CHAPTER 1: TRANSPORTATION AND THE LAWS ON TRAFFIC

Unit 1- History of Transportation

Biblical Background

Man’s need to travel dates back as early as the creation of man Biblical passages allege that
when Adam and Eve ate the fruit of the forbidden tree. They were sent out by God from the
Paradise of Eden.
Since then, the human race has expanded and out ancestors started to move from one place to
another to enable them to survive. Other biblical passages mentioned that Moses was chosen
by God to speak to the Pharaoh to let the Israelites out from Egypt and into the Land of
Promise.

Soon, others become nomadic. They constantly migrated from one place to another according
to their own knowledge of exploitable resources.

Various Ancient Modes of Transportation

A. Manpower- the early man, who had no domesticated animals carried his own burdens. More
so today, manpower is important in transportation in many parts of the world.

1. Carrying Pole- In China and other parts of the Far east. The carrying pole. Balance on one
shoulder. Was a popular carrying device. On islands of the Pacific, the ends of the pole are
supported by two men, with goods suspended from the pole in between.

2. Back Load and Tumpline- in many parts of the world, goods are carried on the back. In
subtemala, pots are carried on wooded framework supported by a tumpline across the
forehead. In the Andes, the load is held on the back by a strap passing over the chest.
3. Sledge on Rollers- The moving of heavy burdens was done by placing them on sledge that
rested on a series of rollers

4. Sledge on Runners- a simple sledge, probably man-drawn, was in use at the end of the Old
Stone Age, as evidenced by fragments of wooden runners that survived

5. Travois- a pole arrangement that serves as a platform on which the burdens are placed

B. Animal Power- the domestication of animals greatly increased the potential power available
for transportation. Pack animals were introduced as conveyances mainly to save labor. A man
can tend several pack animals moving together, each of which can carry more than he usually
can. Little advantage in speed is gained unless part of the animal’s carrying capacity is
sacrificed.

1. Ox- first domesticated in Mesopotamia, Ox and Cattle were used as draft animals to draw
war chariots
2. Reindeer- they were first domesticated in Siberia; famous for being identified with Christmas
personality Santa Claus, they drew sledges somewhat like the dog sledges of the Far North
3. Dog- in the Far Northern Hemisphere, the dogs team drawing sledges are the chief means of
transportation
4. Donkey- or ass, was first domesticated in the Middle East. Donkey caravans carry goods
between the cities of Southwest Asia and Egypt
5. Llama- in pre-columbian America, Llama was the only new world animal other than the dog
that is capable of domestication for use in transportation
6.Elephant- The Carthaginians used African elephants in their war against Rome but until recent
centuries, these animals had been untamed. In Burma and Thailand, these animals are widely
used in the lumber industry
7. Horse- around 2,000 B.C., horse- drawn chariots appeared in Southwest Asia and 1,000 years
later, the Persians arrived with cavalry which gave mobility and power to the German tribes
who invaded Europe and to the Central Asian conqueror, Genghis Khan
8. Camel- there are two kinds of camel, the Central Asian two-humped Camel and the one-
humped specie of the Middle East. Both have long been used for transport. The one-humped
specie has less endurance but is fleeter and fast, and were being bred by Arab nomads.
9. Yak-a long-haired type of cattle that lives at high attitudes on the Tibetan Plateau and in the
neighboring mountain regions. It is used as a pack animal at heights where horses and other
ordinary animals cannot survive

C. Wind Power- man realized that energy from the mass of moving air has a powerful push and
utilized such powers to lift rather than to drag. This paved the way for the invention of air-lifted
transportation vehicles.

1. Ancient Chinese Kite- kites have been flown as a popular pastime in the Far East since the
beginning of history. Based on a Korean tradition. The kite was first used for transport when a
Korean general employed one in bridge building. By means of a kite, a cord was conveyed
across the river where heavier ropes were fastened and finally the bridge capable. In the late
10th century, several European armies experimented with kites in transporting men.

2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter – the great renaissance artist Leonardo Da Vinci made a study of the
flight of the birds and sketched a number of ornithopters that derived its principal support and
propelling from the flapping wings like those of a bird

3. Montgolfier Balloon- the French brothers Joseph Michael and Jacques Entienne Montgolfier
have successfully released several balloons when they propose to use two condemned
prisoners for the first ascent with passengers. Pilatre de Rozier, a natural historian protested
this and claimed the honor for himself. In 1783, he and the Marquis d’ Arlanoes became the
first men to make a free balloon ascent. The balloon, constructed of linen and inflated with hot
air, traveled 9,000 yards and remained in the air for 20 minutes.
4. Siemen’s Rocket Plane- Enst Werner von Siemens, in 1847 designed rocket plane which was
to be propelled by the explosive force of gunpowder
5. Lilienthal Glider- Otto Lilienthal, a German inventor who also made a study of the flight of
birds went further than Da Vinci by building ornithopters with gliders, In 1891, he made a first
of a number of glider flights which were to exert a profound influence on the development of
aviation.
6. Santos Dumont’s Airship- one of the pioneers of lighter-than-air craft, Dumont, A Brazilian
experimented with the steam-powered balloons in Paris. He made his first balloon ascent in
1897 and in 1898 completed the construction of his first airship. He then built several other
airships and in 1901, made a 30-minute round trip flight between St. Louis and the Eiffel Tower
7. Wright Brothers’ Flying Machine- inspired by Lilienthal’s glider experiments. Orville and
Wilbur Wright began studying the problems of heavier-than-air flights. They built biplane kites
and over 200 different wing types which they tested inside a wind tunnel before they
conducted their first-man carrying powered machine. This flew successfully at kitty Hawk, North
Carolina on Dec. 17, 1903. By 1909, airplanes became sufficiently accepted to justify beginning
commercial manufacture of the flying machine.
8. Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis- following the initial flight of the wright brothers, the
development of aviation was rapid the fir airmail was developed in 1911 and World War I gave
an impetus to plane design and the training of pilots. The first solo flight from New York to Paris
was made by Capt. Charles Lindbergh in May 1927 in a plane especially built for the flight, the
spirit of St. Louis

Roads and Vehicles History

As man, from ancient times to the 20th century sought to make their transport facilities more
efficient, efficient they have always endeavored to move people and property with the least
expenditure of time, effort, and money.
The following are some of the inventions and innovations, and important events that lead to
modern land transportation

Wheel- Probably invented in Western Asia, the invention of the wheel was a milestone and a
great step forward in transportation. The wheel was one of man’s greatest inventions. It
enabled him to transport burdens that are beyond the power of man or animals to drag, and
permitted much greater facility of movements than the simple sledge on rollers.

The roman road networks being the first major road builder in the ancient world, the Romans
were able to construct a total of 50,000 miles of major roads, with feeder roads branching out
from the main highways. It was a costly undertaking as its deep foundation, formed by layer of
heavy stones, was necessary to make roads that would carry heavy traffic for many years.

After the fall of Rome in the 15th century, land haulage generally decline because highways
suffered from inadequate maintenance. Such developments, however, gave rise to the
development of transportation improvements such as the horse collar (10 th century), the use of
coach springs, new methods of road construction, and the introduction of toll roads (18 th
century). All these improvements continued to ease and speed up land travel. Significant
improvements of road vehicles began with the adaptation of COACH SPRINGS at about 1650.

The Invention of Bicycles

The invention of bicycle in the early 19th century served as a nursery of automobile builders.
One of the modern ancestors of the modern bicycle was the HOBBY HORSE, or the DAN HORSE.
Its wheels were made of wood, with iron tires, and the riders pushed themselves along with
their feet on the ground

a. Karl Von Drais- a German Baron who introduced in 1917 a steer-able wheel;, creating the
draisienne or the “dandy horse”
b. Kirkpartick MacMillan- a Scottish blacksmith who made the first machine with pedals, which
were attached to and drove the rear wheel by means of cranks.

John L. McAdam- he did not abandon the theory of feeder road building and perfected the
macadamized road in England about 1815

John Palmer- he introduced the first fast mail coach in 1785; by 1800’s the English Coach
System was in full swing

John Boyd Dunlop-he invented the first pneumatic tire at about 1888. Pneumatic tires are
inflated b air and are used widely in the modern times

The Inventions of the motor Vehicles

The first mode of transportation to challenge the railroads were the motorized vehicles.

a. Nicolas Joseph Cugnot- The very first self-powered road vehicles were powered by steam
engines and by that definition Nicolas Joseph Cugnot of France built the first successful
automobile in 1769- recognized by the british Royal Automobile Club and the Automobile Club
de France as being the first.
b. Etiene Lenoir- a Frenchman who made possible the introduction of motorized carriages by
his invention in the 1860’s and 70’s of the INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
c. Nicolas Otto and Gottlieb Daimler- pioneered the manufacture of gas engines, and later
became successful automobile manufacturers; contrary to common beliefs, they are not the
first ones to build the automobile
d. Rudolf Diesel- a German engineer who develop an internal combustion engine similar with
the gasoline engine but does not required electrical ignition system or carburetor and uses
other form of liquid fuel- the diesel fuel or crude fuel
e. Henry Ford- introduced the Model T. which was proved so popular that by 1914, ford had
adopted Mass Production methods to meet the demand
f. Felix Wankel- a German mathematician who developed an advanced-type engine, name
after him, which operated very differently from gas and diesel engines, It is started by a moving
crankshaft
g. Karl Benz- in 1995 German Mechanical Engineer, Karl Benz designed and built the world’s
first practical automobile to be powered by an internal combustion engine. On January 29,
1886, Benz received the first patent (DRP no. 3743) for a gas-fueled car. It was three-wheeler

History of the Internal Combustion Engine- The Heart of the Automobile

An internal combustion engine is any engine that uses. The explosive combustion of fuel to
push piston within a cylinder- the piston’s movement turns a crankshaft that then turns the car
wheels via a chain or a drive shaft. The different types of fuel commonly used for car
combustion engines are gasoline (or petrol), diesel, and kerosene

A brief outline of the history of the internal combustion engine includes the following
highlights:

 1680 Dutch physicist, Christian Huygens designed ( But never built) an internal
combustion engine that was to be fueled with gun powder
1807 - Francois Isaac de Rivaz of Switzerland invented an internal combustion
engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel. Rivaz designed a car
for his engine - the first internal combustion powered automobile. However, his
was a very unsuccessful design.

 1824 - English engineer, Samuel Brown adapted an old Newcomen steam engine
to burn gas, and he used it to briefly power a vehicle up Shooter's Hill in London.
 1858 - Belgian-born engineer, Jean JosephÉtienne Lenoir invented and patented
(1860) a double-acting, electric spark-ignition internal combustion engine fueled
by coal gas. In 1863, Lenoir attached an improved engine (using petroleum and a
primitive carburetor) to a three-wheeled wagon that managed to complete an
historic fifty-mile road trip. (See image at top)
  1862 - Alphonse Beau de Rochas, a French civil engineer, patented but did not
build a four-stroke engine (French patent #52,593, January 16, 1862).
 1864 - Austrian engineer, Siegfried Marcus*, built a one-cylinder engine with a
crude carburetor, and attached his engine to a cart for a rocky 500-foot drive.
Several years later, Marcus designed a vehicle that briefly ran at 10 mph that a
few historians have considered as the forerunner of the modern automobile by
being the world's first gasoline-powered vehicle (however, read conflicting
notes below).
 1873 - George Brayton, an American engineer, developed an unsuccessful two-
stroke kerosene engine (it used two external pumping cylinders). However, it was
considered the first safe and practical oil engine.
 1866 - German engineers, Eugen Langen and Nikolaus August Otto improved on
Lenoir's and de Rochas' designs and invented a more efficient gas engine.
 1876 - Nikolaus August Otto invented and later patented a successful four-stroke
engine, known as the "Otto cycle".
 1876 - The first successful two-stroke engine was invented by Sir Dougald Clerk.
 1883 - French engineer, Edouard Delamare-Debouteville, built a single-cylinder
four-stroke engine that ran on stove gas. It is not certain if he did indeed build a
car, however, Delamare-Debouteville's designs were very advanced for the time -
ahead of both Daimler and Benz in some ways at least on paper.

 1885 - Gottlieb Daimler invented what is often recognized as the prototype of the
modern gas engine - with a vertical cylinder, and with gasoline injected through a
carburetor (patented in 1887). Daimler first built a two-wheeled vehicle the
"Reitwagen" (Riding Carriage) with this engine and a year later built the world's
first four-wheeled motor vehicle.
 1886 - On January 29, Karl Benz received the first patent (DRP No. 37435) for a
gas-fueled car.
 1889 - Daimler built an improved four-stroke engine with mushroom-shaped
valves and two V-slant cylinders.
 1890 - Wilhelm Maybach built the first four-cylinder, four-stroke engine.

Engine design and car design were integral activities, almost all of the engine
designers mentioned above also designed cars, and a few went on to become
major manufacturers of automobiles.

 All of these inventors and more made notable improvements in the evolution
of the internal combustion vehicles.

From the Ford Era, The demand for vehicles became great for the transportation of goods, products,
communications and people Hence, man started manufacturing large cargo trucks and buses for mass
transportation
Presently, the introduction of the Light Rail Transit systems, flyover, pedestrian and vehicle culverts,
rock sheds, and other modern traffic ways contributed to the expeditious movement of traffic users
"The new mechanical wagon with the awful name automobile has come to stay..." New York Times
(1897 article)
The New York Times' mention of the name “automobile” was the first public use of the term by the
media and eventually helped to popularize the name for motor vehicles. Credit for the name, however,
actually goes to a 14th century Italian painter and engineer named Martini

While he never built an automobile, he did draw up plans for a man-powered carriage with four wheels.
He came up with the name automobile by combining the Greek word "auto" -- meaning self -- and the
Latin word, "mobils," which means moving.
The other popular name for an automobile is the car, derived from Celtic word "carrus," which means
cart or wagon

what other names for motor vehicles have famous automobile inventors used? Lets check the names
they used in their patent applications

Oliver Evans applied for a U.S. patent in Philadelphia in 1792 for an invention he called "oruktor
amphiboles," 
George selden received a patent for something he called a "road machine" in 1879
The Duryea brothers patented their "motor wagon" in 1895.
Henry Ford Called his 1896 car a “Quadricycle”

UNIT2- Traffic Control

Fundamentals Of Traffic Control

Traffic control generally refers to the procedures, devices, and communication systems that help
vehicles and vessels safely share the same roads, rails, waterways, or air space. It establishes a set of
rules and instructions that vehicle, vessel and aircraft operator rely on to avoid travel hazards and
dangers, particularly collision. Another objective of traffic control is the safety of pedestrians using the
roads and streets.
In land transportation, traffic control refers to a system of traffic engineering, rules and regulations, and
devices to relieve vehicular congestion and air pollution, and to promote safety and pedestrian mobility

The primary emphasis of traffic control is on the safe and efficient control of land vehicles over urban
streets and highways. The means of promoting this can vary from simple installation of traffic signs and
pavement marking to constructing more comprehensive motorway control systems.

Different Traffic control Systems that may be Employed

a. Access- road meters that will monitor and control motorway;
b. Closed- circuit television surveillance that will detect traffic flow deterioration;
c. Emergency services in case of traffic accidents;
d. Use of one-way streets;
e. Enforcement of traffic flow regulations
f. Building traffic islands, turning lanes, etc. ( Channelization); and
g. use of traffic sign and signals

Devices used in Traffic control

Motorists depend on traffic control devices to avoid collisions and travel safely to they destinations.
Traffic control devices include sign, signal lights, pavement marking and a variety of devices placed on ,
over, near, or even under the roadway( Delizo 2006)

Traffic signs

Traffic signs or road signs are signs erected at the side of or above roads to give instructions or provide
information to road users. About directions, speed limit, and road conditions. With traffic volumes
increasing over the last eight decades, many countries have adopted pictorial signs or otherwise
simplified and standardized their signs to overcome language barriers, and enhance traffic safety. Such
pictorial signs use symbols (often silhouettes) in place of words and are usually based on international
protocols. Such signs were first developed in Europe, and have been adopted by most countries to
varying degrees.
These international road signs were adopted at the 1968 Vienna convention on Road Signs and Signals
of which the Philippines is a signatory

Traffic signs can be grouped into several types. For example, Annexe 1 of the Vienna Convention on
Road Signs and Signals (1968), which on 30 June 2004 had 52 signatory countries, defines eight
categories of signs:
A. Danger warning signs- is a type of traffic sign that indicates a hazard ahead on the road that may not
be readily apparent to a driver.
B. Priority signs- indicate the order in which vehicles should pass intersection points
C. Prohibitory or restrictive signs- are used to prohibit certain types of maneuvers or some types of
traffic
D. Mandatory signs-
E. Special regulation signs
F. Information, facilities, or service signs
G. Direction, position, or indication signs
H. Additional panels

A. Danger Warning Signs- these signs are also known as “caution signs”. They have an equilateral
triangular shape and having red boarders. Danger warning signs are intended to:
- warn motorists of approaching hazardous road condition;
-seek caution for the approaching road hazards; and
- call for the reduction of speed

B. Regulatory Signs- these signs impose legal restrictions applicable at particular location and usually
enforceable even in the absence of such signs. These are intended to inform road users of certain laws,
regulations, special obligations, instructions, or prohibitions which they must comply with

Regulatory signs are usually round in shape, with the exception of the “Stop” and Yield” signs
Regulatory Signs are further classified into:
a. prohibitive/restrictive signs; and
b. mandatory signs

c. Informative Signs- these signs are also known as “guide signs” or direction signs. The rectangular
shape with white color on blue for informative signs. Green background is used for route markers and
destination signs.
Informative signs are use to :
-guide motorist along established routes;
- inform the motorists of the proper roads; and
-help motorists along the way in the most simple and direct method
 DANGER WARNING SIGNS

RIGHT HAND CURVE School Ahead Steep Ascent

Major Road Ahead Left Reverse Bend Cross road

REGULATORY SIGNS

Traffic Signal lights is a power-operated traffic control device that controls and directs the flow of
vehicular as well as pedestrian traffic. It is usually located at junctions and intersections and provides
safety both to vehicles and pedestrian using the road.

