1)
Let z = x + iy
∴ z = ∆x + i∆y
∴ z + ∆z = ( x + iy ) + (∆x + i∆y )
= ( x + ∆x ) + i ( y + ∆y )
Now f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y )
∴ f ( z + ∆z ) = u ( x + ∆x, y + ∆y ) + iv( x + ∆x, y + ∆y ) …. (2)
Case (i): Choose z + ∆z along the horizontal line through z. Then ∆y = 0
∴ ∆z = ∆x

∴ ∆z → 0 ⇒ ∆x → 0
Now From (1) and (2),

f ' ( z ) = Lim
[u (x + ∆x, y + ∆y ) + iv(x + ∆x, y + ∆y )] − [u (x, y ) + iv(x, y )]
∆x + i∆y
∆z → 0

u (x + ∆x, y ) + iv(x + ∆x, y ) − u ( x, y ) − iv( x, y )

= Lim
∆x
∆x → 0

=Lim
[u(x + ∆x, y ) − u (x, y )] + i[v(x + ∆x, y ) − v(x, y )]
∆x
∆x → 0

u (x + ∆x, y ) − u (x, y ) v( x + ∆x, y ) − v( x, y )

= Lim +i Lim
∆x ∆x
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

f ' (z ) =
du dv
+i …(3)s
dx dx
Case (ii)
Choose z + ∆z along the vertical line through z. Then ∆x = 0

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⇒ ∆z = i∆y

∴ ∆z → 0 ⇒ ∆y → 0

From (1) and (2),

f ' ( z ) = Lim
[u(x + ∆x, y + ∆y ) + iv(x + ∆x, y + ∆y )] − [u (x, y ) + iv(x, y )]
∆x + i∆y
∆z → 0

u (x, y + ∆y ) + iv( x, y + ∆y ) − u ( x, y ) − iv( x, y )

= Lim
i∆y
∆y → 0

=
1
Lim
[u(x, y + ∆y ) − u (x, y )] + i[v(x, y + ∆y ) − v(x, y )]
i ∆y
∆y → 0

1 u (x, y + ∆y ) − u ( x, y ) v( x, y + ∆y ) − v( x, y )
= Lim + Lim
i ∆y ∆y
∆y → 0 ∆y → 0
1 du dv
= +i
i dy dy

f ' (z ) = − i
du dv
+i … (4)
dy dy

From (3) and (4), we get

du dv du dv
+i =−i +i
dx dx dy dy
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get
du dv du dv
= = =−
dx dy dy dx
The above equations are known as Cauchy-Riamann equations (or) C-R equations.

SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR A FUNCTION f ( z ) TO BE ANALYTIC

Continuous single valued function f ( z ) = u + iv is analytic in a region R if
du du dv dv
(i) the four partial derivatives , , , exists and all are continuous
dx dy dx dy

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du dv du dv
(ii) = , =−
dx dy dy dx
Proof
By Taylor’s series
2
 d d  1 d d 
f ( x + h, y + k ) = f ( x, y ) +  h + k  f ( x, y ) +  h + k  f ( x, y ) + K … (1)
 dx dy  2!  dx dy 
Let z = x + iy ⇒ ∆z = ∆x + i∆y
z + ∆z = u ( x + iy ) + (∆x + i∆y ) = ( x + ∆x ) + i ( y + ∆y )
f ( z + ∆z ) = u ( x + ∆x, y + ∆y ) + iv( x + ∆x, y + ∆y )
2
 d  1 d 
= u ( x, y ) +  ( )  u ( x, y )
d d
∆
 dxx + ∆y 
u x , y +  ∆
 dxx + ∆y
 dy  2!  dy 
  d  
+ K + i v( x, y ) +  ∆x + ∆y v( x, y ) + L{by (1)}
d
  dx dy  

du  dv 
= u ( x, y ) + ∆x + i v( x, y ) + ∆x + ∆y  + L
du dv
+ ∆y
dx dy  dx dy 
 du dv   du dv 
= u ( x, y ) + iv( x, y ) + ∆x + i  + ∆y + i 
 dx dx   dx dy 
[Omitting the higher powers of ∆x, ∆y ]
 du dv   dv du 
= f ( z ) + ∆x + i  + ∆y − + i  [by CR equations]
 dx dx   dx dx 
 du dv   dv du 
= f ( z ) + ∆x + i  + ∆y i 2 + i  [Since i 2 =-1]
 dx dx   dx dx 
 du dv   du dv 
= f ( z ) + ∆x + i  + i∆y +i 
 dx dx   dx dx 
 du dv 
= f (z ) +  + i (∆x + i∆y )
 dx dx 
 du dv 
f ( z + ∆z ) = f ( z ) +  + i ∆z
 dx dx 
 du dv 
⇒ f ( z + ∆z ) − f (z ) =  + i ∆z
 dx dx 
f ( z + ∆z ) − f ( z ) du dv
⇒ = +i
∆z dx dx
f ( z + ∆z ) − f (z ) du dv
⇒ Lim = Lim +i
∆z dx dx
∆z → 0 ∆z → 0

⇒ f ' (z ) =
du dv dv du
+i = −i (by C-R equations)
dx dx dy dy

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⇒ f ' (z ) exists and

du du dv dv
, , , are all continuous
dx dy dx dy

Example: 1 Test whether the function f ( z ) = z 3 + z is analytic or not.

