c8 PDF

C-08 MARINE ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
EVALUATION OF COMPETENCE
Function: Electronics & Electrical Knowledge at Operational Level
COMPETENCY 8
MARINE ELECTRO TECHNOLOGY
1
Page
GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Competency No. 08 : Operate and Maintain Alternators, Generators and Control

Systems
Course Covered 8.1 : Marine Electro technology- Basics of A.C. & D.C. Machines &
Starters
1. Explain how alternating current is produced in a simple loop rotating in magnetic

field.
Ans: whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an e.m.f. will be induced. This e.m.f.
causes a current to flow once the circuit gets closed.
Imagine the coil to be rotating in clockwise direction (fig.8.1). As the coil assumes successive
positions in the field, the flux linked with it changes. Hence, an e.m.f. is induced in it which is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages. (e=NdØdt). When the plane of the coil is at
right angles to lines of flux i.e. when it is in position, 1, then flux linked with the coil is
maximum but rate of change of flux linkage is minimum.
It is so because in this position, the coil sides AB and CD do not cut or shear the flux, rather they
slide along them i.e. they move parallel to them. Hence there is no induced e.m.f. in the coil. Let
us take this no-e.m.f. or vertical position of the coil as the starting position. The angle of rotation
or time will be measured from this position.
As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence induced
e.m.f. in it) increases, till position 3 is reached where Ѳ=90°. Here the coil plane is horizontal i.e.
parallel to the lines of flux. As seen, the flux linked with the coil is minimum but rate of change
of flux linkage is maximum. Hence maximum e.m.f. is induced in the coil when in this position.
In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 90° to 180°, the flux linked with the coil gradually
increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Hence the induced e.m.f. decreases
gradually till in position 5 of the coil, it is reduced to zero value.
So we find that in the first half revolution of the coil, no (or minimum) e.m.f. is induced in it
when in position 1, maximum when in position 3 and no e.m.f. when in position 5. In the next
2
half revolution i.e. from 180° to 360°, the variations in the magnitude of e.m.f. are similar to
Page
those in the first half revolution. Its value is maximum when coil is in position 7 and minimum

when in position 1. But it will be found that the direction of the induced current flow is just the
reverse of the previous direction of flow.
Therefore we find that the current which we obtain from such a simple generator reverses its
direction after every half revolution. Such a current undergoing periodic reversals is known as
alternating current.
2. Identify the parts and explain the functions of the following parts of a DC
Generator.
Armature field poles, slip rings, field coils, brushes and springs, commutators.
Ans: figure shows a DC generator.
Main parts of DC generator are

1. Magnetic frame or yoke: it provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a
protecting cover for the whole machine. It also carries the magnetic flux produced by the
poles.
2. Pole cores or pole shoes: they spread out the flux in the air gap and also being of larger
cross section, reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path. They also support the exciting
coils (or field coils).
3. Pole coils: the field coils or pole coils consists of copper wire windings.when current is
passed through these coils, they electromagnetise the poles which produce the necessary
flux that is cut by revolving armature conductors.
4. Armature core: it houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and
hence cut the magnetic flux of the field magnets. It also provide a path of very low
3
reluctance to the flux through the armature from N-pole to S-pole.

Page

5. Armature windings: various conductors of the coils are insulated from each other. The
conductors are placed in the armature slots which are lined with tough insulating
material.
6. Commutator: it facilitate collection of current from the armature conductors and converts
the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional current in
the external load circuit.
7. Brushes and bearings: brushes collect the current from commutator are usually made of
carbon or graphite. Brushes are held continuously against the commutators under the
pressure of springs. Ball bearings are generally used to support armature.
3. Explain what are the factors controlling e.m.f. Equation for finding e.m.f. Armature
reaction.
Ans: Following are the factors affecting the e.m.f.:
a) Magnetic flux
b) No. of armature conductors
c) No. of poles
d) No. of parallel paths in armature
e) Speed of rotation
E.M.F. equation of a generator

Let Ø =flux/pole in weber
Z = total no. of armature conductors
= no. of slots X no. of conductors
P = no. of generator poles
A = no. of parallel paths in armature
N = armature rotation in revolution per minute (r.p.m.)
E = e.m.f. induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated e.m.f. ,Eg = e.m.f. induced in any one of the parallel paths i.e. E.
Average e.m.f. generated /conductor = dØ/dt (as n=1)
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution , dØ = ØP Wb
No. of revolutions/second =N/60 thus time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second
Hence, according to Faraday‟s laws of electromagnetic induction,
E.M.F. generated/conductor=dØ/dt = ØPN/60 volt
4
Thus e.m.f. . induced in any one of the parallel paths, Eg, is given by,
Page

Eg = ØZN/60 X (P/A)
= ØZPN/ 60A
Armature Reaction:
By armature reaction is meant the effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on
the distribution of flux under main poles of a generator. The armature magnetic field has
two effects:
a). it demagnetizes or weakens the main flux
b). it cross-magnetizes or distorts it.
These effects are well illustrated in figure 8.3 which shows the flux distribution of a
bipolar generator when there is no current in the armature conductors.
4. Principal of DC motors, types of motors, back emf, voltage equation, equation for
finding the torque of motor, factors deciding the speed of motor. Various methods of
speed control. ward leonard speed control. Power losses in DC motors
Ans : Principal of DC motors:
An electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Its action
is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experience a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming‟s Left hand rule and whose
magnitude is given by
F= BIl Newton
5
Page
Constructionally there is no basic difference between a DC generator and a DC motor