A traffic light is composed of three colors that alternately flash to indicate a particular action to a group
of vehicles or pedestrians on the road.

Basic Traffic Light Colors and their Meanings:

a. red- means stop; the vehicles must not move and allow the vehicles on the other side to pass
b. yellow- cautionary; prepare to move/stop; vehicles in “stop” formation will prepare to move forward.
Those that are still moving will prepare to stop once red light flashes
c. Green- mean go; vehicles in the “stop” formation will now move forward

It is understood that when the green light on one side of the traffic light is flashing, the red light on the
other side will flash simultaneously. This will will ensure that through obedience of the signals, collision
will not happen in an intersection where opposing traffic occurs;
However, in the event where traffic enforcers are manning the intersection , their instruction supersede
the directions of the traffic light.
Classification of Traffic Signal Light
a. traffic control signals- designed primarily to control and regulate traffic
b. special pedestrian signals- provide regulation for pedestrians like the “walk and “do not walk” signal
light
c. Train approach and gates signals- these are usually installed on road-rail intersection designed to
inform motorists of any approaching train on the interserction
d. special traffic signals – these are installed on traffic ways where special regulations are emphasized
such as “YIELD TO VEHICLES COMING FROM THE LEFT”, and to construction sites and other industries

STOP

CAUTION

GO

Pedestrian Signal- are coordinated with the red signal and the green signal

The objective of traffic signal time apportionment is to secure movement with safety through an
intersection with a minimum of delay

The following definitions will be useful to traffic enfocers in understanding the sequence of traffic signal
operations:

a. Interval- the time within which the traffic indication of any particular traffic signal face does not
change
b. Cycle- the total time required for one signal
c. Phase- a part of the total time cycle allocated to any traffic movement receiving the right of way
during one or more intervals

The duration of intervals, cycles and phases are usually expresses in seconds. The total time required for
the complete sequence of phase is known as the cycle length.

Signal System- is created when any two or more signals on any traffic route or roadway are coordinated
with a fixed time relationship among the several intervals

Pavement Markings and Signals

Modern roads and highways have pavement marking to help motorists drive safely. These include
center lane lines, barrier lines and directional arrows, depending upon the type of highway and the
needs for such marking to make the road safe under varying conditions

Pavement marking pertains to all lines, patterns, words, colors, or other gadget except signs set into the
surface or applied upon or attached to the pavement or curbing or to objects within or adjacent to the
roadway, oficially placed for the purpose of regulating, warning or guilding traffic.

Knowledge and obedience to what pavement markings indicate is very important, especially that there
are traffic instructions and directions that traffic signage and signal lights can not effectively related to
the motorists and pedestrians

TYPES OF PAVEMENT MARKINGS AND MARKER

A. Regular Pavement Markings- these are white and yellow lines or a combination of both officially set
on the roadway as separation for motor vehicles traveling in the opposite direction or in the same
direction. Pavement markings are useful in providing safety to motorists, especially in preventing
collissions on the road. These will control the movements of the vehicles by preventing overlapping
especially on two-way streets where the danger of collision is greater.

1. Pavement Markings on a two-lane two-way street- The two vehicles are traveling on opposite
directions, separated by a white broken line

2. Pavement Markings on a two-lane one-way street- the two vehicles on the same direction with a
white broken line separating them.
3. Pavement markings on a four-lane two-way street- both pair of vehicles in the upper and lower-
portion of the illustration travel on opposite directions. They four-way lane is divided into two by a
white solid line. A barrier may also be placed instead the solid line
4.Pavement Markings on a four-lane one-way street-both vehicles in the upper portion travel in the
same direction while the vehicles in the lower portion travel also in the same direction but opposite the
directions of the vehicles on the upper portion

B. Curb Markings for Restriction- these are markings placed on the ccurbs or edges of the road for
restriction or for parking regulation purposes
Curb Marking for Parallel Parking

C. Object Marking- These are markings place on object on the road or beside the road, like humps, rocks
or similar hazardous objects on the roadside.

Object Marking on a Road Hump

D. Reflectorized Markings- these are markings or gadgets designed to reflect and become luminous
when hit by vehicle’s headlight ( a hump may also reflectorized) these are placed or installed in the
middle of the roadway to supplement separation lines or on object at the side of the road which are too
near or within the road pavement itself

Specific Meanings of Pavement Markings:

a. Single White Dotted Line- This indicates the following

- on two lane road, it separates traffic moving in opposite directions
- on a one-way street, it separates traffic moving in one direction
- overtaking is possible when other lane is clear of oncoming traffic
B. Single white Continous Line in a Two-lane traffic Way- indicates the following
- separates traffic moving in opposite direction
- could be found in road sections that are dangerous
- passing and overtaking can be made by ONLY under circumstances when there is no oncoming traffic

C. Single Continous Line on a Four-lane Road- indicates the following:

- when there are slow and fast lanes. NEVER overtake by passing over the solid white line
- lanes 1 and 4 ( outsider lanes ) are for slow moving vehicles
- lanes 2 and 3 are usually for faster moving vehicles

D. Double yellow Line or Double white Line- indicates:

- ABSOLUTELY NO OVERTAKING
- Overtaking is extremely dangerous
- Stay in your lane until pass the end of the solid lines

e. Single Yellow/White Line- A yellow or white line with a broken white line means:
-overtaking is prohibited if the solid line is on the motorist’s side
- if the driver overtakes, he must return to his lane BEFORE the solid line

F. - common on mountain roads, this line indicates the following:

- slow moving vehicles such as buses and trucks
- heavy trucks to use the outerlane
- inner lane is for vehicles to pass without having to use the outerlane for vehicles coming from the
opposite direction
- vehicles coming from the opposite direction should not use the inner lane at the other side for over
taking
G. Crosswalk or Pedestrian Lane- a pavement marking that indicates:
- for pedestrian crossing
- stop for pedestrian in an intersection with no traffic light
- DO NO STOP on pedestrian lane especially to load or unload passengers
- Pedestrians should always cross a streen on a crosswalk

H. Directional Arrows- these pavement markings indicate the following traffic regulatons:

- directions of permitted traffic movement

- when approaching intersections where pavement arrows are sed, motorists should enter the lane
where the arrow points in the direction of where he wants to go
- if a motorist gets in the wrong lane, he should keep going in the direction indicated by the arrow until
it is safe to turn off and get back on the street or highway which will carry him to his destination
- some arrows are double- headed indicateing traffic going in two direction
I. Stop lines- these are painted across pavement lanes at traffic signs or signals where these lines are
present, motorists should stop behind the stop line

J. Barrel Lines- a new concept in reducing the seriousness of accidents. The barrels are engineered to act
as impact cushion. Usually installed in front of a solid obstacle or traffic island at an area of high accident
frequency

Traffic Islands
 Traffic islands are areas within the roadway constructed in a manner that will establish physical
channels through which vehicular traffic is guided
Traffic islands, as traffic control devices are designed to segregate pdestrians from vehicles, and control
the steam of traffic in order to minimize conflictm expedite traffic flow and increase safety.

Classifications of Traffic Islands

1. Pedestrian Barrier- these are constructed between pedestrian sidewalk and the road pavement to
prevent pedestrian from straying into te roadway and motor vehicles from straying into sidewalks,
Pedestrian Islands are islands located in the middle of the streets used by pedestrains to seek refuge
before continuing crossing on the opposite side of a relatively wide street,

2. Traffic Islands- these are the raised portion in the middle of the traffic way constructed to separate
the streams of motor vehicles traversing on opposite directions and at the same time preventing
motorists from using the opposite lane for overtaking. Traffic islands are further divided Into three sub-
classes, namely:

a. Division islands- constructed primarily to divide the streams of motor vehicles

b. Channelizing island – constructed tp direct the flow of traffic
c. rotary island- constructed along “rotundas” for purposes of turning around

CHAPTER II: TRAFFIC LAWS, RULES AND REGULATIONS

Unit 1. Pertinent Laws pertaining to traffic in the Philippines

The standards of regulating movements on roads, streets, and highways are found in traffic laws, rules
and regulations.
In the Philippines, the mass of traffic laws, rules and regulations have their sources in laws, Presidential
Decree, Executive Orders, Letters of instruction, administrative Orders, Memoranda, and relative special
laws on traffic

Sources
The following are the basis for the traffic regulations and prohibitions in the county
Republic Acts:

a. R.A 4136. This is the basic law regulating land transportation in the Philippines. It has repealed Act no.
3992
b. R.A 6539. The act which is known as the “Anti Carnapping Act of 1972”, the act preventing and
penalizing carnapping
c.  R.A 5448. Act imposing a tax on privately owned passenger automobiles, motorcycles and scooters,
and a science stamp tax, to constitute a special science fund defining the programs, projects and
activities of science agencies to be financed there from and for other purposes
d. R.A 8749. Also known as the “Clean Air act” which regulates emission of toxic gases of both gasoline
and diesel engines and bans the use of leaded gas for gasoline engines
e. R.A 8750. It provides for the attachment of seat belts for all types of motor vehicles and imposes
penalty for the non-compliance thereof
f. R.A 7924. The Act creating the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority, defining its powers and
functions, providing funds therefor and for other purposes.

Presidential Decrees

 a.P.D No. 96. Regulating the use of sirens, bells, horns, etc.,, by prohibiting the attachment of any
siren, horn bell, etc. on motor vehicles which produce unusual or startling sounds as well as blinkers
and other similar devices unless the vehicle belongs to the AFP, NBI, LTO, PNP, BJMP, hospitals
and Fire Departments and are specifically intended for use in emergencies.
b. P.D No. 101. Expediting the methods of prescribing, redefining or modifying the lines and modes
of operations of public utility motor vehicles in the Philippines.
c. P.D No. 207. Declaring as part of the laws of the Philippines the Vienna Convention on Road
Traffic, Signs and Signals.
d. P.D No.612. Requiring compulsory insurance for all types of vehicles against third party liability
as an additional pre-requisite for registration by the LTO.
e. P.D 1686. Imposing a tax on every motor vehicle equipped with air conditioner.
f. P.D 1181. Providing for the abatement of air pollution from motor vehicles and for other purposes.
g. P.D 1605. Granting the Metropolitan Manila Commission certain powers related to traffic
management and control in Metropolitan Manila providing penalties, and for other purposes.
h.P.D 98. Regulating the insurance of license plates of all motor vehicles.
i. P.D 109. Modifying P.D 98.
j. P.D 1729. Authorizing the Bureau of Land Transportation to dispose of impounded motor vehicles
unclaimed by owners for a certain period of time.
k. P.D 1730. Declaring the syndicated printing, manufacture, distribution, possession or use of fake
official Bureau of Land 

Executive Orders

a. E.O 125. Reorganizing the DOTC, defining its powers and functions and for other purposes. ›
b. E.O.266. Providing for two service units in the office of the Asst. Sec. for land Transportation in the
DOTC (Law Enforcement Service-LES and Traffic Adjudication Service-TAS), defining the powers and
functions thereof and for other purposes. ›
c. E.O. 202. Creating the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB). ›
d. E.O. 248. Empowering the Land Transportation Commission to control and supervise the operations
of motor vehicle driving schools.
Significant Provision of RA 4136

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 4136

AN ACT TO COMPILE THE LAWS RELATIVE TO LAND TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC RULES, TO CREATE
A LAND TRANSPORTATION COMMISSION AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY PROVISIONS ARTICLE
ARTICLE I
Title and Scope of Act

Section 1. Title of Act. - This Act shall be known as the "Land Transportation and Traffic Code."
Section 2. Scope of Act. - The provisions of this Act shall control, as far as they apply, the registration and
operation of motor vehicles and the licensing of owners, dealers, conductors, drivers, and similar
matters.

ARTICLE II
Definitions
Section 3. Words and phrases defined. - As used in this Act:
(a) "Motor Vehicle" shall mean any vehicle propelled by any power other than muscular power using the
public highways, but excepting road rollers, trolley cars, street-sweepers, sprinklers, lawn mowers,
bulldozers, graders, fork-lifts, amphibian trucks, and cranes if not used on public highways, vehicles
which run only on rails or tracks, and tractors, trailers and traction engines of all kinds used exclusively
for agricultural purposes.

Trailers having any number of wheels, when propelled or intended to be propelled by attachment to a
motor vehicle, shall be classified as separate motor vehicle with no power rating.
(b) "Passenger automobiles" shall mean all pneumatic-tire vehicles of types similar to those usually
known under the following terms: touring car, command car, speedster, sports car, roadster, jeep, cycle,
car (except motor wheel and similar small outfits which are classified with motorcycles), coupe,
landaulet, closed car, limousine, cabriolet, and sedan.

Motor vehicles with changed or rebuilt bodies, such as jeepneys, jitneys, or station wagons, using a
chassis of the usual pneumatic-tire passenger automobile type, shall also be classified as passenger
automobile, if their net allowable carrying capacity, as determined by the Commissioner of Land
Transportation, does not exceed nine passengers and if they are not used primarily for carrying freight
or merchandise.

The distinction between "passenger truck" and "passenger automobile" shall be that of common usage:
Provided, That a motor vehicle registered for more than nine passengers shall be classified as "truck":
And Provided, further, That a "truck with seating compartments at the back not used for hire shall be
registered under special "S" classifications. In case of dispute, the Commissioner of Land Transportation
shall determine the classification to which any special type of motor vehicle belongs.
(c) "Articulated vehicle" shall mean any motor vehicle with a trailer having no front axle and so attached
that part of the trailer rests upon motor vehicle and a substantial part of the weight of the trailer and of
its load is borne by the motor vehicle. Such a trailer shall be called as "semi-trailer."
(d) "Driver" shall mean every and any licensed operator of a motor vehicle.
(e) "Professional driver" shall mean every and any driver hired or paid for driving or operating a motor
vehicle, whether for private use or for hire to the public.
Any person driving his own motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver.
(f) "Owner" shall mean the actual legal owner of a motor vehicle, in whose name such vehicle is duly
registered with the Land Transportation Commission.
The "owner" of a government-owned motor vehicle is the head of the office or the chief of the Bureau
to which the said motor vehicle belongs.
(g) "Dealer" shall mean every person, association, partnership, or corporation making, manufacturing,
constructing, assembling, remodeling, rebuilding, or setting up motor vehicles; and every such entity
acting as agent for the sale of one or more makes, styles, or kinds of motor vehicles, dealing in motor
vehicles, keeping the same in stock or selling same or handling with a view to trading same.
(h) "Garage" shall mean any building in which two or more motor vehicles, either with or without
drivers, are kept ready for hire to the public, but shall not include street stands, public service stations,
or other public places designated by proper authority as parking spaces for motor vehicles for hire while
awaiting or soliciting business.
(i) "Gross weight" shall mean the measured weight of a motor vehicle plus the maximum allowable
carrying capacity in merchandise, freight and/or passenger, as determined by the Commissioner of Land
Transportation.
(j) "Highways" shall mean every public thoroughfare, public boulevard, driveway, avenue, park, alley
and callejon, but shall not include roadway upon grounds owned by private persons, colleges,
universities, or other similar institutions.
(k) "The Commissioner of Land Transportation or his deputies" shall mean the actual or acting chief of
the Land Transportation Commission or such representatives, deputies, or assistants as he may, with the
approval of the Secretary of Public Works and Communications, appoint or designate in writing for the
purpose contemplated by this Act.
(l) "Parking or parked", for the purposes of this Act, shall mean that a motor vehicle is "parked" or
"parking" if it has been brought to a stop on the shoulder or proper edge of a highway, and remains
inactive in that place or close thereto for an appreciable period of time. A motor vehicle which properly
stops merely to discharge a passenger or to take in a waiting passenger, or to load or unload a small
quantity of freight with reasonable dispatch shall not be considered as "parked", if the motor vehicle
again moves away without delay.
(m) "Tourist" shall mean a foreigner who travels from place to place for pleasure or culture.

OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (Art I, Chapter III)

Duty to have license. — Except as otherwise specifically provided in this Act, it shall be unlawful for any
person to operate any motor vehicle without having in his possession a valid license to drive a motor
vehicle. 
"The license shall be carried by the driver at all times when operating a motor vehicle, and shall be
shown and/or surrendered for cause and upon demand to any person with authority under this Act to
confiscate the same."(sec 19)

Enlisted men operating Government motor vehicles- Enlisted men operating a motor vehicle owned by
the Government of Philippines shall be licensed in accordance with the provision of Act, but no licenses
or delinquency fees shall be collected therefrom All licenses so issued shall bear the words ‘ For
Government vehicles only” plainly marked or stamped in red ink across the face thereof.
A license so marked or stamped shall authorize the holder there to operate a private-owned motor
vehicle

Tourists- "Bona fide tourist and similar transients who are duly licensed to operate motor
vehicles in their respective countries may be allowed to operate motor vehicles during but not
after ninety days of their sojourn in the Philippines.
If any accident involving such tourist or transient occurs which upon investigation by the
Commissioner or his deputies indicates that the said tourist or transient is incompetent to
operate motor vehicles, the Commissioner shall immediately inform the said tourist or transient
in writing that he shall no longer be permitted to operate a motor vehicle

After ninety days, any tourist or transient desiring to operate motor vechiles shall pay fees and
obtain and carry a license as hereinafter provided."

"It shall be unlawful for any duly licensed driver to transfer, lend or otherwise allow any person to use
his license for the purpose of enabling such person to operate a motor vehicle.
"No owner of a motor vehicle shall engage, employ, or hire any person to operate such motor vehicle,
unless the person sought to be employed is a duly licensed professional driver.

Suspension, revocation of driver's license.

The Commissioner may suspend for a period not exceeding three months or, after hearing, revoke
any driver's license issued under the provisions of this Act, and may order any such license to be
delivered to him whenever he has reason to believe
a. that the holder thereof is an improper person to operate motor vehicles,
b. or in operating or using a motor vehicle in, or as an accessory to, the commission of any crime or act
which endangers the public
Whenever during any twelve-month period a driver shall have been convicted at least three times for
the violations of any provisions of this Act or of any regulation issued by the Commissioner or any
municipal or city ordinance relating to motor vehicle traffic not in conflict with any of the provisions of
this Act, the Commissioner may, in his discretion, revoke or suspend the license of such driver for a
period not exceeding two years

Confiscation of driver's licenses. - Law enforcement and peace officers duly designated by the
Commissioner shall, in apprehending any driver for violations of this Act or of any regulations issued
pursuant thereto, or of local traffic rules and regulations, confiscate the license of the driver concerned
and issue a receipt prescribed and issued by the Commission therefor which shall authorize the driver to
operate a motor vehicle for a period not exceeding seventy-two hours from the time and date of issue
of said receipt. The period so fixed in the receipt shall not be extended, and shall become invalid
thereafter. Failure of the driver to settle his case within fifteen days from the date of apprehension will
cause suspension and revocation of his license.
UNIT 2: General Rules of Road Use and Conduct

Traffic rules in the Philippines is based entirely on the generals rules of road use and conduct which also
includes the general prohibitions and restrictions. These rules are provided in R.A 4136

Speed Limits

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE Passengers MOTOR TRUCKS AND BUSES

SPEEDS CARS
AND MOTORCYCLE
On open Country roads with no 80km per hour 50 km per hour
“blind corners” not closely
bordered by habitations
On “through streets” or 40km. per hour 30 km. per hour
boulevards clear of traffic with
no blind corners when so
designated
On city and municipal streets 30 km. per hour 30 km. per hour
with light traffic, when not
designated “through street”
Through crowded streets, 20 km. per hour 20 km. per hour
approaching intersections at
“blind corners” passing school
zones, passing other vehicles
which are stationery or for
similar dangerous
circumstances

The rates of speed hereinabove prescribed shall not apply to the following:
(1) A physician or his driver when the former responds to emergency calls;
(2) The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to and from the place of accident or other emergency;
(3) Any driver bringing a wounded or sick person for emergency treatment to a hospital, clinic, or any
other similar place;
(4) The driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the Armed Forces while in use for official purposes in
times of riot, insurrection or invasion;
(5) The driver of a vehicle, when he or his passengers are in pursuit of a criminal;
(6) A law-enforcement officer who is trying to overtake a violator of traffic laws; and
(7) The driver officially operating a motor vehicle of any fire department, provided that exemption shall
not be construed to allow unless or unnecessary fast driving of drivers aforementioned.

LATERAL PLACEMENT

Lateral placement means the proper positioning of the motor vehicle while traversing on traffic way or
while on parked
In the philippines, unless a different course of action is rquired in the interest of the safety and the
security of life, person or property every person operating a motor vehicle or an animal-drawn vehicle
on a highway shall pass to the right when meeting person or vehicles going the same direction. When
turning to the left in going to the right of the center of the intersection of the highway

On the other hand, motor vehicles should be parked only designated areas and so properly parked
without encroaching parking stall or space of another vehicle

Driving on right side of highway. - Unless a different course of action is required in the interest of the
safety and the security of life, person or property, or because of unreasonable difficulty of operation in
compliance herewith, every person operating a motor vehicle or an animal-drawn vehicle on a highway
shall pass to the right when meeting persons or vehicles coming toward him, and to the left when
overtaking persons or vehicles going the same direction, and when turning to the left in going from one
highway to another, every vehicle shall be conducted to the right of the center of the intersection of the
highway.
Overtaking a vehicle. - The driver of any motor vehicle overtaking another vehicle proceeding in the
same direction shall pass at a safe distance to the left thereof, and shall not again drive to the right side
of the highway until safety clear of such overtaken vehicle except that on a highway, within a business
or residential district, having two or more lanes for the movement of traffic in one direction, the driver
of a vehicle may overtake and pass another vehicle on the right. Nothing in this section shall be
construed to prohibit a driver overtaking and passing, upon the right, another vehicle which is making or
about to make a left turn.
the driver of a vehicle about to be overtaken and passed by another vehicle approaching from the rear
shall give way to the overtaking vehicle on suitable and audible signal being given by the driver of the
overtaking vehicle, and shall not increase the speed of his vehicle until completely passed by the
overtaking vehicle.

Section 41. Restrictions on overtaking and passing.

(a) The driver of a vehicle shall not drive to the left side of the center line of a highway in overtaking or
passing another vehicle proceeding in the same direction, unless such left side is clearly visible, and is
free of oncoming traffic for a sufficient distance ahead to permit such overtaking or passing to be made
in safety.
(b) The driver of a vehicle shall not overtake or pass another vehicle proceeding in the same direction,
when approaching the crest of a grade, not upon a curve in the highway, where the driver's view along
the highway is obstructed within a distance of five hundred feet ahead, except on a highway having two
or more lanes for movement of traffic in one direction where the driver of a vehicle may overtake or
pass another vehicle: Provided, That on a highway within a business or residential district, having two or
more lanes for movement of traffic in one direction, the driver of a vehicle may overtake or pass another
vehicle on the right.
(c) The driver of a vehicle shall not overtake or pass any other vehicle proceeding in the same direction,
at any railway grade crossing, not at any intersection of highways unless such intersection or crossing is
controlled by traffic signal, or unless permitted to do so by a watchman or a peace officer, except on a
highway having two or more lanes for movement of traffic in one direction where the driver of a vehicle
may overtake or pass another vehicle on the right. Nothing in this section shall be construed to prohibit
a driver overtaking or passing upon the right another vehicle which is making or about to make a left
turn.
(d) The driver of a vehicle shall not overtake or pass, or attempt to pass, any other vehicle, proceeding in
the same direction, between any points indicated by the placing of official temporary warning or caution
signs indicating that men are working on the highway.
(e) The driver of a vehicle shall not overtake or pass, or attempt to overtake or pass, any other vehicle
proceeding in the same direction in any "no-passing or overtaking zone.

Section 42. Right of way.

(a) When two vehicles approach or enter an intersection at approximately the same time, the driver of
the vehicle on the left shall yield the right of way to the vehicle on the right, except as otherwise
hereinafter provided. The driver of any vehicle traveling at an unlawful speed shall forfeit any right of
way which he might otherwise have hereunder.
(b) The driver of a vehicle approaching but not having entered an intersection, shall yield the right of
way to a vehicle within such intersection or turning therein to the left across the line of travel of such
first-mentioned vehicle, provided the driver of the vehicle turning left has given a plainly visible signal of
intention to turn as required in this Act.
(c) The driver of any vehicle upon a highway within a business or residential district shall yield the right
of way to a pedestrian crossing such highway within a crosswalk, except at intersections where the
movement of traffic is being regulated by a peace officer or by traffic signal. Every pedestrian crossing a
highway within a business or residential district, at any point other than a crosswalk shall yield the right
of way to vehicles upon the highway.
(d) The driver of a vehicle upon a highway shall bring to a full stop such vehicle before traversing any
"through highway" or railroad crossing: Provided, That when it is apparent that no hazard exists, the
vehicle may be slowed down to five miles per hour instead of bringing it to a full stop

Section 43. Exception to the right of way rule.

(a) The driver of a vehicle entering a highway from a private road or drive shall yield the right of way to
all vehicles approaching on such highway.
(b) The driver of a vehicle upon a highway shall yield the right of way to police or fire department
vehicles and ambulances when such vehicles are operated on official business and the drivers thereof
sound audible signal of their approach.
(c) The driver of a vehicle entering a "through highway" or a "stop intersection" shall yield the right of
way to all vehicles approaching to either direction on such "through highway": Provided, That nothing in
this subsection shall be construed as relieving the driver of any vehicle being operated on a "through
highway" from the duty of driving with due regard for the safety of vehicles entering such "through
highway" nor as protecting the said driver from the consequence of an arbitrary exercise off such right
of way.

Section 44. Signals on starting, stopping or turning. -

(a) The driver of any vehicle upon a highway, before starting, stopping or turning from a direct line, shall
first see that such movement can be made in safety, and if any pedestrian may be affected by such
movement, shall give a clearly audible signal by sounding the horn, and whenever the operation of any
other vehicle approaching or following may be affected by such movement, shall give a signal plainly
visible to the driver of such other vehicles of the intention to make such movement.
(b) The signal herein required shall be given by means of extending the hand and arm beyond the left
side of the vehicle, or by an approved mechanical or electrical signal device.
Section 45. Turning at intersections. -

(a) The drive of a vehicle intending to run to the right at an intersection shall approach such intersection
in the lane for traffic nearest to the right-hand side of the highway and, in turning, shall keep as close as
possible to the right-hand curb or edge of the highway.
(b) The driver of a vehicle intending to turn to the left shall approach such intersection in the lane for
traffic to the right of and nearest to the center line of the highway, and, in turning, shall pass to the left
of the center of the intersection, except that, upon highways laned for traffic and upon one-way
highways, a left turn shall be made from the left lane of traffic in the direction in which the vehicle is
proceeding.
(c) For the purpose of this section, the center of the intersection shall mean the meeting point of the
medial lines of the highways intersecting one another, except when it is occupied by a monument, grass
plot or any permanent structure, other than traffic control device.

Section 46. Parking prohibited in specified places. - No driver shall park a vehicle, or permit it to stand,
whether attended or unattended, upon a highway in any of the following places:

(a) Within an intersection

(b) On a crosswalk
(c) Within six meters of the intersection of curb lines.
(d) Within four meters of the driveway entrance to and fire station.
(e) Within four meters of fire hydrant
(f) In front of a private driveway
(g) On the roadway side of any vehicle stopped or parked at the curb or edge of the highway
(h) At any place where official signs have been erected prohibiting parking.}

Section 49. Right of way for police and other emergency vehicles. - Upon the approach of any police or
fire department vehicle, or of an ambulance giving audible signal, the driver of every other vehicle shall
immediately drive the same to a position as near as possible and parallel to the right-hand edge or curb
of the highway, clear of any intersection of highways, and shall stop and remain in such position, unless
otherwise directed by a peace officer, until such vehicle shall have passed.

Section 52. Driving or parking on sidewalk. - No person shall drive or park a motor vehicle upon or
along any sidewalk, path or alley not intended for vehicular traffic or parking.

Section 53. Driving while under the influence of liquor or narcotic drug. - No person shall drive a motor
vehicle while under the influence of liquor or narcotic drug.

Section 54. Obstruction of traffic. - No person shall drive his motor vehicle in such a manner as to
obstruct or impede the passage of any vehicle, nor, while discharging or taking on passengers or loading
or unloading freight, obstruct the free passage of other vehicles on the highway.

Section 55. Duty of driver in case of accident. - In the event that any accident should occur as a result of
the operation of a motor vehicle upon a highway, the driver present, shall show his driver's license, give
his true name and address and also the true name and address of the owner of the motor vehicle.
No driver of a motor vehicle concerned in a vehicular accident shall leave the scene of the accident
without aiding the victim, except under any of the following circumstances:
1. If he is in imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any person or persons by reason of the
accident;
2. If he reports the accident to the nearest officer of the law; or
3. If he has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.

UNIT 3. REGISTRATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES

R.A. 4136 mandates that all motor vehicles shall be registered by its owner before the designated
District Offices of the Land Transportation Office. Law enforcement officers should keep themselves
abreast with the proper procedures of registering motor vehicles for them to easily identify unregistered
motor vehicles or motor vehicles having expired registrations.  On the other hand, motor vehicle
owners as well as drivers should be aware of the provisions on motor vehicle registration to avoid
unnecessary delays and penalties whenever registration-related apprehensions occur.

Classification of registered Motor Vehicles.

 Private (not for hire) - These are motor vehicles use for the personal use of their owners.
 Public Utility Vehicle (for hire)- These are registered primarily for the conveyance of passengers and
other commercial goods.
 Government- These are the motor vehicles owned by the government offices and is used for official
use purposes only.
 Diplomat – These are issued to foreign diplomats and consuls assigned in the Philippines.

Plate numbers – Upon registration, motor vehicles are assigned with plate numbers. The letter and
numeral prefixes as well as the assigned colors are based on the date and place of registrations and
purpose of the registered motor vehicle.
 Green with white background – Issued to private or not for hire motor vehicles.
 Black with yellow background – Issued to PUVs.
 Red (maroon) with white background – Issued to government owned MVs.
 Blue with white background – Assigned for foreign diplomats, consuls, and other foreign dignitaries.

 Commemorative plate - These special plate numbers are issued for specific purposes such as fund-
raising for government projects and programs.

Schedule of Registration – Registration of motor vehicles should be done annually which follows the
numerical suffixes of their plate numbers

Last Digit of Plate Number  Middle Digit of Plate Numbers  Weekly Deadline (working days
of the month only)
1. Jan 2. Feb 3. Mar 4. Apr 5. 1234567890 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
May 6. Jun 7. Jul 8. Aug 9. Sep 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
10. Oct 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 
Letters Prefixes on Plate Numbers. The letter prefixes indicates:
 Place of initial registration of the motor vehicle;
 Year if initial registration and the possible year model of the registered motor vehicle could be
determined from the order of the letter prefixes, i.e., the higher the letters the later the year of
registration and year model of the motor vehicle.

Example: Vehicle 1 = PLT 255 Vehicle 2 – TNU 636

Between the above motor vehicles, Vehicle 1 was registered earlier than Vehicle 2 and possibly, Vehicle
2’s model is later than Vehicle 2.

Special Plate Numbers for Government Officials

 President of the Philippines
 Vice President of the Philippines
 Senate President, etc.
-It is understood that no other vehicles can use these special plate numbers other than the designated
vehicles of the mentioned government positions. Other positions as determined by LTO may also
possess special numbers

Driver’s License- is a document issued to a qualified driver who possess the statutory qualification as
provided thereof. It is also a public document which has the legal presumption of genuineness

a. International Driver’s License.  Bonafide tourist and transients who are duly licensed to operate
motor vehicles in their respective countries may be allowed to operate motor vehicles during their stay
but not beyond 90 days of their sojourn in the Philippines

b. Military Driver’s License.  Enlisted personnel of the AFP operating motor vehicles

All licenses so issued shall bear the words “FOR GOVERNMENT VEHICLES ONLY” plainly marked or
stamped in red inks across the face thereof. A Military Driver’s License does not authorize the holder to
operate a privately-owned motor vehicle.

c. Professional Driver’s License.