Solution: Let f ( z ) = z 3 + z
⇒ u + iv = ( x + iy ) + (x + iy )
3

= x 3 + 3 x 2 (iy ) + 3x(iy ) + (iy )3 + x + iy

2

[since (a + b ) = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3 ]
3

= x 3 + i3 x 2 y − 3xy 2 − iy 3 + x + iy
[Since i 2 =-1, i 3 = −i ]
= (x 3 − 3xy 2 + x ) + i (3x 2 y − y 3 + y )
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get

u = x 3 − 3xy 2 + x, v = 3x 2 y − y 3 + y

du dv
⇒ = 3x 2 − 3 y 2 + 1; = 6 xy − 0 + 0 = 6 xy
dx dx
= 0 − 3x(2 y ) + 0; = 3x 2 (1) − 3 y 2 + 1
du dv
dy dy

= −6 xy; = 3x 2 − 3 y 2 + 1
du dv du − dv
⇒ = ; =
dx dy dy dx
⇒ C-R equations are satisfied.
⇒ f ( z ) = z 3 + z is analytic.

Example: 2 Define an analytic function. Determine whether the function w = 2 xy + i x 2 − y 2 ( )

is analytic]

Solution: A function f ( z ) is said to be an analytic function at z = a in a region R if

(i) f ( z ) is differentiable at z = a
(ii) f ( z ) is differentiable at all points for some neighbourhood of z = a

A function f ( z ) is analytic in a reigion R if f ( z ) is analytic at all points in the region R.

Now w = 2 xy + i (x 2 − y 2 )
⇒ u + iv = 2 xy + i (x 2 − y 2 )

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Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get

u = 2 xy; v = x2 − y2
du dv
⇒ = 2 y; = 2x
dx dx
du dv
= 2x; = 2y
dy dx
du dv du − dv
⇒ ≠ ; ≠ ;
dx dy dy dx
⇒ C-R equations are not satisfied.
⇒ w is not analytic.

Example:3 Find the constants a,b and c if f ( z ) = x + ay + i (bx + cy ) is analytic

Solution: Let f ( z ) = x + ay + i (bx + cy )

⇒ u + iv = ( x + ay ) + i (bx + cy )

Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get

u = x + ay; v = bx + cy;

du dv
⇒ = 1; =b
dx dx

du dv
= a; =c
dy dy
Since f ( z ) is analytic, we have

du dv du dv
= ; =−
dx dy dy dx
⇒ c = 1 and a = −b

⇒ c = 1 and a = −b, b may be any value.

Example4: Verify whether f ( z ) = sinh z is analytic using C-R equations. [AU June 2001] [MUOCTOBER 2001]

Solution: Let f ( z ) = sinh z

⇒ u + iv = sinh ( x + iy )

= sin i( x + iy )
1
[since sin iθ = i sinh θ ]
i

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= sin (ix + i 2 y )
1
i
= sin (ix − y )
1
[Since i 2 =-1]
i
= {sin ix cos y − cos ix sin y}
1
i
[since sin (a − b ) = sin a cos b − cos a sin b ]
= {i sinh x cos y − cosh x sin y}
1
i
[since sin iθ = i sinh θ , cos iθ = i cosh θ ]
1
= sinh x cos y − cosh x sin y
i
= sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y [since 1 i = −i ]

Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get

u = sinh x cos y; v = sin y cos x

du dv
= cosh x cos y; = sin y sinh x
dx dx
du dv
= − sin y. sin x; = cos y cosh x
dy dy
du dv du dv
⇒ = ; =−
dx dy dy dx
⇒ C-R equations are satisfied.
⇒ f ( z ) = sinh z is analytic.

f ( z ) = (x − y ) + 2i( x + y )
2
Example:5 Find the analytic region of
f ( z ) = (x − y ) + 2i( x + y )
2
Solution: Let
u + iv = ( x − y ) + i 2( x + y )
2
(i.e.)
u = ( x − y ) and v = 2( x + y )
2

u x = 2( x − y ) vx = 2
u y = −2( x − y ) vy = 2
The C-R equations will satisfy only if x − y = 1 . Hence the function is analytic only on the line
x − y = 1.

Example6: verify if the function e −2 x cos 2 y can be real

/imaginary part of an analytic function

Solution: Let f = e −2 x cos 2 y

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f x = −2e −2 x cos 2 y
f xx = 4e −2 x cos 2 y
f y = −2e −2 x sin 2 y
f yy = −4e −2 x cos 2 y

f xx + f yy = 0 ∴ f is harmonic
In a simply connected domain, every harmonic function is the real part or the imaginary part
of some analytic function.
∴ Given is a real or imaginary part of an analytic function.