Types of motors:
1). DC shunt motor
2). DC series motor
3). DC compound motor
a) Cumulative compound motor
b) Differential compound motor
Back emf: as the armature starts rotating, dynamically induced emf is produced in the armature
conductors. The direction of this induced emf as found by Fleming‟s right hand rule, is outwards
i.e. direct opposition to the applied voltage. This why it is known as back emf. Its value is the
same as for the dynamically induced emf in the generator i.e.
Eb= (ØZN) x (P/A) volts
Equation for finding the Torque of the motor:

Ta = 0.159 Ø. Z.Ia ×(P/A) N-m
Where Ta = armature torque
Ia = armature current
a) In case of a series motor, Ø is directly proportional to Ia (before saturation) because field
winding carry full armature current hence Ta directly proportional to Ia².
b) For shunt motors , Øis practically constant hence Ta directly Ia.
Factors deciding the speed of motor:

Speed of the motor is given by the relation
N = (v-IaRa)/ZØ × (A/P)
=K. (v-IaRa)/Ø r.p.s.
Where Ra =armature circuit resistance
It is obvious that the speed can be controlled by varying:
1. Flux/pole -flux control method
2. Resistance,Ra of armature circuit -rheostatic control method
3. Applied voltage,v -voltage control method
6
Page

Speed control of motors:

Speed control of shunt motors
1) Flux control method: The flux of the dc motor can be changed by changing Ish with the
help of a shunt field rheostat. Since Ish is very small, so I²R loss is small & rheostat size
also small. It increase the speed in the ratio 2:1.
2) Armature control method: used when speed below no-load speed required. The voltage
across the armature is varied by inserting a variable rheostat or resistance in series with
the armature circuit. As controller resistance increased, p.d. across the armature is
decreased, thereby decreasing the armature speed.
3) Voltage control method:
a) Multiple voltage control: The shunt field of the motor is connected permanently to a
fixed exciting voltage, but the armature is supplied with different voltage by
connecting it across one of the several different voltages by means of suitable switch
gear.
b) Ward Leonard system: in this method, the speed is controlled by regulating the motor
terminal voltage. Ward leonard system is one such method, which not only gives a
wide range of operating speeds (10:1) , but also reduces the wastage of energy. As
shown in figure M1 is the main motor whose speed control required. The field of this
motor is permanently connected across the dc supply lines. By applying a variable
voltage across its armature, any desired speed can be obtained. The variable voltage is
7
supplied by a motor-generator set which consists of either a dc or an ac motor M2

Page
directly coupled to generator G.the motor M2 runs approximately at constant speed.

The voltage output of generator G is fed to the main motor M1. The voltage of
generator can be varied from zero upto maximum value by means of field regulator.
The direction of rotation of M1 can be reversed by reversing the switch R.S.
Speed control of series motors

1) Flux control method:
a) Field diverters: The series winding are shunted by a variable resistance known as
field diverter. It results in decreasing the flux on field winding & increasing the
speed.
b) Armature diverter: A diverter across the armature can be used for giving speeds lower
than the normal speeds.
c) Tapped field control: The no. of series field turns in the circuit can be changed at will
as shown. With full field, the motor runs at its minimum speed which can be raised in
steps by cutting out some of series turns.
2) Armature resistance method:
In this method, a variable resistance is directly connected in series with the field winding.
This reduces the voltage available across the armature and hence the speed reduces by
changing the rheostat resistance. Any speed below the normal speed can be obtained.
This is the most common method employed to control the speed of dc series motor.
8
Page

Power losses in DC motors:

The losses taking place in the motor are the same as generators. These are:
a) Copper losses
b) Magnetic losses
c) Mechanical losses
5. Types of DC motors and their applications

Ans:
Types of motor applications

shunt Constant speed applications such as lathes, centrifugal
pumps, machine tools, blowers & fans, reciprocating pumps
etc.
series For traction works ,cranes and hoists, conveyors etc.
Cumulative compound For high torque applications such as elevators, conveyors,
heavy planers, air compressors etc.
6. Starters for DC motor. Circuit explanation

Ans: When the motor is at rest, there is, as yet, obvipously no back emf developed in the
armature. If now, full supply voltage is applied across the stationary armature, it will draw a very
large current because armature resistance is relatively small. This excessive current will blow out
the fuses and prior to that , it will damage the commutator and brushes etc.. to avoid this
happening, a resistance is introduced in series with the armature at starting which limits the
starting current to safe value. The starting resistance is gradually cut out as the motor gains speed
and develops the back emf which then regulates its speed. Very small motors however, be started
from rest by connecting them directly to the supply lines.
Types of starters:
Shunt motor starters:
1. Three point starter:
The main switch is closed to start the motor. The handle is moved slowly to the right. As
soon as the handle makes contact with the stud no.1, the field circuit is directly connected
across the supply & the starting resistace D gets placed in seris with the armature ,thereby
limiting the armature current (at the time of starting) to Vl/(Ra+D), where Ra & D are the
armature & starter resistances respectively. As the motor pick up the speed , the arm is
moved towards the stud no.10 againest the spring.the soft iron piece in the handle gets
attracted by the electromagnet present on the hold on coil E.
The function of the hold on coil is to hold the handle during the normal operation of the
9
motor. In the case of disconnection in the field circuit, the electromagnet in the the hold
on coil is de-energised, thereby rereleasing the handle to „OFF‟ position. The overload
Page

release G consist of an electromagnet which lifts the H under overload conditions and
short circuits the electromagnet D. this releases the handle & return it to OFF position.
2. Four point starter:

The difference between 3 point starter &4 point starter is that the hold on coil has taken
out of the shunt field circuit and has been connected directly across the line through a
protective resistance.with this arrangement any change of current in the shunt field circuit
does not at all affect the current passing through the HOLD ON coil.
7. Alternating current trough resistance, inductance and capacitance. Draw graphs

showing variation of current and applied voltage when AC is applied to these
components. Superimpose the voltage and current graphs to obtain power graph.
Ans:
AC Circuit Containing Resistance only

10
Page

Let an AC source of EMF E be connected to a pure resistance R. The instantaneous EMF from
the source is given by
E = Eo sin wt
From Ohm's law
I = E/R = Eo/R . sin wt
I = Io sin wt
The variation of E and I shows that both reach maximum and zero value at the same instant of
time. We therefore say the current is in phase with applied voltage.
The time varying quantities E and I can be represented geometrically by phasors.
AC Circuit Containing Pure Inductance only
Let an AC source be connected across a pure inductive element. If the alternating current I = Io
sin wt flows through it. Then
According to Kirchhoff's Law
11
Page

E = Eo cos wt
or
where Eo = LWIo
Here Eo = LwIo. This is similar to E = IR. Therefore, Lw plays the same role as that of a resistor.
The inductor impedes the flow of alternating current in the circuit.
Therefore, the non-resistant opposition of a coil to alternating current due to the varying
magnetic field is called inductive reactance of the coil XL.
Unit of XL is also ohm (W)
The inductive reactance
XL = WL = 2pfL
Note:
To have a large reactance the coil
(i) Should have many turn as L N.
(ii) Should have an iron-core as L mrmo .
(iii) Also the frequency of a.c should be high.
Therefore, XL in case of DC (direct current), is zero.
The relation between XL and f is a straight line.

12
The EMF E is found to lead the current by 90o. Therefore, the phasor diagram will be
Page

The arrow in the anticlockwise direction indicates E leads I by 90o.

The sinusoidal variation can also be represented as
The alternating EMF across an inductor attains the maximum value well before the current
attains its maximum value, and hence we say leads I by 90 or p/2.
Energy Stored in an Inductor
If we have two long, rigid parallel wires carrying current in the same direction, then the two
wires experience a force of attraction.
Therefore work has to be done in separating them and this work done is stored in the magnetic
field surrounding the wires. One can recover that additional stored magnetic energy by letting the
wires move back to their original position, as it is the most stable position for the system.
We regard energy as stored in the magnetic field of an isolated wire, in analogy with the energy
of the electric field of an isolated charge. In the following case, the total stored magnetic energy
in an inductance L carrying a current I is as follows.
When AC is applied to an inductor of inductance L, the current in it grows from zero to the
maximum steady value Io. If I is the current at any instant t, then the induced EMF developed in
the inductor at that instant is
Negative sign indicates that induced EMF opposes any change in current. To maintain the
13
current, the external source should do some work for which

Page

Therefore, in small time dt, the work done will be:
where Io represents the maximum value of current.

Therefore this is the energy stored in the inductor.
AC Circuit with Pure Capacitance only
Let an AC source be connected across pure inductive element.

If E = Eosinwt then,
q = EC = CEo sin wt
I = Io cos wt
Here Io = Eo Cw = EoCw
14
Page

?plays the role of a resistance and is known as capacitive reactance Xc.
Therefore the non-resistive of a coil to a.c. due to the varying magnetic field is called capacitive
reactance Xc.
Unit of Xc is also Ohm
The current leads the EMF by 90o and the phasor diagram is:
For DC, Xc becomes infinite and hence, capacitance block DC flowing through it.
AC Circuit, Inductance and Capacitance Circuit (LCR in series)

When an AC source is connected in a circuit with a resistance and a reactance together, the
current varies initially in a complex way. After sufficient time, a sinusoidally varying current
persists in the circuit. This steady state current has a frequency equal to that of the source and
may have a phase difference with the source voltage. 15
Page

As the three elements are in series, the current has the same amplitude and phase in all.
Therefore voltage across R is in phase with the current. The voltage across 'L' leads the current
by 90o and the voltage across 'C' lags the current by 90o. The phasor diagram is as follows
If the LCR circuit is predominantly an inductive circuit [ i.e., EoL > EoC], then the effective value
of E would be
where,
16
Page