 This licensed is issued to a driver hired or paid for driving or operating a motor vehicle whether private
use or for hire to the public. Any person driving his own motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver.
 The change of status from non-professional driver’s license does not require the holder to submit to
other test or examinations. The distinctive features of the holder of professional driver’s license are the
privilege to make driving a means of livelihood.
 Restriction - the type of category of authorized to drive is indicated on the face of the license.
 Validity- The license is valid for 3 birth years of succeeding year and automatically expires if not
renewed on due date

d. Non-professional Driver’s License.  This kind of license is issued owned of privately-owned motor
vehicles or those not for hire or paid for driving the holder of non professional license shall be restricted
operate motor vehicles up to 4500kgs. Gross vehicles weight (GVW) and is also renewable every 3 years.
The Color of its logo is green

e. Student Driver’s License.  This kind of document is issued to persons who desire to learn how to
drive. A student driver cannot operate a vehicle unless accompanied by an instructor who may either be
a licensed professional or non-professional driver.

A student permit is valid for up to 12 months only from the date of issue

Requirements for the Issuance of a Driver’s license

a. written examination
b. road test
c. mandatory drug test

Driver’s Restriction Code

When a person is issued a license. He will operate or drive vehicles according to a restriction code
indicated as follows

Restriction number Vehicle Category/weight

1 Motorcycles, motorized tricycle
2 Vehicles up to 4500 kg .GVW
3 Vehicles above 4500 kg GVW
4 Automatic clutch up to 4500 GVW
5 Automatic clutch above 4500 GVW
6 Articulated vehicle 1600 kg GVW and below
7 Articulated vehicle 1601 kg. GVW up to 4500kg .GVW
8 Articulated vehicle 4501 kg. GVW and above
9 Disabled drivers

Driver’s Condition Codes

Letter Code Driver Condition

A. Wear eyeglasses
B. Driver only with special equipment for upper limb
C. Driver only with special equipment for lower limb
D. Daylight driving only
E. Accompanied by a person with normal hearing

THE FIVE PILLARS OF TRAFFIC

Traffic Engineering

Traffic Engineering- the science of measuring traffic and travel; the effective construction and
maintenance of traffic facilities which does not only expedite the movement of traffic but also prevents
the occurrence of traffic accidents. Successful treatment have included

a. changes in layout at junctions to define priorities more clearly( use of roundabouts, traffic circles , etc
b. wider use of road markings to delineate traffic lanes and waiting areas for turning vehicles
c. improvements in skidding resistance of wet roads
d. more uniform street lightning
e. more highly visible and legible direction, information and warning signs

Traffic engineering is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering techniques to achieve the safe

and efficient movement of people and goods on roadways. It focuses mainly on research for safe and
efficient traffic flow, such as road geometry, sidewalks and crosswalks, cycling infrastructure, traffic
signs, road surface markings and traffic lights

Traffic engineering is closely associated with other disciplines:

 Transport engineering
 Pavement engineering
 Bicycle transportation engineering
 Highway engineering
 Transportation planning
 Urban planning
Human factors engineering.

Typical Traffic engineering projects may include:

Designing traffic control device installations and modification including traffic signals, signs and
pavement marking

Investigating location with high crash rates and develop counter measure to reduce crashes

Preparing construction traffic control plans, including detour plans for pedestrian and vehicular

Estimating the impacts of commercial developments on a pattern

along with computer and electrical engineers, develop systems for intelligent transportation systems.

Functions of traffic engineering

a. Fact-finding, surveys and recommendations of traffic rules and regulations
b. Supervision and maintenance to the application of traffic control devices
c. Planning of traffic regulations

Agencies under traffic engineering

a. Department of Public Works and Highways
b. Local Government Units

Objectives of traffic engineering

To achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic
To prevent traffic accident
To simplify police enforcement actions and performance
To show that good police actions and performance makes engineering plans effective
To present the close relationship of the pillars of traffic in the improvement of traffic problems.

Application of the Objectives of traffic Engineering

a. habitually congested commercial areas
b. heavily traveled thoroughfares
c. congested local areas and intersection
d. disasters or emergencies
f. school crossings

Traffics systems

Increasingly however, instead of building additional infrastructure, dynamic elements are also
introduced into road traffic management.
These use sensors to measure traffic flows and automatic, interconnected guidance systems (for
example traffic signs which open a lane in different directions depending on the time of day) to manage
traffic especially in peak hours. Also traffic flow and speed sensors are used to detect problems and alert
operators, so that the cause be take to minimize delays
These systems are collectively called “Intelligent transportation systems”

Highway Safety

Highway safety engineering is a branch of traffic engineering that deals with reducing the frequency and
severity of crashes. It uses physics and vehicle dynamics, as well as road user psychology and human
factors engineering, to reduce the influence of factors that contribute to crashes.

TRAFFIC EDUCATION

Traffic Education- When road user are informed of the traffic laws, rules and regulations, accidents are
likely prevented. Further, there are strong suggestions, accidents of benefits from pre-school schemes
involving parents, and from road safety education in school where is in integral part of the school
curriculum. Included are:
a.New approaches to training and educating young drivers
b.Training in hazards perceptions
 c.Changing of attitudes
d.enhanced publicity of traffic rules
e. education of the youth in schools

TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION

Concept
It is the process of training road users in the avoidance and prevention of traffic-related
Road safety refers to reduce risk of accident or injury on the roads. Achieved through
multidisciplinary approaches involving road engineering and traffic management, education and
training of road users, and vehicle design
 Factors contributing to accident

research studies in the united kingdom have shown that human factors contribute to 95% of
accidents, road factors to about .25% and vehicle factors to fewer than 5%

1. Human Errors include, among others

a. over-speeding
b. Failing to give at junctions
c. Following too closely
d. Overtaking improperly
e. Misperceiving or misjudging the road station ahead
f. Intoxication of alcohol or drug
g. Lack of skill
2. Road deficiencies that are main contributory factors are

a. Poor design of layout and control conjunctions

b. Inadequate signing, road marking, lighting
c. Slippery roads
d. Obstructions on the road such as parked vehicle, on going road construction

3. Main vehicle factors are:

a. Defects in tires, brakes, and lights

b. Absence or non-using of seat belts
c. Poorly maintained motor vehicles

C. LEVELS OF TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION:

1. Imparting knowledge concerning traffic safety
2. Training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety knowledge
3. Developing traffic safety morality.

F. DRIVER’S EDUCATION
In general driver instruction aims primarily to teach the rudiments of driving. Secondary aims are as
follows:
►To install awareness of one’s legal and moral responsibilities in traffic
►To teach the abilities required foe one to be eligible for drivers license.

G. FOUR (4) BASIC TYPE OF INSTRUCTION METHODS Used in Drivers Education Program:

COMPREHENSIVE- This method places the student into real life of driving situations from the
beginning
TRADITIONAL INSTRUCTION- This type of instructions depends on instructor-student
communication
 COMMENTARY DRIVING METHOD- The student driver accompanied by an instructor. As the
student-driver drives, the instructor has to give a commentary on his driving
SIMULATED CONDITIONS –The premise is that the behavior of the driver in a simulated condition
will be analogous to normal behavior. A simulator is static machine with all the important features
of a car used in driving

SAFETY CAMPAIGN-
Safe campaign are mass publicity aimed make road users behave more safely. These focus on public
information attitudes, and particular or specific behaviors, or combination of these.
Road propaganda may be intended simply to inform. Sometimes it maybe felt that the public is
already aware of the recommended behavior but there is a need to persuade them into adopting it.

BIORHYTHM

It is the theory which asserts that man exhibit a constant variations of life energy and mood state.
Man’s theorized cycles and interpretations rhythm is peculiar characteristics of most natural
phenomena like:
1. The diurnal exchange of light and darkness.
2. The four season
3. Our wet and dry season the waxing and waning of the moon.

The observation of the rhythm mentioned and their possible correlation with the habits of man has
led to a host of different theories that tried to explain this correlation in may terms like physical,
psychological, etc

The different cycles of biorhythm are:

a 23-day physical cycle,- known as the cycle of strength endurance and courage (male
component)
a 28-day emotional cycle- known as the cycle of sensitivity love and intuition (female component)

a 33-day intellectual cycle.- known as the cycle of wisdom

All of these cycles are present at the time of our birth. When the biorhythm value is said to be
“high” a person has some more energy to spare:

a. physical high- we tend to be energetic, strong and full vitality

b. emotional high- we tend to be creative, artistic, cheerful and happy
c. intellectual high- we are able to think quickly and logical

When the biorhythm value is “low” a person needs “recharge”

a. physical low- we tend to tire quickly and succumb to easily
b. emotional low- we feel moody, irritable or depressed
c. intellectual low- we find concentrating or remembering that very difficult; we are likely to use
poor judgment. This is a critical period wherein our systems seem to be in a state of transition

Important of Biorhythm in the Field of Safety

it should be borne in mind that biorhythm does not predict what actually will happen. All it does is to
give us a hint on how we will tend to feel on a certain day. The theory asserts that people accident
prone if their biorhythm is low. So theoreticaly , if we know or biorhythm, we can psychologically
cope up with any situation

LAW ENFORCEMENT

Traffic Law Enforcement- is the action taken by the police and the court to compel obedience and
ordinances regulating the use and movement of motor vehicles to traffic laws And ordinances
regulating the use and movement of motor vehicles for the purpose of creating a deterrent to
unlawful behavior by all potential violators

Concept

Order in any society is already dependent upon the uniformity of behavior by its members. In
Traffic, one of the causes of accidents is the blatant non-complaince of motorists and pedestrians t
traffic laws rules and regulation. To minimize the occurrence of accident due to non-compliance of
road users. Enforcement must be conducted. Traffic laws are an attempt to provide specifications
for conventional behaviors on the highway. The following are highly recommended in areas of traffic
enforcement
a. strengthening and simplifying the application of the law
b. new technology to aid in enforcement
c. the development of rehabilitation course like seminar for apprehended traffic violators

Traffic laws, like all other laws, reflect the belief, behavior, and standards agreed on by the society
They exists in order to identify and encourage behavior in accordance with the accepted pattern and
to deal with those who will not conform and thus, aggravate the hazards of traffic movement. Under
these considerations, the purpose of traffic law enforcement like that of the general law
enforcement is to offset selfish motivation and to condition community habits through conditioning
habits of individuals

FUNCTIONS OF TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT

A. Police traffic law enforcement- the part of traffic enforcement performed by police and other
agencies with police power including deterrent to law violation created by the presence of uniformed
police officers and their special equipment special assistance to courts and prosecutors, and incidental
services highway users
B. Court traffic Law Enforcement-the part of traffic law enforcement performed by the court through
adjudication and penalization
C. Police Court Enforcement Process- involves five essential steps which the police provide in varying
responsibilities and influences:
DETECTION - wholly police activities and entails looking for defects in the behavior motorist, pedestrian,
vehicle, equipment and roadway condition.
APPREHENSION - a police responsibility wherein the police are required action to prevent continued and
future violation.
PROSECUTION -  it is a court function, the police also provides corresponding influence through
preparation and introduction of evidence or close contact with the prosecution office.
ADJUDICATION -  it is court function, the police provides influence on this step by as a witness to the
prosecution by supplying additional evidence. It determines the guilt or innocence of the accused.
PENALIZATION - the imposition of penalty upon the accused. Penalty can be influenced by previous
records of conviction as provided by the police.

ACTIVITIES OF TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT

Preventive activities- such as preventive patrols, directing and supervising traffic, investigating accidents,
and eliminating road hazards
Persuasive activities- such as oral, written warning or visible patrols
Punitive activities- implementing penalties corresponding to the traffic violations committed by a
person; normally dealt with by the courts, police or traffic authorities

MAJOR ELEMENTS OF TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT SYSTEM

Enforcement system- consists of legislation, police, courts, and penalties. Legislation defines and
specifies correct or incorrect road user behavior
Road user system- include the people who use the traffic and roadways, The road user system can be
defined in terms of knowledge, skill, attitude and characteristic circumstances (age, sex, health, road,
experience, etc)
Traffic System- consist of the entire road and vehicle complex

Police Traffic Enforcement Actions

The part of police traffic law enforcement involving arrest, citation or warning of any person believed to
have violated traffic laws

KINDS OF ENFORCEMENT ACTIONS

Traffic arrest - the taking of a person into custody of the law. It is made when:
a) the offense is serious; 
b) detection is needed to avoid continued violation; and 
c) there is reasonable doubt that violators may not appear in court.

Traffic citation - made to compel violators to appear in court in absence of arrest.

Traffic warning - an act reminding the driver of his violation in order for him to not do it again. No arrest
or citation is made.

Traffic Patrol

Traffic patrol is a concept of law enforcement consisting of roaming around an area of responsibility
(AOR) for the purpose of enforcement and providing traffic-related services to the public enforcement
and providing traffic-related services to the public

OBJECTIVES:
Deterrence of violators
Detection and apprehension
Observation and reporting of traffic condition and road condition
Providing certain services to public

TYPES OF PATROL

Line patrol- this involves observation either in moving stationary form at a certain route or point of a
major street city. Usually this is done by foot patrol officers.
Area patrol- this involves the conduct of observation either moving patrol or observation of a certain
area which include number of streets, roads or sections of a highway. Area patrol is usually the job of
mobile police officers as well as those motorcycle cops

Examples of Actions/Conditions that may require close watching

Further Investigation
a. driving at extremely low speed
b. slow moving vehicles in “high speed lanes”
c. racing, motor sliding stops, jumping stats, and the like
d. excessive maneuvering such as backing up four or five times to get into a parking space
e. pulling to curb lane at traffic signal
f. turned on signals when not attempting to run
g. waving in roadway
h. suddenly turning off at approach of a police vehicle
i. damage or dressed up vehicle
j obscure license plate
k. teenages groups at night particularly when in two or more vehicles
l. unlighted parked cars with motor running

When faced with such situations/conditions, the traffic patrol officer will warn drivers or pedestrians
who are about to commit a violation. Confirm your observation of a driver by making a sign or signal
that his intended action is to be avoided.

Traffic Road Checks- are conducted in order to detect or inspect the following:
a. faulty vehicle and equipment
b. registration and licensing violation
c. intoxication or cargo of commercial or transportation vehicle for load weight

Types of Traffic Road Check

a. physical barrier road check
b. officer-directed road check

Consideration during Road Checks

a. minimum delay to motorist
b. thorough checking procedure
c. protection and safety of parties involved
d. timing, location and frequency

Different Aspects of Traffic Law Enforcement

a. traffic supervision- defined as keeping order on the street and highway within existing regulations to
make their use safe and expeditious
b. traffic direction- the act of informing drivers and pedestrians as to when, where and how they may or
may not move or stand at a particular place, especially during emergencies or period traffic congestion
c. traffic control- means to control vehicles and pedestrians certain points of a certain area by
mechanical devices manpower

Procedures in Conducting Manual Traffic Control

a. use hand signals to designate your decision to motorist

b. signal must be uniform and understood by motorists pedestrians
c. signals should be given verbally
d. alertness and erect posture is important to command respect
e. it is also important to look straight at the motorist to whom the traffic enforcer is directing the signal
f. a clear and crisp whistle should accompany the hand signal
g. let the free hand hang at the side; unnecessary waving may give confusion and distract motorists
h. to stop moving a lane, point at the car you intend to stop and give him the opportunity to stop

WHISTLE SIGNAL
One long blast for STOP
Two short snappy blast for GO
Three blast to be used TO ASK FOR ASSISTANCE

Procedures and Methods in Handling Different Problems and situations concerning traffic

a. Traffic Jam
A traffic congestion or traffic jam may be caused by several factors such as vehicular accidents, stalled
vehicles, road constructions, or even the absence of a traffic enforcer, It is an every day possibility for
every law enforcement officer, and he must be prepared to handle such cases

Steps to be taken in Cases of Traffic Jam:

1. Determine what caused the traffic jam

2. Whenever a traffic jam is caused by vehicular accident, conduct quick and immediate but complete
investigation and remove the vehicles involved from the scene of the accident
3. If caused by stalled vehicles assist the motorist in placing the vehicle where it will not obstruct the
traffic flow
4. Establish yourself and conduct a systematic flow of traffic
5. Implement proper traffic regulation to avoid further traffic jam

B. Abandoned Motor Vehicles

A motor vehicles is said to be abandoned when it is left unattended in an area not provided for parking
or unattended for one or two days in an area provided for parking. It is for these reason that unattended
vehicles become problems to traffic flow. In some instances, they may turn out to be more serious that
what they are originally thought of. Abandoned vehicles may be classified as ether.

a. abandoned due to mechanical effects

what to do:
1. Verify and check on the ownership of the vehicle ( plate number, registration if present)
2. If possible, advise the owner to relocate the vehicle to a much safer place
B. abandoned carnapped vehicles
what to do :