PROPERTIES OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

Property: 1
Show that an analytic function with constant real part is constant. [Anna UQ]

Solution: Let f ( z ) = u + iv be analytic

du dv du dv
= ; =−
dx dy dy dx
Given that u =constant = c1 (say)

du du
⇒ = 0, =0
dx dy
dv dv
⇒ = 0, =0 [by (1) ]
dy dx
⇒ v is independent of x and y
⇒ v is constant
⇒ v = c 2 , c 2 is constant (say)
⇒ f ( z ) = u + iv = c1 + ic 2 is a constant.

Property: 2
Show that an analytic function with constant modulus is constant.

Solution: Let f ( z ) = u + iv be analytic

du dv du dv
= ; =−
dx dy dy dx
Given that f ( z ) = Constant.
⇒ u 2 + v 2 = c1 , c1 is a constant.
⇒ u 2 + v 2 = c 21
Differentiate partially with respect to x, y we get

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du dv du dv
2u + 2v = 0, 2u + 2v = 0,
dx dx dy dy
du dv du dv
⇒u +v = 0, u +v = 0,
dx dx dy dy

du dv dv du
⇒u +v = 0, −u +v = 0, [by (1)]
dx dx dx dx
du dv du dv
⇒u +v = 0, v −u = 0,
dx dx dx dx
= u 2 − v 2 = −(u 2 + v 2 )
u v
Now
v −u
= −c1 ≠ 0
2

∴ The above equations have trivial solution.

du dv
∴ = 0, =0
dx dx
dv du
⇒ = 0, =0 [by (1)]
dy dy
du du dv dv
Hence = = 0, = =0
dx dy dx dy
⇒ u, v is independent of x and y
⇒ u and v are constants
⇒ f ( z ) = u + iv is a constant.

Property: 3
Show that an analytic function with constant imaginary part is constant.

Solution: Let f ( z ) = u + iv be analytic

du dv du dv
⇒ = , =− … (1)
dx dy dy dx
Given that v = Constant = c1 (say )
dv dv
⇒ = 0, = 0,
dx dy
du du
⇒ = 0, = 0, [by (1)]
dy dx
⇒ u is independent of x and y
⇒ u = Constant = c 2 (say )
⇒ f ( z ) = u + iv = c 2 + ic 2 = Constant.

Property: 4
If f ( z ) is a regular function prove that

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 d2 d2 
f (z ) = 4 f ' (z )
2 2
 2 + 2 
 dx dy 
[MU April 2002, April 2000, AU Nov 2003, April 2004]
d 2
d2  d2
( ) f (z )
2 2
Solution:  2
+ 2 
f z = 4
 dx dy  dzd z
[By Property 6]

[ ]
2
f (z ). f ( z ) [Since zz = z ]
d 2
=4
dzd z

=4
d2
dzd z
[
f ( z ). f z ( )] [Since () ()
f z = f z ]

=4
d d 
[
  f ( z ). f z
dz  dz 
( )]
=4
d
dz
[
f ( z ). f ' z ( )]
()
= 4 f ' z . f ' (z )
= 4 f ' ( z ). f ' ( z ) = 4 f ' ( z )
2

Property: 5
If f ( z ) is an analytic function prove that
 d2 d2 
 2 + 2  log f ( z ) = 0 (Anna UQ)
 dx dy 
 d2 d2 
Solution:  2 + 2  log f ( z ) = 4
d2
dzdz
log f ( z ) f ( z ) 2
1
[ ]
 dx dy 

( )
[Since z = zz
1
2
]

=4
d2 1
dzdz 2
log f ( z ). f z [ ( )] [Since log a x = x log a ]

=2
d2
dzdz
[
log f ( z ) + log f z ( )] [Since log mn = log m + log n ]

=2
d d 
[
  log f ( z ) + log f z
dz  dz 
( )]
d  
f ' ( z ) = 2(0 ) = 0
1
= 2 0 +
dz  f z  ()

Property: 6
If f ( z ) is an analytic function, prove that

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 d2 d2 
 2 + 2  f ( z ) = p 2 f ( z ) f ' (z )
p p−2 2

 dx dy 
 d2 d2  d2
Solution:  2 + 2  f ( z ) = 4 f (z )
p p

 dx dy  dz dz

∂2
( )
p
=4  f ( z ). f ( z ) 12  [Since z = zz
1
2
]
∂ z∂ z  

=4
∂2
f ( z ). f z () p 2  (a m ) = a mn 
n

∂ z∂ z
 Since
 () 
f (z ) = f z 
∂ ∂ p 2
=4  ( f (z )) .( f ( z )) 
p 2

∂z  ∂z 
∂
= 4 ( f ( z ))
∂z
p 2 p

2
f z
p 2 −1
( ( ))
f' z ()

( ( )) ()
p−2
d  
= 2p  f (z ) . f z
p 2 2 .f ' z 
dz  

() ( ) dd
p −2
= 2 pf z f (z )
p 2
2 .f ' z
z

() ( ) 2p ( f (z ))
p−2
f ' (z )
p
−1
= 2 pf z 2 .f ' z . 2

( ( )) ()
p−2 p−2
= p2 f z 2 .f ' z 2 f ' (z )

( () ) ()
p −2
= p 2 f z . f ' (z ) . f ' ( z ). f z [Since a m .b m = (ab ) ]
2 m