'Z' represents the total effective opposition offered by LCR circuit to AC and is called
impedance.
q is the phase angle which indicates that effective EMF leads the current (provided EL > EC).
If I = Iosinwt then the voltage in the LCR circuit would be
E = Eo sin (wt+q) where
Eo = IoZ
q = tan-1[XL -XC]/R
Note 1:
When XL = XC , tan q = 0
Here voltage and current are in the same phase. The AC circuit is purely a resistive one.
\I = Io sin wt
E = Eo sin wt where Eo = IoR
Note 2:
When XL > XC, tanq>0. Here, the voltage leads the current and the AC circuit is the inductance-
dominated circuit.
\I = Io sin wt
E = Eo sin (wt+q) where q = tan-1[XL -XC]/R
Note 3:
When XL < XC, tanq<0. Here, the voltage lags current and the AC circuit is capacitive dominated
circuit.
\I = Io sin wt
E = Eo sin (wt - q) where = tan-1[XC -XL]/R
17
Page

8. Explain Impedence and compare it with resistance of a DC circuit.

State relation between Impedence, voltage, current and power factor.
Ans: Average Power Associated with LCR Circuit in Series:
In an electrical circuit, energy is supplied by the source of EMF, stored by the capacitive and
inductive elements and dissipated in resistive elements.
Conservation of energy requires that, at any particular time, the rate at which energy is supplied
by the source of EMF must equal the rate at which it is stored in the capacitive and inductive
elements; plus the rate at which it is dissipated in the resistive element (we assume ideal
capacitive and inductive elements have no internal resistances).
Let E = Eosin wt. Since current lags in inductive dominated circuit by an angle q.
If dw be the work done by a source of EMF e on a charge dq, then
The power
Using equations (1) and (2),
I = Io sin (wt -q) 18

Page

If this instantaneous power remains constant for small time dt. then
Total work done or energy spent in maintaining current over one full cycle.
The second term is zero over complete cycle i.e.,
Therefore,
The quantity cosq is called the power factor of the AC circuit and we know
Recall the diagram to determine effective voltage in LCR circuit.
19
This can also be represented in terms of the resistance and reactances as follows (Since I is same
through all resistive element).
Page

Such a right-angled triangle whose sides represent the resistance and reactance an AC circuit is
called the impedance triangle.
From this triangle:
9. Explain why shipboard installations produce power demand with a lagging power
factor. Explain effect of varying power factor on power consumed.
Ans: When a synchronous generator is running at lagging power factor the current it supplies
lags its terminal voltage. Thus it acts as a source of reactive power, or magnetizing vars.
Reactive power is needed to create the magnetic fields in devices such as transformers and
induction motors. The Power factor of a utility depends on the type of load it supplies. Usually
the Loads on utility are inductive loads (where the current lags behind the Voltage) and hence the
power factor at which the utility operates is lagging. Most loads connected to utility are inductive
loads like motors, fans, rolling mills which cause the power factor of the utility to be of lagging
in nature.
10. Solve problems concerning voltage, current, impedance, reactance, power and
power factor of R,L,C circuits, resonance in RLC series circuit.
Ans: problems to be solved in class rooms.
11. Alternator Principal. Type of Alternators. Main parts and their functions.
Ans: Principle: AC generators or alternators operate on the same fundamental principles of
electromagnetic induction as dc generators. They also consist of an armature winding and a
magnetic field. But there is one important difference between two. Whereas in dc generators, the
armature rotates and the field system is stationary, the arrangement in the alternators is just the
20
reverse of it. In their case standard construction consist of an armature winding mounted on a
stationary element called stator and field winding on a rotating element called rotor. The details
Page
of construction are shown in figure.

Types of Alternators:
1. With carbon brush & slip ring arrangement
2. Brushless type
Main parts and their functions (Brushless type Alternator):

Brushless Alternator consist of following parts.
A) Rotating parts:
a. AC exciter or exciter armature: it is 3 phase star connected coil which produce A.C.
by cutting the exciting magnetic flux. This AC supply is rectified & supplied to
Rotary Field Winding.
b. 3 phase diode bridge rectifier: it converts AC supply to DC supply. AC supply is
taken from exciting armature & supplied to rotary magnetic field coils.
c. Surge suspension resistor: when excess current flows through the rotary field
winding, surge suspension resistor protects it from damage.
d. Rotary field winding: it is supplied with DC & produce rotary magnetic field.
B) Stationary parts:
a. Stator winding:it consist of 3 phase winding connected in star connections. When
rotary magnetic field cuts the stator winding conductors, A.C. is generated across it.
b. Exciter field coil: it produces magnetic field for exciting armature. It is supplied with
D.C. from A.V.R.
A.V.R. (Automatic Voltage Regulator):

When sudden heavy inductive load applied to generator, an excess current flow through
conductors on stator winding producing magnetic flux which opposes the magnetic flux
produced by the rotor & try to neutralize it. So flux density get reduced and hence the voltage.
To keep output voltage constant. The strength of magnetic of rotary field coil is increased which
is achieved by increasing quantity of exciting current. This exciting current is regulated by using
AVR.
AVR senses the generator output voltage & according to regulate exciter field current to
maintain the voltage at its set value.
21
Page