1. Get the plate number and other data of the vehicle

2. Make a report on the presence of the abandoned vehicles the nearest traffic police unit
3. Make every possible way to inform the owner
4. Bring the vehicle to the traffic police impounding area conduct a Technical inspection report in the
presence of alleged owner
5. Advise the owner to present all pertinent papers of the vehicle for the identification of the ownership
6. If the vehicle is found to have violated any provision of 6539, note its violation and together with the
Technical Inspection Report, submit it for investigation
7. Submit a duly accomplished spot report

c. Stalled or Bogged Down Motor Vehicles

in most instances, traffic accident or jams are cause by stalled or bogged down vehicles that are left
carelessly unattended highway. In such cases it is important that a traffic officer should know the basic
courses of actions in order to avoid unnecessary traffic. The following measures should be taken in cases
of stalled vehicles in the middle of the road”
1. Check the defect or condition of the vehicle
2. Ensure the safety of vehicles and person involved by conduct traffic direction in the vicinity
3. If practicable, push the vehicles to the road should’ others avail of wreckers or tow trucks to move it
4. Advise the owner of the vehicle to avail the services repairman
5. Provide early warning devices or any lantern to deter accident occurrences and provide appropriate
precautions for the safety and conveniences of the repairman, the driver and other passing motorists

D. Vehicle Cannibalization

Cannibalization is characterized by stealing parts of a motor vehicle instead of carnapping it entirely. In

case of this incident the following are precautionary measures:
1. Determine the vehicles parts that were stolen
2. Take down the name of the owner of the vehicle, the description of the vehicle and the location or
where the incident took place
3. Look for immediate possible clues that might lead to the identification of perpetrators or their modus
operandi
4. Interview the witnesses and the owner to get a general picture of the situation prior to the incident
5. Prepare a spot report and submit it to the nearest traffic police unit
6. If further investigation is necessary, the vehicle may be impounded for safekeeping

Duties and Responsibilities of a Traffic Law Enforcer

a. enforcement of traffic , ordinances, rules and regulations without fear or favor
b. assist the general public concerning traffic problems when necessary and as requested
c. the traffic officers shall not leave his post during his tour of duty without permission, except when
properly relieved by another traffic officer, in case of personal necessity or if situation requires he shall
notify his station before leaving and upon return
d. he shall respond immediately to any emergency call for police service within a responsible distance of
his post and if it is not possible, to promptly notify his station accordingly
e. he must be calm and in control of his temper under trying and provoking circumstances
f. in dealing with a traffic violator, he shall be firm but civil in manner and without obstruction traffic
flow
g. he shall be in proper uniform equipment and must personify the best image of the law enforcement
officer

SPEED LIMIT ENFORCEMENT

Speed limit enforcement is the action taken by appropriately empowered authorities to check that road
vehicles are complying with the speed limit in force on roads and highways. Methods used include
roadside speed traps set up and operated by the police and automated roadside 'speed camera'
systems, which may incorporate the use of an automatic number plate recognition system. Traditionally,
police officers used stopwatches to measure the time taken for a vehicle to cover a known distance.  But
latterly they have speed guns and automated in vehicle systems at their disposal

Many jurisdiction operate traffic violation reciprocity where non-resident drivers are treated like
Residents when they are stopped for a traffic offense that occurs in another jurisdiction. They also
ensure that penalties such as demerit points and the ensuring increase in insurance premiums follow
the driver home. The general principle of such interstate, inter-provincial and/or international compacts
is to guarantee the rule ‘ one license’ , one record

Methods of Speed limit Enforcement

Speed limits were originally enforced by manually timing or "clocking" vehicles travelling through "speed
traps" defined between two fixed landmarks along a roadway that were a known distance apart; the
vehicle's average speed was then determined by dividing the distance travelled by the time taken to
travel it. Setting up a speed trap that could provide legally satisfactory evidence was usually time
consuming and error prone, as it relied on its human operators

Average Speed measurement

VASCAR is a device that semi-automates the timing and average speed calculation of the original
manually operated "speed trap". An observer on the ground, in a vehicle or in the air simply presses a
button as a vehicle passes two landmarks that are a known distance apart, typically several hundred
metres.
Automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems that use a form of optical character
recognition read the vehicle's licence or registration plate. A computer system reads vehicle registration
plates at two or more fixed points along a road, usually hundreds of meters or even kilometers apart,
then uses the known distance between them to calculate a vehicle's average speed. From the mean
value theorem, we know that the vehicle's speed must equal its average speed at some time between
the measurements. If the average speed exceeds the speed limit, then a penalty is automatically issued.

Police in some countries like France have been known to prosecute drivers for speeding, using an
average speed calculated from timestamps on toll road tickets
B. Instantaneous Speed measurement

Instantaneous speed cameras measure the speed at a single point. These may either be a semi-
permanent fixture or be established on a temporary basis. A variety of technologies can be used:
Radar speed guns use a microwave signal that is directed at a vehicle; the Doppler effect is used to
derive its speed.
LIDAR speed guns utilize the time of flight of laser pulses to make a series of time stamped
measurements of a vehicle's distance from the laser; the data is then used to calculate the vehicle's
speed.
Sensors embedded in the roadway in pairs, for example electromagnetic induction or Piezo-
electric strips a set distance apart.
Infra-red light sensors located perpendicular to the road, e.g. TIRTL

c. Pacing
Officers in some jurisdictions may also use pacing, particularly where a more convenient radar
speed measuring device is not available—a police vehicle's speed is matched to that of a target
vehicle, and the calibrated speedometer of the patrol car used to infer the other vehicle's speed

TRAFFIC ECOLOGY/ ENVIRONMENT

Traffic Ecology/Environment- people should be educated regarding the adverse effect of traffic to our
environment that directly or indirectly affects the population’s health

KINDS OF POLLUTION THAT MAYBE BROUGHT ABOUT BY TRANSPORTATION

a. Noise Pollution- the quantification of the noise impact has formed a major component of the
environment evaluation in all studies that are undertaken. The level of noise inside and outside a
dwelling is an important indicator of the quality of life. The exact influence of traffic noise on human
behavior is not well-understood. It is known however that continued exposure to noise level beyond 70
decibels can cause loss of hearing. Environment noise can be described as any unwanted sound. Noise
from industry, traffic, homes and recreation can use annoyance, disturb sleep and affect health. Over
half of the homes in England and Wales are through to be exposed to noise levels exceeding the World
Health Organization’s recommended daytime level of 55 decibels. The number of people who reported
hearing noise from their homes has increased significantly in the last decade.

b. Vibration- this is brought about by running engine and movement of vehicle tires over the road
surface. Vibration effects can be severe particularly when there are heavy trucks

c. Air pollution- one of the more difficult problems in traffic management

In Britain, there are very few areas that are safe from air pollution. Government health standards are
exceeded many days throughout the year - in rural areas as well as urban.  It is estimated that air
pollution causes several thousand premature deaths every year.  The health of 1 in 5 people is at risk
from air pollution in the U.K.  The people who are vulnerable are young children, pregnant women, the
elderly, and people suffering from heart and lung diseases. 

The impact of air pollution on health can also be assessed in monetary terms: the cost of health care,
the cost of days of work lost, the economic cost of premature deaths. The National Asthma Campaign
has estimated that asthma costs the UK over £1 billion per year. Environmental economists have
estimated the cost of air pollution from road transport at £19.7 billion per year.

Road transport is a major source of air pollution in the UK.  In London, traffic is responsible for 99% of
carbon monoxide, 76% of nitrogen oxides and 90% of hydrocarbons.  The pie chart below shows the
contribution made to greenhouse gases by the transport sector was a fifth of the total amount produced
in the European Union in 2001 (European Environment Agency, 2002).

When pollution levels are high, the contribution of road transport is often greater. For example, analysis
by government experts shows that when particulate levels exceed health standards, then road traffic's
contribution is in the range of 75-85% (more details about carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide,
hydrocarbons and particulates are provided below).  Summertime smog, or ozone, is also caused by
traffic.  It does not come directly from vehicles or factories but is created by chemical reactions between
other nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons

D. Congestion

Problems Caused by Congestion

Congestion costs the country a lot of money.  Times spent in jams are not available for other activities;
and unpredictable and unnecessarily long journeys add costs to business.  These costs would be through
time lost to business travellers and inefficiencies in their supply chain. The Confederation of British
Industry estimates congestion costs the country's economy £20 billion a year.
Congested conditions are far more damaging to the local environment, especially local air quality, than
free flowing traffic. Fuel consumption also goes up, as the most efficient speed for most vehicles is
around 50 mph.
Drivers often find delays frustrating or irritating and they often resent being held up even if they had
nothing in particular to do with the time lost. Because their trip may be delayed people often feel they
have to leave extra time for journeys.  Using up extra time like this annoys people and sometimes it can
be hard to determine how much time to allow for congestions, as hold-ups are unpredictable in
incidence or duration. Between 1982 and 2000 the average traffic delays increased from 7 hours per
person per year to 27 hours.
Congestion makes driving more unpleasant, and can put drivers in a bad mood. It is a major source of
driver stress, and makes many people feel frustrated, angry, anxious, confused, and/or exhausted. 
Other problems congestion can cause include the following: encouraging competitive or aggressive
driving; making driving harder; limiting drivers freedom of action to travel where and when they
want; and making accidents or mishaps more likely.

Possible Solutions to Congestion

One answer is to make better use of the space available to us.  We can do this by:  managing urban
growth to make the fullest use of public transport; locate shops, leisure and entertainment, and offices
near to major public transport interchanges; and building housing within existing urban areas.
We can also change the way that we travel.  Work place or school travel plans that include car sharing,
more use of public transport, and walking or cycling can all help.  For more about school travel plans see
our travelwise or our safer routes to school pages.  The government is providing funding to help educate
people and set up new travel plans.
Working from home making use of computers and the internet, known as teleworking, can also help. 
The number of teleworkers has increased by 13% each year since 1997.  Studies estimate teleworking
could reduce car commuting by 6% by 2015.  Many companies are now starting to have virtual meetings
where the use of web cameras and the internet can allow people to attend a meeting even though they
may be in many different places.
The highways agency will also be working to manage traffic better on major roads, such as motorways.
They will establish more control centres that will monitor the motorway network and organise action
when an incident occurs.  The agency will also deploy a uniformed motorway patrol service, operating
round the clock, with powers to take action and a focus on taking whatever steps are necessary - as
soon as possible - to get traffic flowing.  It is estimated in the first two years it will be able to reduce the
delays caused by incidents on motorways by 5%.
Drivers can also make use of modern technology.  On board congestion monitors and
telecommunications has enabled several companies to offer drivers real time information about
conditions ahead of them, and options for alternative routes. Some systems can also provide automatic
notification of a collision to the emergency services, with an accurate location.  If drivers get information
about the current state of the network, where congestion is, weather conditions and incidents/collisions
before they start their journeys congestion can be avoided or reduced.  This can be gained using the
media or the internet.
With modern technology a fifth method of congestion charging is now being suggested.  This could also
change the way that road users are taxed as they could be charged for how often, when and where they
use the roads.  Advantages of general charging to use the roads would be: road pricing would make
people look at other methods of travel more; it would reduce the cost of motoring on clear roads; and it
would avoid the problems caused by only charging for a few roads as motorists would not be able to
change their routes to avoid being charged.  Researchers have suggested that a scheme like this would
cause people to use the roads that we have better and would avoid the reduction in speed across the
road network the growth in congestion is causing

No country has yet introduced a system where drivers are charged whenever they drive, mainly because
the technology was not good enough.  The government is going to introduce charging for lorries in 2006
so it will be interesting to see how well it works

REDUCING POLLUTION

Reducing Pollution
A new car meeting the latest toxic emissions standards is around 30 times cleaner than a new car in the
early 1980’s. There are three main reasons for this: improvements in fuel, cars being more fuel-efficient
and the use of catalytic converters.
Petrol used to have lead added to it get a higher octane number and therefore more power. Lead
emissions have decreased by about 91.5% since the late 1980s. This is because the amount of lead
allowed in petrol was reduced in 1985 and was banned in 2000.  In more recent times, petrol companies
have been decreasing the amount of sulphur added to petrol.
Cars are using less fuel than they used to.  It is now common to have 5 speed gearboxes (and some now
have 6) whereas the norm used to be 4.  Engines are more efficient and cars are more aerodynamic.  The
rise in the use of diesel cars has helped although these produce more particle emissions.   Fuel
consumption per passenger kilometre fell by about 10 per cent during the 1980s, as distance travelled
by passengers increased by more than fuel used by passenger vehicles. Following increases in the early
1990s, there have been further reductions, and by 2002 fuel consumed per passenger kilometre was
13% per cent lower than it had been in 1980.
Although road transport users remain the main producers of carbon monoxide, there has been a
substantial reduction in emissions since 1990. Levels have fallen sharply since 1990, from 5.5 to 2.3
million tonnes, despite increased traffic. This is primarily due to the introduction of catalytic converters
on petrol cars that help reduce toxic emission

Even though average carbon dioxide emissions from new cars have reduced over recent years,
increases in car ownership and mileage mean that total carbon emissions from road transport
haven't decreased for the last decade.  The government has set some targets for carbon emissions
and at the moment progress has not been swift enough to meet the targets.  For example, the
target for a 25% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions for 2008 set in 1998 is behind schedule (a
reduction of 9% had been achieved by 2003).  One promising way of reducing emissions is to
change the way we power our cars.  Hybrid and hydrogen powered cars have a great deal of
promise

There are several other measures that can be used to help reduce the amount of road traffic
pollution.  These include urban traffic management, junction control, parking restrictions or
traffic calming.  The table below (TRL, Report 174) outlines some possible advantages and
disadvantages of these measures.  On faster roads, such as busy motorways, reducing the speed
limit during heavy traffic can help keep the traffic moving and therefore reduce pollution

Traffic Management Schemes

Traffic Outer city/local Inner Citywide

management city/central area
measure
Urban Traffic - Fuel Not known
Control system consumption
for central area reduced 5% to
15%
Traffic signal Reduced fuel Not applicable Not known
optimisation at consumption of
isolated traffic up to 25%
signals
Different junction Emission - Very small
control changes of changes
between 5% and
20%
Public transport Bus emissions Little impact on Uncertain, but
priority reduced by up to model split probably small
60% without car changes
restraint
Park and ride May increase car Little impact on Uncertain
trips car use without
restraint
Halving parking Increased car Reduced car Reduction in
places in central model split from model split from CO2equivalent
area 61% to 67% 56% to 29% emissions
between 4% to
6%
Central area Increases in Reduction of Probably quite
traffic ban traffic outside emissions in small e.g. 5%
banned area proportion to reduction
vehicles banned
Parking control Reduction in Reduced Not known
on major urban vehicle congestion may
roads emissions of 1 to attract more
16% on routes vehicles
affected
Traffic calming Probably - Uncertain but
reduced NOx but probably small
may increase
HC, CO and fuel
consumption
Lower speed Lower exhaust Lower exhaust Small changes
limits (depends emissions emissions e.g. up to 2%
on enforcement) reduction in NOx
 

TRAFFIC ECONOMY

Traffic Economy- people should learn also to develop schemes that do not only lessen expenses by also
accidents

Transportation and the Economy

As noted in the President's Technology for America's Economic Growth, A New Direction to Build
Economic Strength, a competitive, growing economy requires a transportation system that can move
people, goods, and services quickly and efficiently. To meet this challenge, each transport sector must
work effectively both by itself and as part of a larger, interconnected whole. Technologies that increase
the speed, reliability, and cost-effectiveness of the transportation sector also will increase the
economy's competitiveness and ability to create jobs.

Today, one of the greatest challenges we face is to rehabilitate and properly maintain the huge stock of
infrastructure facilities already in place. Providing a world-class transportation sector will require the
Nation to meet the challenges posed both by increased congestion in many parts of the transportation
system and by the need to rebuild and maintain a public capital stock valued at more than $2.4 trillion.

The Federal Government is committed to leading an effort to realize the vision of "sustainable"
transportation, with the goal of balancing different modes of transportation while taking into account
performance, cost, resource use, and social impact

Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles

President Clinton and Vice President Gore have joined with the Big Three American automakers General
Motors, Ford, and Chrysler in an historic new partnership to strengthen U.S. competitiveness by
developing technologies for a new generation of vehicles up to three times more fuel efficient than
today's. It is a technological venture as ambitious as any America has ever attempted and is a model for
the new partnership between government and industry envisioned by President Clinton. It is an all-out
effort to ensure that the U.S. auto industry leads the world in technology. It will expand economic
opportunity, preserve jobs, protect the environment, and strengthen our economic competitiveness.