( f ' (z ) f ' (z ))
p −2
= p 2  f ( z ) f ' ( z ) 2 
1

 
= p 2 f (z ) . f ' (z ) .
p− 2 2

POLAR FORM OF CAUCHY RIEMANN EQUATIONS

Let z = re iθ and f ( z ) = p(r , θ ) + iQ (r , θ )
Then p (r , θ ) + iQ (r , θ ) = f re iθ ( )
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t to r, we get
∂P ∂Q
∂r
+i
∂r
( )
= f ' re iθ e iθ
Differentiating (1) partially w.r. to θ , we get
∂P ∂Q
∂θ
+i
∂θ
( )
= f ' re iθ .r.e iθ

[ ( ) ]
= ri f ' re iθ e iθ

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 ∂p ∂Q 
= ri  + i
 ∂r ∂r 
∂p 2 ∂Q
= ir +i r
∂r ∂r
∂p ∂Q
= ir −r [Since i 2 =-1]
∂r ∂r
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get
∂p ∂Q ∂Q ∂p
= −r ; =r
∂θ ∂r ∂θ ∂r
∂Q − 1 ∂p ∂p 1 ∂Q
⇒ = ; =
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
The above equations are called Cauchy Riemann equations in polar form.

Show that f ( z ) = z n is differentiable and hence find its derivative.

Solution: Let f ( z ) = z n
⇒ P + iQ = re iθ [ ] n

= r n e inθ = r n [cos nθ + i sin nθ ]

= r n cos nθ + ir n sin nθ
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get
P = r n cos nθ ; Q = r n sin nθ
∂P ∂Q
= nr n −1 cos nθ ; = nr n −1 sin nθ
∂r ∂r
∂P ∂Q
= r n (− n sin n θ ); = r n .n cos nθ
∂θ ∂θ
∂P nr n cos nθ  ∂Q  1
⇒ = nr n −1 cos nθ = = 
∂r r  ∂r  r
∂Q nr n sin nθ  ∂Q  1
= nr n −1 sin nθ = = − 
∂r r  ∂r  r
⇒ C-R equations are satisfied
⇒ f ( z ) = z n is differentiable
 ∂P ∂Q 
Now f ' ( z ) = e −iθ  + i
 ∂r ∂r 
[
= e −iθ nr n −1 cos nθ + inr n −1 sin nθ]
=e − iθ
( − iθ
)
= e (cos nθ + i sin nθ )
− iθ
=e nr n −1 .e n −1
= e − iθ +inθ .nr n −1 [Since a m .a n = a m + n ]
= nr n −1e iθ (n −1)

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[ ]
= n re iθ
n −1
[Since (ab ) = a m b m ]
m

= nz n −1
⇒ f ' ( z ) = nz n −1
Example: 3 Show that r n = a sec nθ , r n = b cos ecnθ interested orthogonally where is an integer,
a and b are constants.

Solution: Given that

r n = a secnθ ; r n = b cos ecnθ
rn rn
⇒ = a; =b
sec nθ cos ecnθ
⇒ r n cos nθ = a; r n sin nθ = b,
Consider f ( z ) = r n cos nθ + ir n sin nθ
Then P = r n cos nθ ; Q = r n sin nθ
∂P ∂Q
= nr n −1 cos nθ ; = nr n −1 sin nθ
∂r ∂r
∂P ∂Q
= r n (− n sin n θ ); = r n .n cos nθ
∂θ dθ
∂P 1 ∂Q ∂Q − 1 ∂P
⇒ = ; = except at r = 0
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
⇒ f ( z ) is analytic except at r = 0
Also we know that if f ( z ) = u + iv is analytic then the family of curves u ( x, y ) = c1 , v( x, y ) = c 2
Insects orthogonally.
∴ r n cos nθ = a, r n sin nθ = b, Intersects orthogonally.
⇒ r n = a secnθ , r n = b cos ecnθ Intersects orthogonally.

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS

Definition
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
An expression of the form + = 0 is called the Laplace equation in two dimensions.
∂x 2 ∂y
Definition
Any function having continuous second order partial derivatives which satisfies the Laplace is
called harmonic function.
Definition
Any two harmonic functions u and v such that f ( z ) = u + iv is analytic are called conjugate harmonic
functions.

Note: If u and v are conjugate harmonic functions then u is conjugate harmonic to v is conjugate
harmonic to u .

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Property: 13
If f ( z ) = u + iv is an analytic function then u is a harmonic function.
Solution: Let f ( z ) = u + iv be analytic
du dv du − dv
⇒ = , =
dx dy dy dx
∂ v ∂ v ∂  ∂v  ∂  ∂v 
2 2
Now 2 + 2 =   +  
∂x ∂y ∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y 
∂  − ∂u  ∂  ∂u 
=  +  
∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂x 
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ =0 =
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∴ v is a harmonic function.

−y
Example: 1 prove that u = x 2 − y 2 , v = are harmonic
x − y2
2

but u + iv is not a regular function.