AVR consist of :
a) Voltage sensing unit: the voltage sensing unit transforms down, rectifies & smooths the
generator output voltage. This produces a low voltage DC signal that is proportional to
the AC generator voltage.
b) Comparator: this part compares actual DC supply from voltage sensing unit with set
parameters & produce error signal output.
c) Amplifier: an error signal from the comparator is amplified by amplifier & made suitable
for driving the field circuit regulating thyristor.
d) Thyristor: it is semiconductor device which is controlled by amplified signal at its gate.
This device rectifies & regulates the generator field current.
Governor:
When sudden heavy resistive load applied to generator, an excess current flow through
conductors on stator winding producing magnetic flux which adds up the braking effect. So
engine speed slows down. Here governor of engine comes into act and increase the fuel supply to
engine for maintaining constant speed.
12. E.M.F. equation of alternator and explain the factors controlling the emf.
Ans: Refer to assignement 8.1-3
13. Polyphase circuits. Advantages of three phase systems. Star delta connections.
Ans: Three-Phase Power systems
Split-phase power systems achieve their high conductor efficiency and low safety risk by
splitting up the total voltage into lesser parts and powering multiple loads at those lesser
voltages, while drawing currents at levels typical of a full-voltage system. This technique, by the
way, works just as well for DC power systems as it does for single-phase AC systems. Such
22
systems are usually referred to as three-wire systems rather than split-phase because "phase" is a
Page
concept restricted to AC.

14. Induction motors. Various types. Explain how driving torque is produced in
induction motor.
Ans: As a general rule, conversion of electrical power into mechanical power takes place in the
rotating part of an electric motor. In dc motors, the electric power is conducted directly to the
armature(i.e. rotating part through brushes and commutator. Hence in this sense, a dc motor can
be called a conduction motor. However, in ac motors, the rotor does not receive electric power
by conduction but by induction in exactly the same way as the secondary of a 2-winding
transformer receives its power from the primary. That is why such motors are known as
induction motors.
Induction motors are classified as:

1. Squirrel cage
a. Single
b. Double
2. Slip ring (external resistance)
When the 3 phase ac supply voltages are connected to the three stator phase windings, the
resulting phase currents produce a multi-pole magnetic flux (Ø). This flux is physically rotated
around the stator core by the switched sequence of R-Y-B currents at a speed called synchronous
speed. The value of synchronous speed depends upon how many magnetic pole pairs fixed by the
stator winding arrangement and by the frequency of the voltage supply connected to the stator
winding. The stator rotating magnetic flux cuts through the rotor conductors are connected
together at the ends, the induced emf set up rotor currents.
The rotor currents also produce a magnetic flux which interacts with the stator rotating flux
which produces a torque on the rotor conductor bars.
23
Page

15. Necessity of starters of AC motors. Various types of starter. Principle of auto

transformer starter and star delta starter. Doc starter.
Ans: Necessity of starter: A plain induction motor is similar to a polyphase transformer with a
short circuited rotating secondary. Therefore, if normal supply voltage is applied to the stationary
motor, then as in the case of a transformer, a very large initial current is taken by the primary, at
last for a short while. This initial excessive current is objectionable because it will produce large
line voltage drop that in turn, will affect the operation of the other electrical equipment
connected to the same lines. Hence it is not advisable to line start motors of rating above 25 kw
to 40 kw.
Star-Delta Starting:
If a motor is direct-on-line started with the stator winding star connected, it will only take one-
third of the starting current that it would take if the windings were delta connected. The starting
current of a motor which is designed to run delta connected can be reduced in this way. Star-
delta starters for small motors may be operated by a manual changeover switch. For large power
motors, the phase windings are automatically switched using contactors controlled by a timing
relay.
At the instant of starting when the supply has just been switched on and the motor has not yet
started to rotate, there is no mechanical output from the motor. The only factors which determine
the current taken by the motor are the supply voltage and the impedance of the motor phase
windings .Comparing the starting current when star connected to the starting current when delta
connected as in Fig. ,it is observed that the starting current of a delta connected motor can be
reduced to one third if the motor is star connected for starting. The shaft torque is also reduced to
24
one-third which reduces the shaft acceleration and increases the run-up time for the drive.
Page

Autotransformer Starting:
One way to reduce the initial voltage supplied to the motor is to step it down using a transformer.
Then, when the motor has accelerated up to almost full speed, the reduced voltage is replaced by
the full mains voltage. The transformer used in this starter is not the usual type with separate
primary and secondary windings. It is an autotransformer which uses only one winding for both
input and output. This arrangement is cheaper, smaller and lighter than an equivalent double-
wound transformer and it is only in operation during the short starting period. Fig. 4.10 shows
the supply voltage is connected across the complete winding and the motor is connected to the
reduced voltage tapping. A number of tappings are usuall available on the transformer winding,
giving voltage outputs ranging from about 50% to 80% of the mains supply voltage, e.g. a 60%
tap on an autotransformer supplied at 440 V would provide a voltage output of 60% of 440 = 264
V. The autotransformer usually has a few tapping points to give a set of reduced voltages (e.g.
40%, 50% and 65%) which help to match the motor current demand to the supply capability.
16. Study of Electric Steering System and Machines.

Ans: Steering gears which comprise electric control, electric power unit and electrical
transmission, are of two types, the Ward—Leonard system and the Direct Single Motor system.
Both types have a geared down motor drive via a pinion to a toothed quadrant. A Ward—
Leonard arrangement is shown diagrammatically in Figure 12.10. A continuously running motor-
generator set has a directly coupled exciter to provide the field current of the generator. The
exciter field is part of a control circuit, although in some circuits control is directly to the field
current of the generator with the exciter omitted, When the control system is balanced there is no
exciter field, no exciter output and no generator output, although it is continuously running. The
main motor which drives the rudder has no input and thus is stationary. When the wheel on the
bridge is turned, and the rheostat contact moved, the control system is unbalanced and a voltage
occurs in the exciter field, the exciter, and the generator field. The generator then produces
power which turns the rudder motor and hence the rudder, As the rudder moves it returns the
rudder rheostat contact to the same position as the bridge rheostat, bringing the system into
25
balance and stopping all current flow.