The long-term goal of the partnership is the development of affordable, safe, attractive, and
dramatically more efficient automobiles. Groundbreaking research and development goals for industry
and government engineering teams will be launched in three categories:

Advanced manufacturing techniques to make it easier to get new product ideas into the marketplace
quickly. Such techniques would include rapid, computer-based design and testing systems and new
automation and control systems that can lower production costs.
Technologies that can lead to near-term improvements in automobile effciency, safety, and emissions,
such as lightweight, recyclable materials and catalysts for reducing exhaust pollution.

Research that could lead to production prototypes of vehicles capable of up to three times greater fuel
efficiency. Radical new concepts, such as fuel cells and advanced energy storage systems like
ultracapacitors, will be developed to produce more fuel-efficient cars that are affordable, meet or
exceed current safety standards, and retain the performance and comfort available today.

Led by Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology Mary Good, the project will be managed by an
interagency team consisting of representatives from the Departments of Commerce, Defense, Energy,
and Transportation; the Environmental Protection Agency; National Aeronautics and Space
Administration; and the National Science Foundation. This interagency team is preparing an inventory of
government programs that can help meet the partnership goals, as a first step in rapid development of a
coordinated R&D strategy.

Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

The Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency has selected six regional coalitions in
Hawaii, Sacramento, Los Angeles, Indianapolis, Atlanta, and Boston to work on electric and hybrid
electric vehicle technology and infrastructure. The projects will focus on conversion or replacement to
electric or hybrid of small pickup trucks and medium-sized buses on military bases and installation of the
vehicle support infrastructure; conversion or purchase of electric or hybrid vehicles for commercial use
in the community, including infrastructure; research to advance the state-of-the-art on one or more
components or systems for electric or electric hybrid vehicles or for their support infrastructure; and
support activities.

Research and Technology Outreach Seminars

DOT also has begun a series of outreach seminars entitled "Promoting Transportation Applications in
Defense Conversion and Other Advanced Technolo- gies." Held in Ann Arbor, MI; Davis, CA; Cambridge,
MA; and Austin, TX, the seminars are bringing together representatives of academia, State, and local
governments, and private industry to discuss transportation and the environment, infrastructure
rehabilitation and maintenance, and new vehicle technology. DOT will use the information gathered in
these meetings to shape its Transportation Research and Technology Strategic Plan.

Intelligent Vehicle/Highway Systems (IVHS)

DOT has initiated studies aimed at having a prototype demonstration of an automated highway system
by 1997. To foster improvements in IVHS user services, DOT has begun a 3-year process to establish the
overall IVHS system architecture. DOT plans to make maximum use of defense-oriented firms'
developments in sensor technologies, high-speed computing, communications, human factors, display
technologies, and autonomous vehicle control systems. Working with Montgomery County, MD, which
is installing 200 video cameras along its roads, the Commerce Department's National Institute of
Standards and Technology is evaluating automatic vision-based surveillance to determine the types of
useful traffic information the system can obtain and how to quickly extract, analyze, and translate the
information into traffic management decisions that ease congestion and avert safety hazards.
Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS is a space-based positioning, navigation, and time distribution system designed for worldwide
military use. In May 1993, the Secretaries of Transportation and Defense established a joint task force to
examine the possibilities for expanded civil participation in the implementation, operation, and support
of the GPS. A DOD-DOT team is working to identify and resolve issues related to augmentation of the
current system and funding to provide civilian users with the necessary accuracy and integrity. The
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) defined the technical standards for GPS receivers to be used in
civilian aviation and approved supplemental use of the GPS for all phases of flight. NASA and the FAA are
testing the GPS system to investigate ways to improve navigation and collision avoidance. Full operation
of GPS is expected in FY 1995.

Climate Change Action Plan

As part of the climate change action plan released in October, the Administration is conducting a year-
long process to identify and implement policies in the transportation sector to reduce the projected
growth of greenhouse gases. This process will involve all relevant stakeholders and will consider, among
other issues, policies to increase the fuel efficiency of new personal vehicles.

Magnetic Levitation (MagLev)

High-speed magnetically levitated ground transportation is a new mode of surface transportation in

which vehicles glide above their guideways, suspended, guided, and propelled by magnetic forces at
speeds of 250 to 300 miles per hour or higher. The Administration is publishing the results of the 3-year
national MagLev initiative, a cooperative interagency effort of the Department of Transportation and its
Federal Railroad Administration, the Army Corps of Engineers, and the Department of Energy. While
questions remain about the commercial viability of MagLev, the Administration should proceed with the
development of a program. In FY 1994, $20 million was provided to continue research and analysis of
MagLev.

Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991

The Intermodal Surface Transportation Act offers increased flexibility in how states spend their
resources, thus allowing for greater flexibility and innovation. The Clinton Administration has further
increased state options by expanding opportunities for states to use Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems
and telecommunications strategies to meet their Clean Air goals. In July 1993, DOT published the
Surface Transportation Research and Development Plan to develop a range of technologies needed to
produce convenient, safe, and affordable modes of surface transportation by the mid-1990s and to
maintain a long-term advanced R&D program for next-generation systems. DOT published Intermodal
Technical Assistance Activities for Transportation Planners in August 1993 and is actively seeking
feedback to improve the quality of its assistance programs.

Aeronautics

For decades, the United States led the aviation revolution every step of the way, and America ruled the
skies. Today, the aeronautics industry is one of the largest in the country employing nearly 1 million
people in high-quality jobs, generating almost $100 billion in annual sales, and producing tens of billions
of dollars in exports.
Today's aeronautics environment, however, is extremely dynamic foreign competition, economic
deregulation of the airline industry, the end of the Cold War, and the growing concern for the global
environment have all changed the aviation industry. The Administration is committed to making the
changes required to strengthen civil aviation in the United States. NASA is addressing the technology
needs of civil aviation by expanding its investments in high-speed research, advanced subsonic
technologies, and high-performance computing and communications. The plans for these programs
have been developed and will be refined. By working closely with industry and government agencies,
NASA aims to ensure that design, manufacturing, and operations issues are addressed early in the
technology development process and to maximize its investments through effective and timely
technology transfer.

High-Speed Research (HSR)

NASA is developing the technologies that industry needs to design and build an environmentally
compatible and economically competitive high-speed civil transport (HSCT) for the 21st century. As
currently envisioned, an HSCT aircraft would carry 300 passengers at Mach 2.4 on transoceanic routes
over distances up to 6,000 nautical miles at fares comparable to subsonic transports. An HSCT would
reduce flight times from California to Japan to about 4 hours, and from California to Australia to about 7
hours. Such an aircraft will be essential for capturing the valuable long-haul Pacific Rim market. Market
studies indicate that the successful development of a domestic HSCT will result in $200 billion in sales
and 140,000 jobs for U.S. industry.

Before industry can develop this type of aircraft, environmental concerns, such as aircraft noise, sonic
boom, and atmospheric contaminants, must be addressed. An HSCT must meet not only the current
regulatory standards but also those anticipated for the early part of the next century. NASA is
sponsoring an independent, international scientific assessment to determine globally acceptable levels
of engine emissions and noise. In FY 1994, NASA will focus on technologies required to make an HSCT
economically feasible and competitive. In close cooperation with U.S. industry and the university
research community, NASA plans to develop and validate technologies for an HSCT, including advanced
propulsion systems, new structural materials, improved aerodynamic designs, and state-of-the-art flight
control and display systems.

While NASA is concentrating its investments in the early, high-risk stages of development, the aircraft
manufacturing industry has indicated that it is willing to make a substantial investment in this program
as the technological risk decreases. The High-Speed Research program aims to produce an industry HSCT
prototype around the year 2000.

Advanced Subsonic Technology

Subsonic airliners will continue to be a vital element of both long-haul and domestic air travel for the
foreseeable future, and the Administration and NASA are accelerating investments in this key area
through the Advanced Subsonic Technology Program. In partnership with U.S. industry, NASA is
developing lightweight, highly reliable optical systems; lightweight, low-cost composite structures;
highly efficient turbofan engines; and integrated wing design techniques. These R&D efforts are
intended to increase airline profitability through increased aircraft productivity, lower ownership costs,
and reduced direct operating costs, resulting in increased economic valuation of the aircraft relative to
foreign competitors.
In a collaborative effort to increase safety, FAA and NASA have successfully flight tested three types of
sensors that increase warning times to airline pilots. They also are evaluating a four-dimensional Aircraft
Traffic Management System known as the CENTER/TRACON Automation System, or CTAS, that will
enable more on-time arrivals and departures and cut fuel consumption. By early in the next century, the
combination of CTAS, GPS, and other navigation and display technologies could provide a significant
improvement in the efficiency of our national airspace system and create a market for new products.

A. TRAFFIC ACCIDNT INVESTIGATION

Concept of Traffic Accident Investigation

Fundamental Knowledge on traffic accidents and their causes is important if a police investigator is
to determine what to ask and what to look for in an accident. The existence of traffic accidents is a
common knowledge that something went wrong on the highway. It may be a wrecked car,
destroyed property, injured or possibly killed persons. In this regard, a traffic law enforcer must
have knowledge about traffic accident investigation procedures, and as always the procedure, how
to use the 4W1H style of question

What Traffic Accident Investigation Determines? It aims to know the five (5) “Ws”
and one (1) “H” of the incident:

1. WHAT happened?
2. WHO and WHAT was involved?
3. WHERE did it happen?
4. WHY did it happen?
5. HOW did the accident occur?
6. WHEN did the accident happen?

B. Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation. There are four (4) main reasons,
depending on who does the investigation:

1. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the

accident.
2. For the police – to find out whether there is enough evidence of law violation in
the accident.
3. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the
drivers involved in the accident so that damage claims can be properly adjusted
4. Officials and others want specific information about accidents to know how to
prevent future accidents.
C. Common Words and Phrases Used in Traffic Accident Investigation. The
following words and phrases with their corresponding meaning are often used in the
process:

1. Accident. It is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces

unintended injury, death, or property damage.

2. Traffic Accident. An accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.

3. Motor Vehicle Accident. Events resulting in unintended injury or property

damage attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its
loads. Included are:

a. Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;

b. Fires;
c. Explosion;
d. Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
e. Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad train or street car on
stationary rails or tracks; and
f. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in motion.

Excluded are:
a. Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water-craft in motion;
b. Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical change of the
earth surface); and
c. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power is being
loaded on or unloaded from another conveyance.

4. Motor Vehicle. Every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which is
propelled by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not
operated upon rails.

5. Key Event. An event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence
of a motor vehicle traffic accident.

6. Debris. The scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish, dust and other materials
left at the scene of the accident caused by a collision.

7. Skid Marks. These are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not free to
rotate, usually because brakes are applied strong and the wheels locked.
8. Traffic Unit. Any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other purposes
as a pedestrian or driver, including any vehicle, or animal which he is using. It
applies not only to motor vehicles but also to:

a. Pedestrians;
b. Cyclists;
c. Street cars;
d. Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles;
e. Farm tractors; and
f. Other road users in almost any combination – Example: A traffic accident
could involve a cyclist and a pedestrian.

9. Hazards. A hazard is generated when a critical space-motion relationships

between a traffic unit and another object develops due to the movement of either
or both. Example: A curve in the path is a hazard. Another traffic unit in the path
is also a hazard.

10. Safe Speed. The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road
and traffic situation ahead. Safe speed on the road is determined by the road
rather than the particular driver of a vehicle. Example: A curve ahead is a hazard
and a safe speed for it is a speed at which it can be taken comfortably.

11. Strategy. It is the adjusting of speed, position on the road, and direction of
motion, giving signals of intent to turn or slow down, or any other action in
situations involving potential hazards.

12. Tactic. Any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid hazardous situations like
steering, braking, or accelerating to avoid collision or other accident.

13. Impact. The striking of one body against another or a collision of a motor vehicle
with another motor vehicle.

14. Contact Damage. Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some
foreign object in a collision or roll over. It is usually indicated by striations, rub-off
of material or puncture.

15. Factor. Any circumstance contributing to a result without which the result could
not have occurred or it is an element necessary to produce the result, but not by
itself sufficient.
 16. Primary Cause. A misnomer loosely applied to the most obvious or easily
explained factor in the cause of an accident or the most easily modified condition
factor.

17. Cause. The combination of simultaneous and sequential factors without any one
of which result could not have occurred.

18. Attribute. Any inherent characteristics of a road, a vehicle, or a person that

affects the probability of a traffic accident.

19. Modifier. A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or temporarily.

D. Kinds of Traffic Accidents. In the investigation of traffic accidents, it is imperative

for the traffic investigator to know the kinds on accident occurred in order to map out
the necessary activities to be done when responding and investigating.

1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Refers to any accident occurring on a

traffic way involving persons using the traffic way or travel or transportation, but
not involving a motor vehicle in motion. Example: pedestrian and cyclist in a
traffic way.

2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident which occurs
entirely in any place other than a traffic way. Example: accident on a private
driveway.

3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident occurring on a

traffic way. Example: collision between automobiles on a highway.

E. Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event.

1. Running off road. This is usually characterized by a motor vehicle falling on the
roadside or on a cliff along mountainous roads.

2. Non-collision on road. This does not involve any collision, an example of which
is overturning.

3. Collision on road. On the other hand, this type of accident includes all forms of
accident as long as there is a collision. Examples of this are motor vehicle
colliding with:
a. Pedestrian – may be walking, running or standing on a roadway.
 b. Other motor vehicle on traffic – may be head on, head and rear, sides
opposite direction, sides the same direction, head and side collision, etc.
c. Parked motor vehicle – the form of collision may be similar to a moving
vehicle like head on collision, however, one is parked anywhere on a
roadway.
d. Railroad train – this type of collision usually occurs along railroad crossings.
e. Bicycle – in this form of collision, it is either the motor vehicle or the bicyclists
who initiated the collision.
f. Fixed object – traffic islands, pedestrian barriers, electric post.
g. Other objects – street cars, ice cream vendor, etc.

F. Classification of Accidents According to Severity.

1. Property Damage Accident. There is no fatal or injury to any person but only
damage to the motor vehicle or to other property including injury to animals.

2. Slight. Only slight damages to properties.

3. Non-Fatal Injury Accident. This results in injuries other than fatal to one or
more persons.

4. Less Serious. Only less serious injuries to persons.

5. Serious. This causes serious injuries to persons.

6. Fatal. This results in death to one or more persons.

G. Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents. Traffic accidents occur due to varying
circumstances and only after thorough investigation, when liability and responsibility
can be ascertained. Notwithstanding that no driver will readily accept that he initiated
the accident. With these, the traffic investigator is faced with a gargantuan task of
bringing out the truth on who should be held responsible for the unusual incident. His
primary concern will be to determine how and why the accident happened.

1. Simultaneous Factors

a. Road conditions.
b. Driver’s attitude or behavior.
c. Weather condition.

2. Sequential Factors
 a. Speed is greater or less than safe.
b. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction).

3. Operational Factors

a. Road hazards.
b. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations.

4. Perception Factors

a. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a situation.

b. Driver’s faulty action to escape collision course.

When all possible causes of an accident have been grouped together by an

investigating officer and he believes the accident would not have occurred if any one
of these causes did not exist, then the investigator may have identified the
combination of factors causing the accident.
On-the-scene reconstruction of a traffic accident relates accident causation to
direct causes for summary police action and to direct, mediate and early causes for
ongoing studies of high-frequency accident locations and future research and
analysis.

H. Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident. For the purpose of reporting, traffic

accident may usually be described well enough as a single occurrence but when
accident is investigated, attention is directed to particular stages of the occurrence.
In fact, an accident may be usually defined as a series of an expected events
leading to damage or injury. One event usually leads to another so that the series
can be spoken of as a “chain of events.” These events are described and illustrated
below:

1. Perception of Hazard. It is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the

usual or unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as sign of the
accident about to happen.

2. Start of evasive action. It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from
a collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard.

3. Initial Contact. The first accidental touching of an object collision course or

otherwise avoids a hazard.
 4. Maximum Engagement. It is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision. The
force between the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at
maximum engagement.

5. Disengagement. It is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with

which it has collided. The force between the object ceases at this time.

6. Stopping. This is when the traffic unit/s involved come to rest. It usually
stabilizes the accident situation.

7. Injury. It is receiving bodily harm. This event does not necessary occur after the
accident but within any of the chain of events. It may also happen right after the
evasive action taken by the drivers involved or during the initial contact.

8. Other events that may occur during an accident.

a. Point of Possible Perception. The place and time of which the hazard could
have been perceived by a normal person. It precedes actual perception and is
the beginning of perception delay

b. Point of no Escape. It is that place and time after or beyond which the
accident cannot be prevented by the traffic unit under consideration.

c. Perception Delay. The time from the point of possible perception to actual
perception.

d. Final Position. It is the place and time when objects involved in an accident
finally come to rest without application of power.