Solution: Let u = x 2 − y 2
∂u ∂u
⇒ = 2 x; = −2 y
∂x ∂y
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
= 2;
⇒ = −2
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
∴ 2 + 2 = 2−2 = 0
∂x ∂y
∴ u is harmonic
−y
Let v = 2
x + y2
[(
∂v − x 2 + y 2 0 − y (2 x )
=
) ]
∂x x2 + y2
2
( )
− (− 2 xy ) 2 xy
= =
(x 2
) (x + y )
+y 2 2 2 2 2

∂ v (x
2
+ y ) (2 y ) − (2 xy )2(x + y )2 x
2 2 2 2 2
=
∂x 2 (x + y ) 2 2 4

=
(x + y )([ x + y )2 y − 8x y ]
2 2 2 2 2

(x + y ) 2 2 3

2 x 2 y + 2 y 3 − 8x 2 y
=
(x 2
+ y2 ) 3

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2 y 3 − 6x 2 y
=
(x 2
) + y2
3

∂v − [(x + y )(1) − y (2 y )]
2 2
=
∂y (x + y ) 2 2 2

− [x + y − 2 y ]
2 2 2
=
(x + y ) 2 2 2

− [x − y ] 2 2
=
(x + y )
2 2 2

y2 − x2
=
(x 2
) + y2
2

∂ v (x
2
+ y ) (2 y ) − ( y − x )2(x + y )(2 y )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
=
∂x 2 (x + y ) 2 2 4

=
(x + y )([ x + y )(2 y ) − 4 y(y − x )]
2 2 2 2 2 2

(x + y ) 2 2 4

2 x 2 y + 2 y 3 − 4 y 3 + 4 xy 2
=
(x 2
+ y2 ) 3

6x 2 y − 2 y 3
=
(x + y )2 2 3

=
(2 y − 6 x y )
3 2

(x + y ) 2 2 3

∂ 2v ∂ 2v 2 y 3 − 6x 2 y 2 y 3 − 6x 2 y
+ = − =0
( )
∂x 2 ∂y 2 x2 + y2
3
(
x2 + y2
3
) ( )
∴ v is harmonic
∂u ∂u
But = 2x; = −2 y
∂x ∂y
∂v 2 xy ∂v y 2 − x2
= ; = ;
∂x (
x2 + y2
2
∂y x2 + y2
2
) ( )
∂u ∂v ∂u − ∂v
⇒ ≠ ; ≠
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
⇒ f ( z ) = u + iv is not analytic.

CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUGATE HARMONIC FUNCTIONS

Method 1
Suppose u is given
∂u ∂u
Then , are known.
∂x ∂y

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Now by total derivative,

∂v ∂v
∂v = .∂x + ∂y
∂x ∂y
− ∂u ∂u  + ∂u ∂v ∂u − ∂v 
= ∂x + .∂y Since = ; = 
∂y ∂x  ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x 
Integrating on both sides. we get
 − ∂u ∂u 
∫ ∂v = ∫  ∂y ∂x + ∂x .∂y 
 − ∂u ∂u 
⇒v= ∫ 
 ∂y
∂x + .∂y 
∂x 
Method: 2
Suppose v is given
∂u ∂u
Than , are known
∂x ∂y
Now by total derivative,
∂u ∂u
∂u = .∂x + ∂y
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v  ∂u ∂v ∂u − ∂v 
= .∂x − ∂y Since = ; = 
∂x ∂y  ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x 
Integrating on both sides. we get
 ∂v ∂v 
∫ ∂u = ∫  ∂y ∂x + ∂x .∂y 
 ∂v ∂v 
⇒u= ∫  ∂x + .∂y 
 ∂y ∂x 

Example: 1 Find the real part of the analytic function whose imaginary part
[ ( )
is e − x (2 xy cos y ) + y 2 − x 2 sin y ]
[ (
Solution: Given that v = e − x 2 xy cos y + y 2 − x 2 sin y ) ]
∂v
= e − x [2 y cos y (1) + sin y (0 − 2 x )]
∂x
[ ( )
+ 2 xy cos y + y 2 − x 2 sin y − e − x ]( )
[
= e− x 2 y cos y − 2 x sin y − 2 cos y − y sin y + x sin y
2
] 2

= e− x [cos y(2 y − 2 xy ) + sin y(x − y − 2 x )]

2 2

∂v
∂y
= e−x [2 x( y(− sin y ) + cos y + (y − x )cos y + sin y(2 y − 0)]
2 2

= e−x [− 2 xy − sin y + 2 x cos y + (y − x )cos y + 2 y sin y]

2 2

= e−x [sin y(2 y − 2 xy ) + cos y(2 x + y − x )]