Page

In the single motor system the motor which drives the rudder is supplied directly from the ship's
mains through a contactor type starter. Reversing contacts are also fitted to enable port or
starboard movements. The motor runs at full speed until stopped by the control system, so a
braking system is necessary to bring the rudder to a stop quickly and at the desired position. The
usual electrical maintenance work will be necessary on this equipment in order to ensure
satisfactory operation.
17. Study of Electrical Machines and system for Main Propulsion.

Ans: Ward Leonard System
This system is more or less an all- d.c. system but can also have an a.c. induction motor driving
its direct current generator instead of the diesel engine shown in figure. Field current for both the
generator and the motor is delivered through a three phase rectifier from an a.c. supply.
An exciter mounted on an extension of the generator shaft provides field current both for
generator and for the direct current propulsion motor. The exciter is itself a d.c. shunt generator.
While starting, the armature windings of the exciter have current generated in them, when they
pass through the field, emanating from the residual magnetism of the exciter poles. The small
current generated initially circulates through the windings of the exciter poles, strengthening
their magnetic fields until the optimum output is achieved.
26
Page

The current generated in the d.c. exciter is delivered unchanged to its own field poles and to the
field poles of the d.c. propulsion motor. It is available to the field poles of the generator, but only
through the regulating resistance of the manoeuvring control.
When the control contacts are at the mid positions of the resistances, then no current flows to the
main generator poles and there is no output from it to the propulsion motor. Rotation of the
manoeuvring hand wheel and gears turn the threaded bars to move the contacts along the
resistance, in opposite directions.
As the contacts travel towards the extremities and resistance reduces, current from the exciter
flows to the generator and , in turn to the propulsion motor. Propeller speed is proportional to the
voltage produced in the generator, which is fed to the propulsion motor.
DC Motor supplied from Alternators

The basic arrangement in figure depicts a diesel driven high voltage a.c. generator with an
exciter. An output from the three phase exciter is rectified and delivered to the alternator rotor as
direct current. The level of this current is controlled by an AVR to maintain a constant voltage
output from the alternator.
The alternating output current from the alternator is delivered to the d.c. propulsion motor
armature through a thyristor bridge, as direct current. Control of the gate signals for the silicon
controlled rectifiers alters the level of voltage and hence the speed of the motor. The smoothing
reactor reduces ripples. Reversal of the propulsion motor is effected by changing the direction of
direct current through the field poles.
27
Page

Turbo Electric Propulsion
The necessary reversal and speed changes essential for the synchrounous motor coupled to a
fixed pitch propeller are obtained in the classic turbo electric installation by switching two
phases of the three phase power supply to the motor and by altering the speed of the steam
28
turbine, respectively. With this scheme, the variable speed a.c. generator and the electric
propulsion motor provide a system, which is substitute for a gearbox. Manoeuvring is partly by
Page
electrical and partly by mechanical means.


Systems
Course Covered 8.2 : Operation, Repair and Maintenance of Electrical Machineries,
Switchboard, Lighting and Safety Systems.
1. Explain the meanings of all information displayed on motor/generator name plate.

Ans:
Information displayed on generator name plate
kVA; volts; phase; excitation voltage, excitation current ; output amp ; rpm; power factor;
frequency; sr no/model no./month, year of manufacturing/name & address of manufacturer etc.
Information displayed on motor name plate:

type/single or 3 phase; Rated speed; Power; Supply voltage; supply current, supply frequency;
date of manufacture, sr no. ,model, name & address of manufacturer.
Motor nameplate definitions:

• Rated Full Load Current (FLC):This is the maximum value of current
that the motor can continuously take from the supply without exceeding the
temperature limit for the insulating materials used.
• Rated Voltage: The motor has been designed to operate successfully when connected to this
value of supply voltage. If the rated voltage is not applied, overheating, stalling and burn-out can
result.
• Rated Frequency: The motor speed is directly affected by the supply frequency; so are the
motor losses. If the motor is operated at other than rated frequency overheating can occur.
• Power Rating: This is the shaft power output of the motor when it is connected to rated
voltage and frequency when drawing its rated current from the supply.
• Rated Speed: This is the full load speed of the motor when connected to rated voltage and
frequency.
• IP 'Number: Indicates the degree of protection given by the motor enclosure. The motor rating
details are shown on the motor nameplate as in the example in Fig.
29
Page