I. Who Conducts the Traffic Accident Investigation? In some instances, the police
traffic officers assigned in the field or highways upon learning of an accident usually
responds and conduct initial inquiries. However, police stations normally have
designated traffic accident investigators.

In cases of Major Traffic Accidents such as those that attract national media
attention or those that involve numerous victims, the local traffic investigator shall
immediately inform the nearest PNP Highway Patrol Group Office which shall then
take the lead in the investigation under the Special Investigation Task Group
(SITG) which shall be activated to manage the case. (PNP Field Manual on
Investigation of Crimes of Violence and Other Crimes, 2011)
 When the proper crime scene processing is necessary, the traffic investigators
may also ask the assistance of the Scene of the Crime Operation Team (SOCO
Team).

J. Five (5) Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation. In the investigation of traffic

accidents, the police are guided by the following stages or levels of investigation:

1. Reporting. This stage involves basic data collection to identify and classify a
motor vehicle, traffic and persons, property and planned movements involved.

2. At-Scene Investigation. This level involves all action taken by the investigator at
the scene of the crime or accident.

3. Technical Preparation. This involves delayed traffic accident data collection and
organization for study and interpretation.

4. Professional Reconstruction. This involves efforts to determine from whatever

information is available, how the accident happened.

5. Cause Analysis. This last level usually involves final analysis on the causes of
accident which are bases for the prevention of similar accident.

K. . Like in any other forms of police investigations, the traffic investigators follow
chronological steps in responding and investigating traffic-related accidents to
ensure gathering if thorough information.

1. Step One. Upon Learning of the Accident.

a. Ask first: When did the accident happen?; Exactly where was it?; How bad
was it?; Did you see the accident happened?; and Where can you be
reached?
b. Decide whether to go to the scene: Will scene have been cleared by the time
of arrival?; Is it in the investigator’s area?; and Should headquarters be
informed or consulted?
c. Then find out, if necessary: Is traffic blocked?; Has ambulance been called?;
Has wrencher been called?; and Was fire apparatus called?

2. Step Two. Start for the Scene. With two-way radio, you can do two things while
on the way.
 a. Choose Best Approach. Consider: Time; possible traffic jams; possible route
of driver involved; and probable situation at scene.
b. Drive Safely. Get there safely; if you get involved in accident yourself, then
other units must be used.
c. Be Alert for Cars Leaving the Scene: As possible witnesses or hit and run
drivers; and record registration numbers of any likely looking vehicles.
d. Get Equipment Ready for Use. So far as practical on the way.
e. Look for Conditions confronting a driver approaching Scene: Low visibility
view obstructions; and traffic control devices.
f. Note Hazards to approaching Traffic: Drop helper to direct traffic if necessary;
and look for physical evidence. Have it guarded until it can be examined,
collected or located.

3. Step Three. Upon Arrival at the Scene.

a. Select parking place carefully: Is it safe?; Will it block traffic?; and Can
headlight illuminate scene?
b. Care for injured: Stop arterial bleeding; call for help if necessary; help injured
from cars safely; protect injured from exposure; and ask for emergency
assistance from bystanders from anywhere.
c. Look over bystanders and others: Look for drivers; look for possible
witnesses; look for volunteers who will help you; and get them under control.
d. Have Emergencies Under Control: Have spilled gasoline guarded; look for fire
and electrical hazards; look for traffic hazards; put out flares; ask helper to
direct traffic; keep bystanders off roadway; and request help from
headquarters if needed.
e. Locate drivers: Consider possibility of hit and run accident; and need to alert
headquarters.
f. Measure location of short lived evidences.
g. Arrange for clearing roadway.
h. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.

4. Step Four. When Emergency is Under Control.

a. Preliminary questioning of drivers: Who was driving each vehicle?; Note

unpremeditated statement; and look for signs of nervousness, confusion and
intoxication.
b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars: Question other witnesses
especially bystanders in hurry to go; and if needed, get signed statement at
once from why who may be hard to find later.
 c. Examine drivers’ conditions: Get specimen for chemical test; and question
about trip plan for possible fatigue.
d. Question drivers carefully: Check license and record data from it; verify and
identify address; check registration and record data; verify ownership[ and
correct address; and Get step by step account of what driver saw and did.
e. Position and condition of Vehicles: Note lights and light switches; note gear
position and tires; mark position of vehicles if it must be removed; and look for
unusual thing inside the vehicles.
f. Form preliminary opinion as to how accident occurs.
g. Photography: Photograph skid mark and location of vehicles; and mark skid
mark location for later measurement.
h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be
taken.

5. Step Five. After Getting Short-live Evidence.

a. Get additional evidence: Make test skids; decide whether proof of violation is
sufficient for arrest; if so, make arrest or issue citation; get additional formal
statements, from witnesses remaining at the scene; and have road clear if
traffic is obstructed.
b. Suggestion to drivers, if necessary: How much accidents can be avoided in
the future; and tell drivers what reports they must make and dismiss them.
c. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved. Look for: View
obstructions; traffic control devices, etc.; probable points of perception; and
road surface conditions.
d. Complete examinations of vehicles.
e. Locate key event of accident.
f. Make additional photographs of: Vehicle damage; view obstruction;
pavement’s conditions; and control devices, and general view, etc.
g. Establish exact location of accident and record it.
h. Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach.
i. Review notes of evidence or testimony: Get additional facts at scene; and
identify all notes with places and time.
j. Clean up location or arrange to have it done.
k. Report to headquarters by radio or telephone. Nowadays, the cellular phone
is a ready alternative in reporting to police headquarter.

6. Step Six. After Leaving the Scene:

a. Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or hospital.

 b. Question drivers or witnesses: At hospital or home if not adequately
questioned; and take needed additional statements.
c. Notify: Relatives of dead or injured; and/or Owner of vehicles.
d. Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical or laboratory test.
e. Have photograph developed; get prints if needed for report.
f. Complete the report of the accident: Have copies made if necessary; file
report and copies; and complete factual data on investigation report if not
completed at scene.
g. Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time available for
making it.
h. Reconstruction of the accident: Estimate speeds of vehicles involved; draw
scale diagram; analyze angle of collision; get technical help if necessary; and
summarize opinions.
i. Present case summary to a lawyer.
j. Complete report or investigation.
k. Submit to superior for approval.
l. Inform other Agencies or departments of any condition at the scene which
needs attention for safety.

7. Step Seven. If Case Goes to Court:

a. Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.

b. Return to the scene if necessary for the following: Additional photographs of
general scene and long-lived evidence; measure for scale diagram for use in
court; and Locate additional witnesses and review their testimony.
c. Locate also, if necessary: Relatives and friends who confirm activities before
the accident; technicians who developed pictures, made chemical tests, etc.;
and expert who can help.
d. Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court.
e. Enlarge scale diagram made for court use.
f. Pre-trial conference with prosecution witnesses to review testimony.
g. Ensure that subpoenas are issued.
h. Testify in court.
i. Organize papers and file permanently, if necessary, for future reference.
j. Ensure that the disposition of case is recorded in driver’s record and other
reports.

L. The Traffic Accident Report. In the preparation of the traffic accident investigation
report, the officer of the case must consider the following:

1. Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System.

 2. Preparation of Traffic Accident Report:
a. By a competent, bonafide traffic accident investigator.
b. Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report such as evidence
gathered, diagrams, sketches as well as sworn statements of witnesses.

Traffic Accident Investigation Report will be accomplished in five (5) copies for: the
Court or Prosecutor’s Office; TRAFCOM (TMG) or Traffic Division; the Investigator; the
Insurance company of Party-involved #1 and the Insurance Co. of Party-involved

TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Objective: Explorers should be able to investigate a traffic accident, obtain witness and victim
information, determine the cause and fault of an accident and properly fill out the state ST-3 Accident
Report form. Explorers should be able to properly clear the scene of an accident calling upon the
necessary resources such as EMS, wreckers, firemen or repair crews.

Foreword: Traffic accidents are extremely confusing events. How they occur, who or what caused them,
and why they occurred are facts that police must determine. Every peace officer must know the
fundamentals of traffic accident investigation and know how to prepare traffic accident reports. Traffic
accidents, resulting in personal injury, fatality, and property damage require an on scene investigation.

Initial Steps. Prompt arrival at the scene of an accident is essential. Safety, however, should be
emphasized at all times. While in route, the officer should maintain contact with the Dispatcher. They
should also be on the lookout for any suspicious or damaged vehicles fleeing the general area.

The following steps should be taken upon arrival at the scene of the accident.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENT SCENE INVESTIGATION

While enroute to the scene,

the officer should obtain as much preliminary information as possible concerning the accident. Such
information includes:

Location

Time of notification Who notified the officer and how

Weather and visibility conditions

General information as to seriousness of the accident--injuries, hit and run, amount of traffic congestion,
etc.

Whether or not additional support is proceeding to the scene, such as wrecker, ambulance, or additional
Police patrols
By obtaining such information prior to arrival at the scene, the investigators may more quickly and
efficiently respond to the needs of the situation

Upon Arrival at the scene

When starting a case, many investigators, especially the less experiencedones, are overwhelmed by
either the lack of or the stacks of information. Allinvestigations and reconstructions start at the resting
point of the vehicles atthe scene. The scene of the accident holds the richest and most abundantamount
of evidence and information, including:
•Location of the resting points of the vehicles
•Location of the occupants outside the vehicle, if they were ejected from the vehicle
•Location of accident vehicle debris
•Location of the skid or yaw marks from either or both vehicles
•Construction of the roadway —asphalt, concrete, or gravel
•Condition of the shoulders of the road—paved, gravel, sand, soft or hard, edge ruts, or no shoulders at
all
•Condition of the roadbed—potholes, washboard, edge nibbling, narrow lane widths, and improper or
no lane markings
•Damage to the vehicle
•Components missing from the vehicles
•Location of the missing components
•Damage to the roadbed from the vehicle interaction
•Damage to the off-road environment such as fields, lawns, orchards, culverts, and trees

Vehicles involved in a collision follow Newton’s second law of motion, “Bodies in motion will tend to
stay in motion until acted upon by an outside force.” this basically means that vehicles do not make
radical changes indirection or speed unless they strike an object or they are being struck. The only
exception known is when vehicles become airborne. When they touch the ground again, they perform
weird gyrations and movements due to the location of the center of gravity of the vehicle as well as the
uneven ground area where the vehicle is impacted

Location of the Patrol Vehicle.

The police vehicle should be positioned so as not to cause further traffic congestion or accidents. If
necessary, it may, however, be used as a roadblock. At night it should be parked so the headlights
illuminate the entire scene. At all times the emergency lights should be on to warn approaching
motorists of the hazard.

Care for injured and protect the scene.

The investigators should determine the extent of injuries, if any, to accident victims; render first aid; and
request medical assistance, if necessary. Severely injured persons should not be moved, except to
preserve their safety. The position of all victims should be noted for report purposes and, if on the road,
the positions outlined in chalk or road paint. A doctor/corner or justice of the peace makes final
determination of death. After caring for the injured, the scene should be secured to protect property
and preserve evidence. Personal property of accident victims must be protected. In case of accidents
involving fatalities or felonies, Explorers should request appropriate specialized accident investigators.

Establish Traffic Control.

Traffic control is essential at the accident scene to prevent further accidents or injury. Rerouting vehicles
around the accident scene is the most common procedure used. Spectators or unnecessary personnel
should be cleared from the accident area.

Request Additional Support

Additional support personnel should be requested, if necessary, such as power line repair; road repair;
water pipe repair; portable lighting, signal personnel (for telephone repair or photography), medical
personnel (for ambulance, special medical equipment), and civilian police personnel within their
jurisdiction.

Essential Elements of an Investigation.

The ST-3 state accident form when completed, contains the essential investigative elements who, what,
when, where, why, and how the accident happened. It may be used alone, or supported by scaled
diagrams, photographs and/or statements. This form is one of the special tools needed to clearly explain
what happened at the accident scene.

Securing Facts at Scene.

After completing the initial steps and securing the scene of the accident, the investigator obtains and
records facts needed to complete their reports to arrive at logical and objective conclusions. The main
thrust of the investigation is to determine whether or not there was a violation of the law; and if so, to
prove each element of the offense. Explorers should issue a traffic ticket when appropriate.

Moving Vehicle And Marking Wheels

The decision to move a vehicle from its final position must often be made by the police patrol arriving at
the scene. When this is done, the positions of the wheels should be marked on the ground so they can
be relocated for investigative purposes. Under the following conditions, a vehicle must be moved
immediately:

When an injured person is trapped in the wreckage and cannot be treated there.

When a person is trapped in wreckage near burning material, or an area of potential fire hazard.

When a vehicle position is an immediate hazard to oncoming traffic and adequate traffic control cannot
be established.

Identify and Preserve Fragile Evidence

Any fragile evidence that can be damaged, altered, destroyed or removed from the scene by any willful
or negligent act must be identified and secured. Prior to removal, its position should be noted, sketched,
photographed and/or marked in chalk. Examples of such evidence are puddles of gasoline, oil, blood or
pieces of broken glass. The position of turn signal levers should be checked; although this is not a
positive indicator of whether a turn signal was in use it can be helpful.

Alcoholic beverage containers inside a vehicle should also be secured. Evidence should be tagged,
marked, and secured in accordance with proper evidence gathering procedures prior to its removal from
the scene.

Take Statements
Questioning and taking statements of witnesses and victims should be done at the scene. If this is not
possible, statements should be taken as soon as possible at the hospital, police station or homes of
those involved. Names, number and contact address of witnesses should be noted on the ST-3 accident
report. All parties should be separated when questioning them, but in a safe location like on the
sidewalk, not in the roadway. Make sure the parties exchange names and phone numbers before leaving
the accident scene.

Recording Observations After gaining all the information possible from all persons involved in the
accident, the investigator begins to examine the physical condition of the scene, and to record his
observations.

Vehicle Final Rest Position

The examination should start where the vehicle came to final rest. Debris or broken parts from vehicles,
with other indications, will help locate the key event and indicate the paths of the vehicles involved.
Marks or traces such as skid or scrape marks help the investigator locate pertinent points accurately. All
marks, puddles, bits of metal and contents of vehicles must be located and their positions measured and
recorded. Skidmarks are very important since they show position and direction of travel, evasive action
or unlawful behavior. Note especially things that would help locate the point of first contact, such as
changes in skidmarks, chips in pavement and damage to roadside objects.

Path of Vehicles The investigator should next retrace the paths of the vehicles involved. Note visibility,
condition of signs and signals, road surface condition, traffic volume, angles of view and possible
distractions.

Vehicle Search and Inspection A careful inspection of vehicle equipment and contents is necessary.
Items affecting vehicle control should be particularly checked, such as tires, brakes, lights, steering,
signals and safety equipment. For example, it is important to know whether a tire blew out as a result of
the accident, or whether a tire blowout was a possible contributing factor of the accident. This fact can
be determined by analyzing skid and scuff marks. Contents of the vehicle may also give important
information concerning the identity, residence, occupation, destination and position of vehicle
occupants.

Sketches

Depending on the type and severity of an accident, sketches are made, which may range from a simple
sketch on the ST-3 accident form, to detailed scaled drawings on separate sheets. Sketches serve four
purposes:
Help explain the accident.
Help the investigator reveal facts.
Locate any given point at the scene.
Serve as the basis for accurate scale drawings.

Field sketches are made at the scene and are used to support the officer’s original notes. The following
information must be placed on sketches and scaled drawings:
Time of the accident (date and hour).
Names of roads. If on a rural highway, show the distance to the nearest identifiable landmark.
Direction of North.

Report or case number.

References to photographs taken.

Steps in Preparing a Sketch

1. The investigator first draws the roadway, shoulder and other areas of the scene that are pertinent to
the investigation. This includes any physical characteristics which may constitute contributing factors to
the cause of the accident, or which will be used as base points.

2. Base points are then drawn on the sketch. These are those points used in making measurements by
triangulation. They are permanent objects such as telephone poles, mileage markers, road sign posts,
etc. If permanent objects are not available, base points can be established by driving wooden stakes into
the dirt at the edge of the roadway or driving nails into the asphalt. Measurements are made from the
place where the base point meets the ground. If large circular objects, such as telephone poles are used,
the exact reference point should be marked with a nail or paint

3. The next portion of the sketch shows the final position of the vehicle, occupants and objects involved
in the accident. All damage to the vehicle and other property is also indicated on the sketch. This
information should also be entered in the narrative portion of the report.

4. The sketch is completed by including information on vehicle marks and debris at the scene. Vehicle
marks include skid and scuff marks, scratches, scrapes and gouges of the pavement and yaw marks.
These marks will be used in determining speeds of the vehicles involved. Debris is useful in determining
the point of first contact. An outline of the areas in which debris has come to rest is included in the
sketch. Debris is usually spread in an elongated pattern in the direction of travel. Points where debris
concentration is greatest are also indicated. Notes should be made if there appears to be two or more
separate debris areas.