2 2

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∂v ∂v
Now real part u = ∫ dx − dy
∂y ∂x
[
= ∫ e − x sin y (2 y − 2 xy ) + cos y (2 x + y 2 − x 2 ) dx ]
[ (
− ∫ e − x (cos y (2 y − 2 xy ) + sin y x 2 − y 2 − 2 x dy )]
[
= sin y ∫ e − x (2 y − 2 xy )dx + cos y ∫ e − x (2 x + y 2 − x 2 ) dx ]
[
− e − x ∫ cos y (2 y − 2 xy )dy − e − x ∫ sin y (x 2 − y 2 − 2 x ) dy ]
[
= sin y (2 y − 2 xy )(e − x ) − (0 − 2 y )(e − x ) ]
[
+ cos y (2 x + y 2 − x 2 )(e − x ) − (2 + 0 + 2 x )(e − x ) + (− 2 )(− e − x ) ]
− e − x [(2 y − 2 xy )(sin y ) − (2 − 2 x )(− cos y )]
[
− e − x (x 2 − y 2 − 2 x )(cos y ) − (0 − 2 y − 0)(− sin y ) + (− 2)(cos y ) + C ]
[
= sin y − 2 ye − x + 2 xye − x + 2 ye − x ]
[
+ cos y − 2 xe − x − y 2 e − x + x 2 e − x − 2e − x + 2 xe − x + 2e − x ]
e − x [2 y sin y − 2 xy sin y + 2 cos y − 2 x cos y ]
[
− e − x − x 2 cos y + y 2 cos y + 2 x cos y − 2 y sin y − 2 cos y + C ]
= sin y (2 xye − x ) + cos y (x 2 − y 2 )e − x − 2 ye − x sin y
+ 2 xye − x sin y − 2e − x cos y + 2 xe − x cos y
+ (x 2 − y 2 )(cos y )e − x − 2 x cos ye − x + 2 ye − x sin y + 2 xe − x cos y + C
= 2 xye − x sin y + (x 2 − y 2 )e − x cos y + C
[
⇒ u (x, y ) = e − x 2 xy sin y + (x 2 − y 2 )cos y + C ]
log(x 2 + y 2 ) is harmonic and find its conjugate
1
Example: 6 show that the function u =
2
log(x 2 + y 2 )
1
Solution: Let u =
2
∂u 1  1 
(2 x ) = 2
x
=  2 2 
∂x 2  x + y  x + y2
∂ 2 u 1 (x 2 + y 2 )(1) − x(2 x − 0 )
=
∂x 2 2 (x 2 + y 2 )2
x 2 + y 2 − 2x 2 y2 − x2
= =
(x 2
+ y2 )
2
(x 2
+ y2 )
2

∂u 1  1 
(2 y ) = 2
y
= 
∂y 2  x 2 + y 2  x + y2
∂ 2 u 1 (x 2 + y 2 )1 − y (2 y )
=
∂y 2 2 (x 2 + y 2 )2

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=
x2 + y2 − 2y2
=
x2 − y2
=
(
− y2 − x2 )
(x 2
+y )
2 2
(x + y ) (x 2
+y )
2 2 2 2 2

Now =
∂ u ∂ u
+
2
=
y −x 2
−
(y − x ) = 0 2 2 2 2

∂x ∂y (x + y ) (x + y )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

∴ u is harmonic.
∂u ∂u
Now v = ∫ dx + dy
∂y dx
−y x
=∫ 2 dx + 2 dy
x +y 2
x + y2
xdy − ydx xdy − ydx
=∫ 2 =∫ 2
x +y 2
x 1 + ( y / x)
2
( )
d ( y / x)
=∫
1 + ( y / x)
2

v = tan −1 ( y / x ) + C

CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION

Definition:
Conformal mapping
A mapping or transformation which preserves angles in magnitude and in
direction between every pair of curves through a point is said to be conformal at that point.

Isogonal Transformation
The transformation preserves the angle in magnitude but not in direction
between every pair of curves through a point is said to be a isogonal at that point.

Critical Point:
A point at which f ' ( z ) = 0 is called a critical point of the transformation.

ie) At the critical point, the transformation w = f (z ) is not conformal.

Example: Find the critical points for the transformation w 2 = ( z − α )( z − β )

Solution: w 2 = ( z − α )( z − β )

= ( z − α ) + ( z − β ) = 2 z − (α + β )
dw
2w
dz
= z − (α + β )
dw 1
∴w
dz 2

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dw
Critical points occur at =0
dz
1
∴ z − (α + β ) = 0
2
dw w
Also =
z − (α + β )
dz 1
2
dw
The critical points occurs at =0
dz

w
∴ =0
z − (α + β )
1
2
⇒w=0
⇒ ( z − α )( z − β ) = 0
⇒ z = α, z = β
1
∴ The critical points occur at ∴ z = (α + β ), α & β
2

Simple Translations
(i)Translation:
The transformation w = z + a where a is a complex constant,represents a translation.
Let z = x + iy, w = u + iv and a = a1 + ia 2 ,
Then u + iv = ( x + iy ) + (a1 + ia 2 )
= (x + a1 ) + i ( y + a 2 )
∴ u = x + a1 and v = y + a 2 are the equations of transformation,
The image of the point (x,y) in the z-plane is the point (x + a, y + b ) in the w-plane.
∴ The transformation w = z + a translates every point (x , y) through a constant vector
representing ‘a’ .
Every point in any region of the z-plane is mapped upon the w-plane in the same manner.
If the whole w-plane is superposed on the z-plane the figure is shifted through a distance
given by the vector ‘a’.
In particular this transformation maps circles into circles. Also the corresponding region in
the z-plane and w-plane will have the same shape, size and orientation.