2. Describe in simple terms of an AC generator with three phase windings stating the
phase difference and explain star and delta connections.
Ans:
The basic principle of an a.c. generator is very simple. Pairs of electromagnetic poles are driven
(by the prime mover) past fixed coils of wire on the stator as shown in Fig. An alternating
electromotive force (emf) which, ideally, has a sinusoidal waveform, is induced into each stator
phase winding. The useful emf level (E) is called the root mean square (rms) value and all
equipment is rated in rms terms. A peak, or maximum, level is 2.414 (V2) times larger than the
rms level, e.g. if E is 440 V, then EMAX = 1.414*440 = 622 volts. The size of emf generated
depends on the strength of magnetic flux ($) and the rate at which this flux cuts the coils, so
where n is the rotational speed of the rotor poles in rev/s. The voltage available at the
generator terminals is V = E - (I.Z) [phasor calculation] where I is the load current flowing in the
stator phase windings. An internal phase volt-drop of (I.Z) occurs due to the impedance Z of a
phase winding which is made up from its resistance and reactance. The frequency f (measured in
Hertz) of the emf is the number of waveform cycles per second. This obviously depends on the
rotational speed and the number of poles, so or / = (N/60).p where n = speed in rev/s,
N = rev/min and p = pairs of poles.
30
A practical a.c. generator has three sets of coils, called phase windings, located in slots in the
stator surrounding the rotating magnetic poles. The emf induced in each phase is 120° out of
Page
phase with the other two phases. Three-phase windings are labelled as U-V-W with colour

coding of red, yellow and blue used on terminals and bus-bars. One end of each of the three
phase windings are joined together to form the neutral point of a star connection. the other ends
of the phase windings are connected to outgoing conductors called lines. The three output line
voltages (represented by VL) and the 3 output line currents (represented by Ii) combine to create
the three-phase electrical power output of:
In a star connection, any line voltage VL is made up from two phase voltages, where.
The√3 factor is due to the 120° displacement between phase voltages. The rated values of a
machine always refer to line conditions (as stated on rating plate). Angle Ø is the phase angle
between VPH and IPH which is determined by the types of electrical load on the generator (e.g.
lighting, motors, galley equipment etc.).
CosØ is the power factor of the electrical load and is typically about 0.8 lagging which means
that the current waveform lags about 37° behind the voltage.
3. Explain how excitation of a motor is produced and supplied. Describe how a

generator is cooled and heaters are fitted. Explain an automatic voltage regulator.
Ans: Excitation circuit:
With Carbon Brush and Slip rings Brushless type
Cooling: Forced air circulation in a closed circuit (to prevent ingress of dirt) via an air cooler is
pressurised by a fan on the rotor shaft. Cooling air is forced through ventilation ducts in the
stator core, between rotor poles and through the air gap (a few millimetres) between stator and
rotor. Water cooling of the circulating air may also be used for generators with a large power
rating. Temperature detectors (resistance type, thermistors or thermocouples) are used to monitor
the temperature of stator windings, bearings and the cooling air/water of the generator. Single or
grouped temperature alarms are activated at the main watchkeeping position.
31
Page

Heaters: While the generator is stopped during standby or maintenance periods, low power
electric heaters within the machine prevent internal condensation
forming on the winding insulation. These heaters may be switched on manually or
automatically from auxiliary contacts on the generator circuit-breaker. Heater power supplies are
normally 220 V a.c. single-phase supplied from a distribution box local to the generator.
4. Describe the rewinding process of an AC motor or alternator narrating type of

insulation and class used. Described standard test carried out on a rewound motor
both AC & DC.
Ans: The field coils or pole coils, which consists of copper wire or strip, are former wound for
the correct dimensions, then, the former is removed and wound coil is put into place over the
core as shown in figure.
5. State methods of starting parallel operations, changing of alternators. Describe the

synchronizing sequence. Describe how load sharing is adjusted between two or more
generators.
Ans: Main generator units (gas-turbine, steam turbine or diesel drives) have to be run in
parallel to share a total load that exceeds the capacity of a single machine. Changeover of main
and standby generator units requires a brief parallel running period to achieve a smooth transition
32
without blackout. For simplicity and security it is not normally possible to run a main generator
in parallel with either the emergency generator or a shore supply. Circuit breaker interlocks are
Page
used to prevent such an arrangement. Essentially, parallel running is achieved in the two stages

of Synchronising then Load Sharing Both operations are, of course, usually carried out
automatically but manual control is still in common use and is generally provided as a back-up to
the auto control. The generator already on-the-bars is called the running machine and the
generator to be brought into service is the incoming machine. To smoothly parallel the incoming
generator, it must be synchronised with the live bus-bars. The incoming generator voltage is set
by its AYR or manually trimmed (if available) to be equal to the bus-bar voltage. Fine tuning of
the speed can now be observed on the synchroscope or synchronizing lamps. The incomer is
adjusted so that the synchroscope indicator rotates slowly clockwise (fast direction) at about 4
seconds per indicator revolution. The circuit-breaker should be closed as the indicator
approaches the 12 o'clock (in-phase) position. Breaker closing between 5-to and 5-past the 12
o'clock synchroscope position is satisfactory as long as the pointer rotation is fairly slow. To
achieve smooth manual synchronising, the incomer must be brought up to speed to obtain
approximately the same frequency as shown on the bus-bar frequency meter e.g. 60 Hz.
6. Explain the purpose of Emergency Power Supply. Emergency Generator, Starting

on load, Safety Devices on Emergency Switchboard, Inter connection between MSB
and emergency switchboard.
Ans: Purpose of emergency power supply:
 For emergency lighting