5. After entering identifying information on the sketch, the final step is to recheck the sketch at the
scene. The investigator should retravel the paths of the accident vehicles at their level of vision height to
determine visibility and any obstructions. The sketch must have an understandable legend.

Measurements

Accurate measurements are necessary to relocate and relate exact points in an accident scene. There
are two methods of making measurements--triangulation and coordinate.
Triangulation Method Triangulation is the best method to use on unpaved roads without clean-cut
edges or on sharp curves and irregular intersections. The steps in this method are as follows:

1. Determine two fixed base points, such as telephone poles, edges of buildings, etc.
2. Measure from both base points to each object such as the accident vehicle.
3. Write measurements as 126 for 12 feet, 6 inches. The normal symbols for feet (') and inches (") are
not used to avoid misreading or confusion. (Meters are listed in tenths, such as 10.6m).
4. Fixed base points should be widely spaced to provide wide angles in measuring. Narrow angles
increase the probability of error.
5. Show measurements to the wheel positions on one side of the vehicle or to the front and rear of
vehicle if undamaged. Also show measurements to large debris and to victims not in the vehicle(s)
involved.
6. Measure skidmarks from where the road surface first shows any marks of tires grabbing

Coordinate Method This method is best-used in roadways with well-defined edges and when
measurements are to be made within 25 feet (7 to 8 meters) of the roadway edge. The edge of the
roadway forms one coordinate. The distance to the object, measured at a right angle to the first
coordinate is the other. A point along the roadway edge is selected as the zero or reference point. Its
exact location must be recorded. Measurements are taken from the zero point. Measurements are
recorded by compass direction. Measurements may be recorded on the sketch in chart form, thus
keeping the sketch from becoming overly cluttered

Photography

Photographs are used to supplement an accident investigation and the written report concerning the
accident. When used in court testimony, they help indicate and explain the chain of events.
Photographs, however, never take the place of an investigation or a report. The investigator should take
as many pictures as necessary to properly depict the accident. They should represent what is actually
seen by the investigator, thus scale, angles of view, color and light should be as nearly like what, is seen
as possible.
Photographs must be taken as follows (minimum):
Establishing Photograph--This picture should show the scene, the approaches to the scene, and a fixed
object in the background to establish the scene.

360-Degree Photographs--These pictures should show all four sides of the accident scene, that is,
looking north, south, east and west.

Damage Photographs--Close-up pictures of damage to all vehicles and items struck by vehicles involved,
to include contact and induced damage.

Nighttime Photography--At night, it is more difficult to establish the scene and to see details and
distance relationships in photographs. If it is impossible to have permanently fixed objects in the scene
to establish the photograph a data board should be used. Greater detail can be achieved by adjusting
the f-stop of the camera to allow more light to enter (smaller f-stop). If available, an extension flash
attachment will better reveal depth at night. If no flash is available, several photographs taken
successively, closer to the object, should be taken. Investigators should go back and photograph the
complete area during daylight.
Photographs in Court
To be admissible in court, the investigator taking and using photographs should follow these four steps:

1. Authentication--Photographic evidence will be authenticated in court by the officer who takes the
pictures. A summary describing the incident should be annotated and attached to the negative film
packet or recorded on the reverse side of the hard copies soon after the photographs are taken. This will
assist in authentication.

2. Marking--Each roll of film or film pack must be marked with the name of the individual who took the
photographs, date, time and location of the incident, type of incident, a control number, and the
sequence in which the film was used. If it is desirable to point out a specific area of a photograph, an
acetate overlay should be used. Never mark directly on the print.

3. Relevancy--All pictures must be clear, sharp and free of distortion. They must be relevant to the
investigation. Photographs support the testimony. They must not be inflammatory or provide for shock
value; particularly photographs of injuries. Photographs of bodies in relation to the vehicles' position are
not, however, considered inflammatory if relevant to support a point of testimony.

4. Supportive Only--Photographs alone do not substantiate facts--they must be supported by testimony.

The investigator or photographer must be able to testify that the photos reflect a true representation of
the scene.

Inspection of Vehicles After sketching, measuring and photographing the accident scene, the
investigator should begin his inspection of the vehicle(s) condition and damage. The purpose is to obtain
supporting information concerning statements of witnesses and his own conclusions, when made.

Vehicle condition is a term used to describe any physical characteristic of the vehicle, existing prior to
the accident. Some unsafe aspect may be determined to have been an intermediate or early cause of
the accident, such as a bald tire.

Vehicle damage is the resulting physical characteristics of the vehicle(s) caused by the accident. Damage
is classified as either contact or induced.
Contact damage is that which occurs as a direct result of contact with or by an object. It can occur in
more than one location on the vehicle.

Induced damage is that caused to vehicle parts that did not come in contact with the object struck, but
resulted from the shock of the collision

Vehicle body condition Check locations of damage. The amount of buckling or breaking can indicate the
force of the accident. Check for alteration to the frame, body, or suspension, which could have affected
the driver's vision or vehicle reaction.

Tires and rims condition--Check to see if the tires are fully inflated, have good tread, or show signs of a
blowout. Check for tread scrape marks, sidewall scrapes or cuts, which can indicate how well the vehicle
held up to braking and sideways skidding. Check rims for fresh scrapes, cuts or scratches. They may
indicate that a blowout occurred prior to the accident.
Light conditions--Check all lights for operation and position of knobs and levers used to control lights.
These checks are often necessary to verify statements. Note also any lights burning when you arrived at
the scene. Check for obstructions to lights such as dirt film. If lights are to be checked by the US Army
Criminal Investigation Laboratory, the entire light structure should be sent. If the light switch is on but
not operating, perhaps due to the accident, the lab can determine whether or not the filament is intact
or broken and whether the break is new or old.

Glass condition--The condition of the glass in an accident vehicle can determine whether it may have
caused poor visibility and may indicate the manner in which injuries were caused. Check to see if glass is
cracked or broken. If cracks are clouded or discolored, the cracks existed prior to the accident. Note
obstruction on the glass such as dirt or frost. For side windows note position, up or down, if relevant.
Operation of side and rearview mirrors should also be noted.

Interior vehicle equipment--Various items of equipment inside the vehicle should be checked for proper
operation by a qualified mechanic if necessary. Additionally, the position of equipment may indicate
actions or intended actions of drivers. These include the turn signal lever, pedal operation, horn, seat
belts, sun visors, ignition switch, accessory switch (especially defroster in cold weather) and gear shift
lever. The speedometer may give some indication of speed.

Miscellaneous equipment--Check any material inside the vehicle which may have contributed to the
accident. This might include alcoholic containers, drugs, toys, etc. In doing this, remember that for other
than plain view items, further search of the vehicle will require the owner's or driver's permission or a
search warrant. If safety inspection stickers are present, check their validity.
Checks of vehicle damage compared to scratches/gouges on the roadway or other damage to roadway
objects may show vehicle position and direction of travel after the key event. The age of all damage
should be determined to relate it to the specific accident. All accident damage and vehicle conditions
should be photographed, if relevant to the specific investigation.

Skidmarks and debris

Any persons, materials or marks not included in the original scene should not be included in the
photographs. This includes police, wrecker personnel, bystanders, chalk marks, measuring devices, etc.
The locations from which photographs are taken should be recorded on an overlay to the diagram. They
should be numbered in sequence, and a brief description of the picture scene placed on the reverse. For
example, "Photo #6 Accident Scene, Facing South." To avoid confusion with other photographs, the first
exposure of a roll or series should include a data card that includes the time, date, location and
investigator's initials. (Note: The same scene should then be photographed without the data card.)

Actions After Gaining Facts

Clear the Scene
Vehicles are removed safely from the scene under Police supervision. Civilian vehicles normally are
removed by commercial wrecker if they are not drivable. In this case, the wrecker operator's name, firm,
time of departure, and new location of the vehicle should be recorded on the ST-3 accident report,
especially if further inspection of the vehicle may be necessary. Roads should be cleared of debris by the
wrecker drivers. Fire fighters should assist when fire hazards, such as large pools of spilled gasoline are
present.
Additional Searches Prior to leaving the scene the investigator should recheck the accident location for
any additional marks, debris, victims, etc. If an accident occurs at night, the scene should be searched
during daylight also. The reverse of this is also true. Retracing the driver's approach to the scene on the
following day at the same time can reveal additional unanticipated evidence.

Completing Investigation
Traffic accident investigations must provide accurate explanations of the facts. In addition to the ST-3
accident report, the accident investigation may include additional diagrams, statements and
photographs, the investigator should prepare a statement. This statement should clearly distinguish
between fact and opinion--although opinions are a necessary part of the investigation. The statement
should discuss how the accident occurred, identify causes, and list factors that may constitute hazardous
driving conditions. All conclusions arid recommendations must be supported by fact.

Special Considerations
Alcohol
Use of alcohol by drivers is a factor in over half of all fatal traffic accidents. The investigator may suspect
a participant in an accident was under the influence of an intoxicant or drug during the course of the
investigation. Should such a suspicion exist, the investigator must follow through to the extent allowed
by law, to determine whether or not these suspicions are justified. This will be in the form of chemical
tests, or tests of the suspect's blood, breath or urine, to determine alcoholic content. In addition to
testing the suspect, inspection and search of the vehicle may be used to gather additional information.
Approved methods include:

Plain view search of vehicle for intoxicants.

Detection of odors of intoxicants or other unusual odors.
Observation of individual's actions.
Search of the vehicle with permission of driver.
Search with a search warrant, based on probable cause.

Medical

Medical statements may be required to reflect expert opinions as to whether medical reasons
contributed to an accident. The investigator must obtain medical information for the following:

Personal injuries--Determine the extent of injuries received by all involved in an accident and any
injuries that existed prior to the accident.

Fatal injuries--In case of deaths, obtain estimated time and cause of death.

Tests--Obtain any information concerning the results of alcohol, drugs or medicine used.

The accident investigator should recommend to all persons involved in serious accidents that they see a
physician immediately

INVESTIGATING AGED SCENES

Most investigators are thrilled to observe the scene within a month of the actual accident. Aged or stale
scenes require a different approach.
The following conditions may present themselves as hindrances to investigation.

At this point in time a police department should have complete the scene investigation and make their
reports

Hopefully, there should be photographs of the scene with the vehicles still at their resting points

Many times these are taken at night, which usually means the quality of the pictures is poor, especially
in close up views of the witness mark one the road

There may be some pictures of the vehicles but usually taken too far aways for analysis

Many police department go to the scene that next day and photograph the area, but unfortunately not
from the same places the original photographs were taken

if the road is heavily traveled the the skid, or yaw marks and even gouges and scratches may not be as
visible as they were on the night of the accident

law enforcement officers may also take photographs of they vehicle at the police impound lot or the
salvage pool. They usually do not get the view that an investigator would require for an analysis

What the investigator should DO:

1. Familiarize with the vehicle and accident scene based on the photographs obtained from records
2. Make a written list of information missing or needing more detail
3. Check the statements of positioning of the witnesses with respect to their location and what they may
have been able to see at the time of the collision. At this time the investigator should be forming some
idea of how the accident happened.
4. Determine details by taking photographs, police report, and sketches to the scene and determine the
positions and directions from which they were taken. Look for specific landmarks such as cracks in the
roadbed. Or other unusual marking on the road surface near the location of the resting points of the
vehicles. This will help in locating any residual gouges in the roadbed
5. Check to see if the police have recorded the gouges or other marks on their sketches
6. Measures and record some portions of the skid marks that may still be visible on the roadbed and
check against police reports
7. If the police created a sketch with any dimensions it is necessary that several if not all be check to
determine their accuracy as well as their location
8. Try to locate the police determination of the point of impact (POI) if they made one
9. Starting at the point walk the roadbed, shoulders and areas beyond the shoulders on both sides of the
highway, looking for debris. When accident debris is swept off the road, it is usually on the edge nearest
its location, and not across the entire width of the highway. The location of the debris should be very
close to the POI. This is one method of verifying the police POI with the actual POI
10. If there is a difference of more than a few feet, then continue looking for pieces of the vehicle that
can be identified as those coming from the accident vehicle or vehicles
11. Once these pieces are found, then look on the roadbed for additional scarring such as gouges and
scratches to determine the new POI
12. If the accident happened in an urban setting then check trees by the side of the road for damage.
13. Check the impact vehicle for embedded wood in any cracks or crevices
14. Never cease to question the evidence until it leads to a conclusion or there are no other data
available

Criminal Aspects of Traffic Accidents

Usually, if a traffic accident occurs, criminal aspects often dwell on culpability, such as reckless
imprudence . The most common crime that may be charged a motor vehicle driver is reckless
imprudence resulting to homicide. However, not all accidents are “accidents” Some occur because of
deeper motive, and this is one of the aspects that police and traffic investigators need to establish Most
crimes, however, are committed because of the intention of flight from liability
Hit and Run

Investigator have difficulty in avoiding personal involvement in attempting to solve a crime without
motive and usually without any witnesses. Standard police procedure calls for the issuance of a prompt
alarm for the fleeing vehicle, An extensive crime-scene search and assignment of police investigators to
the accident-and-crime scene around the time of occurrence, and on days following the accident in a
search for witnesses

The Hit- and Run Operator

Hit and Run drivers have been grouped into three categories based upon possible psychological
explanation for their motivation of flight

1. Apprehensive, panic drivers, fearful drivers

The apprehensive drive has greater sin to hide, either morally or criminally. This individual typically flees
the scene for one or more of the following reasons:

a. Driving while intoxicated

b. Operating without a license
c. No Insurance
d. A companion is in the car who is not the river’s mate or who is the mate of another
e. stolen car
f. stolen goods in the car
g. leaving the scene of another accident
h. fleeing crime scene
i. wanted for some crime

2. Projectionist- projects guilt

The projectionist driver tries the case- sitting as judge and jury, he or she finds the other driver at fault,
refuses to be a party to the accident and drives off as the offended person

3. The Sneak- minor property damage accident

The sneak operator is one that crushes a fender and smashes a grillwork as daily occupational activities
and chalks up the action as the calculated risk shared by all vehicle owners who place their vehicles on
the roadway.
Fortunately, the hit and run operator does not have that attitudes of a professional criminal, nor is the
operator skilled at concealing the damage to the vehicle. They will usually be cooperative when found,
the traces of vehicle damage can be easily located, even if recently repaired.

The Alarm
The basic line of investigation in these cases must be along these lines of opportunity

1. What car was at the scene during the incident?

2. Who was the driver? Or at least a description

When investigators find that the scene of an accident is a hit and run case, ther first effort is to obtain
from available witnesses a full description of the car involved. This should include all unusual details.
Even noises are sometimes useful
Descriptive items that may prove extremely valuable in locating the vehicles are:

a. stickers on windows or windshield

b. dented fender
c. fancy wheel covers
d. Broken Radio aerials
e. distinctive ornamentals and fixtures
f. broken window glass
g. Unusual colors and body styles and
h. Out of state license plates

The above data together with a description of the occupants and the direction of the vehicle when last
seen, should be immediately broadcast in a police radio alarm to all members of the police department
and to nearby police units. The alarm alerts police on patrol to look for abandoned vehicles or vehicles
in transit with such damage and as described Particular attention is usually directed along the possible
escape routes of the fleeing vehicle

The Scene Search

Transfer evidence is important in hit-and-run investigations. Since the only investigative leads are along
the line of opportunity. It is vital to search for evidence at the accident scene which will identify the
vehicle and the driver involved. This should not be limited to prime identification which will lead to
prompt recognition of either the vehicle or operators, but should extend to any evidence which will
connect the vehicle is located or an apprehension of the fleeing operator is made.

Whenever the scene search reveals the nature of the damage to the car or the probable make or model
of the car, this information should be immediately added tot eh alarm and broadcast to all units in the
search

Experience hit and run investigators attempt to identify the original purpose of the hit and run driver.
What brought the driver into the neighborhood of the accident scent? What brought him or her into this
area at the time of the accident, on the day of the week on which the accident happened? This
Assumption of purposefulness is coupled with the habits of motorists who utilize the same routes to and
from work or for leisure activity. This is the bases for the concept of returning to the accident scene on
stakeout duty in a quest for witnesses. It is also an emerging concept for locating the vehicle in involved
in a hit-and run case and for evidence that will connect the suspect with the scene vice versa

Transfer Evidence

Science has provided the police with one of their most effective weapons against hit and run cases . The
scientific analysis of evidence found at an accident scene sometimes identifies the make and model of
the wanted car. Comparison analysis of such evidence with that recovered from a suspect’s automobiles
provides data placing the vehicle at the crime scene. Some of the most common types of evidence found
in hit and run accident investigation are amenable to scientific analysis