(ii) Magnification:
The transformation w =az, where a is a complete constant, represents
magnification.
Now w = az
⇒ u + iv = a( x + iy )
⇒ u = ax, v = ay are the equators of transformation.

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It is clear that the image of any figure in the z-plane is magnified ‘a’ times. Without any
changes in its shape and orientation. The transformation maps circles into circles.

(iii) Magnification and Rotation:

If we consider ‘a’ is a complex number it represents both magnification and
rotation.
Let z = re iθ , α = αe iβ and w = Re iφ

Now w = az
⇒ Re iφ = αe iβ re iθ
⇒ R = rα , φ = β + θ
The image θ of any point p in z-plane is obtained from p by rotating op through an angle
α = arg ’a’ and magnifying op in the ration a .
The transformation w = az corresponds to a rotation together with a magnification.

Example 1: Find the image of the circle z =c by the transformation w = 5z

Solution: Given w = 5z
∴ u + iv = 5( x + iy )
= 5x + i5y
⇒ u = 5 x, v = 5 y
Given z =C
1
⇒ (x 2 + y ) =C
2 2

⇒ x2 + y = C2
2

2
u v 2
⇒  +  = C2
 5 5
⇒ u 2 + v 2 = 25C 2

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⇒ u 2 + v 2 = (5C )
2

∴ z = C Maps to a circle in w-plane with centre at the origin and radius 3C.

1
The Transformation w =
z
1
The transformation w = is conformal at all points of the z-plane except at z = 0.
z
Put z = x + iy and w = u + iv then
1
u + iv =
x + iy
1 u − iv
⇒ x + iy = = 2
u + iv u + v 2
u v
⇒ x + iy = 2 −i 2
u +v 2
u + v2
Equating real and imaginary parts,
u v
x= 2 &y=− 2
u +v 2
u + v2
1
Also x 2 + y 2 = 2
u + v2
Case (i)
The line x = 0 (ie) the imaginary axis in the z-plane.
When x = 0, u = 0 which is the imaginary axis in the w-plane.
∴ The imaginary axis in the z-plane is mapped to the imaginary axis in the w-plane.

Case (ii)
The line y = 0
When y = 0, v = 0
∴ The real axis in the z-plane is mapped to the real axis in the w-plane.

Case (iii)
The equation of any line parallel to x- axis in the z-plane (i.e.,) y = k
v
y=− 2
u + v2
v
∴k =− 2
u + v2
v
⇒ u2 + v2 + = 0
k

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2 2
 1   1 
⇒ u2 + v +  = 
 2k   2k 
 −1
This is a circle in the w-plane with centre at  0,  and passes through the origin.
 2k 
∴ The line parallel to real axis in the z-plane map into a family of circle in the w-plane passing
through the origin and having centre on v-axis.

Case (IV)
The equation of a line parallel to y-axis in the z-plane (ie) x = c
u
Given x = 2
u + v2
u
c= 2
u + v2
u
⇒ u2 + v2 + = 0
c
2 2
 1   1 
⇒ u −  + v =  
2

 2c   2c 
 1  1
This is a circle with centre at  ,0  and radius is
 2c  2c

Hence the line parallel to y-axis in the z-plane map onto the family of circles in the w-plane
passing through the origin and having centre on axis.

Case (v)
Consider the line y-axis in the z-plane
u x
Now =
v y

u 1 x 1
Put y = mx ⇒ = − Q = 
v m y m
∴ V = − mu , which is a straight line in the w-plane passing through the origin.
Hence the line y = mx passes through the origin maps into the straight line v = - mu in the w-
plane.

Case (vi)
The equation of a circle centre at the origin x 2 + y 2 = r 2
1
We know that x 2 + y 2 = 2
u + v2
1
∴ u 2 + v 2 = 2 Which is a circle at the origin in the w-plane.
r

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1
∴ The circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 maps into the circle u 2 + v 2 =
r2
∴ The circle x 2 + y 2 > 1 in the z-plane maps into the region x 2 + y 2 < 1 (ie) the exterior of unit
circle z = 1 maps into the interior of the unit circle w = 1 .Also the interior of the unit circle
z = 1 maps into the exterior.

1
Example 2: Find the image of z − 2i = 2 under the transformation w =
z
Solution: Given z − 2i = 2
x + iy − 2i = 2

x + i ( y − 2) = 2
x 2 + ( y − 2) 2 = 2
x 2 + ( y − 2) = 4
2

x2 + y2 + 4 − 4y = 4
x 2 + y 2 − 4 y = 0 ………….(1)
1
The given transformation is w =
z
u v
⇒x= 2 ,y =− 2
u + v2 u + v2
Substitute the values of x and y in (1)

 u   −v   −v 
2 2

 2 2 
+ 2 2 
− 4 2 2 
=0
u +v  u +v  u +v 
⇒ u 2 + v 2 + 4v(u 2 + v 2 ) = 0
⇒ (u 2 + v 2 )(1 + 4v) = 0
⇒ (1 + 4v) = 0 which is the straight line equation in the w-plane.

Example 3: Find the image of the circle z − 1 = 1 in the complex plane under the mapping
1
w=
z
Solution: Given z − 1 = 1
x + iy − 1 = 1
(x − 1)2 + y 2 =1
⇒ x − 2x + 1 + y 2 = 1
2

⇒ x 2 − 2 x + y 2 = 0 …………(1)

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1
Given transformation is w =
z
u v
⇒x= ,y =− 2
u +v 2 2
u + v2
Substitute in (1)
 u   −v 
2 2
 u 
 2 2 
+ 2 2 
− 2 2 2 
=0
u +v  u +v  u +v 
(
⇒ u 2 + v 2 − 2u u 2 + v 2 = 0 )
⇒ (u 2 + v 2 )(1 − 2u ) = 0
⇒ (1 − 2u ) = 0
Which is the straight line equation in the w-plane.

BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Definition: Bilinear transformation (or) Mobius transformation (or) linear

fractional
az + b
The transformation w = , ad − bc ≠ 0 where a, b, c, d are complex
cz + d
constants is called the bilinear transformation.

Fixed Point (or) Invariant Point:

A fixed of a mapping w = f (z ) is a point z whose image is the same point.

The fixed point or invariant points of the transformation w = f (z ) are obtained by
solving z = f (z ) .
az + b az + b
The fixed point of w = are obtained by z = ⇒ cz 2 − (a − d )z − b = 0
cz + d cz + d
This is a quadratic equation in z, giving two values of z unless a = d and b = c =0.
Hence, a bilinear transformation has (at most) two fixed points.

Cross Ratio:
(z1 − z 2 )(z 3 − z 4 )
If z1 , z 2 , z 3, z 4 are four complex numbers, then is called the cross
(z1 − z 4 )(z 3 − z 2 )
ratio of four points z1 , z 2 , z 3, z 4 .

Properties of Bilinear transformation:

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1. The bilinear transformation always transforms circles into circles with lines as limiting
cases.
2. The bilinear transformation preserves cross ratio of four points.

2z − 5
Example: 1 Find the fixed points for the transformation w =
z+4
Solution: Fixed points are obtained from
2z − 5
z=
z+4
⇒ z 2 + 4z − 2z + 5 = 0
⇒ z 2 + 2z + 5 = 0
2 ± 4i
∴z = −
2

Example: 2. find the bilinear transformation mapping the points z = 1, i,−1 into the points
w = 2, i,−2 respectively.
Solution: The bilinear transformation is given by
(w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) (z − z1 )(z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w3 )(w2 − w1 ) (z − z 3 )(z 2 − z1 )
(w − 2)(i + 2) = (z − 1)(i + 1)
(w + 2)(i − 2) (z + 1)(i − 1)
(w − 2) = (z − 1)(i + 1)(i − 2)
(w + 2) (z + 1)(i − 1)(i + 2)
=
(z − 1)(− 3 − i )
(z + 1)(i − 3)
=
(z − 1)(3 + i )
(z + 1)(3 − i )
w − 2 + w + 2 (z − 1)(3 + i ) + ( z + 1)(3 − i )
=
w − 2 − w − 2 ( z − 1)(3 + i ) − ( z + 1)(3 − i )
2w z (3 + i + 3 − i ) + 3 − i − 3 − i
=
− 4 z (3 + i − 3 − i ) − 3 − i − 3 + i
w 6 z − 2i
=
− 2 2iz − 6
− 6 z + 2i
w=
iz − 3

Example: 3 Find the mobius transformation that maps the points z = 0,1, ∞ into the
points z = −5,−1,3 respectively. What are the invariant points of this transformation?
Solution: The bilinear transformation is given by

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(w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) (z − z1 )(z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w3 )(w2 − w1 ) (z − z 3 )(z 2 − z1 )
Since z 3 = ∞ , we simplify the transformation
(w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) (z − z1 )
=
(w − w3 )(w2 − w1 ) (z 2 − z1 )
⇒
(w + 5)(− 4) = (z − 0)
(w − 3)(4) (1 − 0)

⇒
(w + 5 ) = z
(w − 3)
⇒ w + 5 = 3 z − wz
⇒ w(1 + z ) = 3z − 5

3z − 5
⇒ w= is the required transformation.
1+ z
To get the invariant points, put w = z
3z − 5
∴z =
z +1
⇒ z − 2z + 5 = 0
2

2 ± 4 − 20
z=
2
2 ± 4i
=
2
= 1 ± 2i
∴ The invariant points are z = 1 ± 2i

Example: 4. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points z = 0,−1, i into the points
z = 1,0, ∞ respectively.
Solution: The bilinear transformation is given by
(w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) (z − z1 )(z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w3 )(w2 − w1 ) (z − z 3 )(z 2 − z1 )
Since w3 = ∞ , we simply the transformation.
(w − w1 ) (z − z1 )(z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w2 − w1 ) (z − z 3 )(z 2 − z1 )
(w − 1) = (z − 0)(− 1 − i )
(0 − 1) (z − i )(− 1 − 0)
− z (1 + i )
w −1 = is the required transformation
( z − i)

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