 For running of important machineries
 For running of navigation systems
 For restoring power if maintenance to be done on main generators.
 For supply to fire pumps.
Emergency Generator: The power rating of an emergency generator is determined by the size
and role of the ship. The construction and operation of an emergency generator is similar to that
of a main generator. Generally, the emergency generator output voltage is at the same level as
that of the main generators, e.g. 440 V, 60 Hz, 3-phase a.c. The emergency switchboard will be
interconnected with the Engine Room 440 V switchboard in normal operation.
Starting on load: Starting of the emergency generator prime mover is generally automatic. The
run-up is initiated by an electrical relay which monitors the normal voltage supply (e.g. 440 V).
Falling mains frequency or voltage causes the start-up relay to operate the engine starting
equipment. The prime mover may be electrically cranked from its own 24 V battery and starter
motor or air started from its own air reservoir fitted local to the generator engine. A manual start-
up may be initiated by push buttons in the main control room and in the emergency generator
room. Small generator prime movers can usually be manually cranked with a starting
handle.Safety devices on emergency switch board: following safety systems are provided on
ESB:
 Over current relay

33
 Under voltage/overvoltage relay

Page
 Under frequency/ over frequency relay

Inter connection between MSB and emergency switchboard:In normal operation the emergency
board is supplied from the main board by a cable called the interconnector. It is not normally
possible to synchronise the emergency and main generators. Special interlocks in the control
circuits of the circuit-breakers, at each end of the interconnector, prevent parallel running.
7. Explain why starting current is high in induction motor compared to the load
current.
Ans: refer to 8.1-15
8. Requirement of starter for motors. Explain what is meant by single phasing and its
effect on motor when running, when starting, if continued attempts to start are
made.
Ans: refer to 8.1- 15
Single phasing: To operate correctly, induction motors must be connected to a three phase a.c.
supply. Once started they may continue to run even if one of the three supply lines becomes
disconnected. This is called single-phasing and can result in motor burn-out. Single-phasing, as
shown in Fig., is usually caused when one of the three back-up fuses blows or if one of the
contactor contacts is open-circuited. The effect of single-phasing is to increase the current in the
two remaining lines and cause the motor to become very noisy due to the uneven torque
produced in the rotor.
Effect of single phasing on motor during running: If single-phasing occurs when in operation
on light load, the motor keeps on running unless the protection trips the contactor. If the motor is
stopped, it will not restart.
Effect of single phasing on motor when starting, if continued attempts to start are made:
When the contactor is closed, the motor will take a large starting current but develop no rotating
torque. The OCR is set to allow the starting current to flow long enough for the motor, under
normal conditions, to run up to speed. With no ventilation on the stationary motor, this time
delay will result in rapid and severe overheating. Worse still, if the operator makes several
attempts to restart the motor, it will burn out. If a motor fails to start after two attempts, you must
investigate the cause.
34
Page

9. Draw a typical system diagrams of a typical distribution system showing main

generator, emergency generators,shore supply, 440v supply, 220v supply, circuit
breakers and transformers.
Ans:
TIE BREAKER ARRANGEMENT BETWEEN MSBD AND ESBD.

When inter connector MCCB is closed, power supply from main bus bar will be available at tie
breaker switch. It senses the power from MSB and put ESB connected with main generator
supply. At the same time, tie breaker also do the important work of isolating emergency
generator with ESB when main supply is ON.
When supply from MSB is OFF, tie breaker separates the ESB with MSB and clears the
obstruction to connect the EG with ESB. A voltage sensing/monitoring device is connected to
the ESB. When supply to ESB is absent, it gets activated and connects the battery supply to the
35
EG‟s starting motor, within 45 sec the generator starts and come to its normal speed producing
full 440 volt , 60 Hz supply. tie breaker senses the power from EG and connects EG with ESB .
Page

At the same time it isolates the MSB with ESB, so that when EG is operational, MSB remains
isolated from ESB.
10. Sketch layout of a typical Main Switch board and explain dangers in the vicinity of
the bus bars.
Ans:
Bus-Bar Earthing: When it is necessary to work on a section of the HV switchboard bus-bars,

they must be isolated from all possible electrical sources. This will include generator incomers,
section or bus-tie breakers and transformers (which could back-feed) on that bus-bar section.
Earthing down is carried out at a bus-section breaker compartment after satisfying the permissive
key exchanges. In some installations the application of a bus-bar earth is by a special earthing
circuit breaker which is temporarily inserted into the switchboard solely for the bus-bar earthing
36
duty. For extra confidence and operator safety, additional earthing can be connected local to the
work task with approved portable earthing straps and an insulated extension tool.
Page

11. Describe the protection normally provided on the doors of switch board cubides.
Ans: Safety systems provided on doors of switch board cubides:
 power supply ON indicator lamp

 Door locking system on when power supply is ON.
 Positioning the high voltage bus bar on back side of panel.
12. Explain Reverse Power Protection.

Ans: generators intended to operate in parallel must have reverse power protection. A reverse
power relay monitors the direction of power flowing between the generator and the load. If a
prime mover failure occurred, the generator would act as motor. The reverse power relay detects
this fault acts to trip the generator circuit breaker.
The reverse power relay operation is easily checked during a generator changeover. The
outgoing generator is gradually throttled down so that it motors causing the reverse power relay
to trip its generator circuit breaker.
13. Explain under Voltage protection of Generators and Motors.

Ans: The generators are designed to deliver a rated voltage at the rated rpm of the engine
which is the prime mover.If due to any malfunction the voltage goes down damage will take
place with the electrical installation particularly the more sensitive electronic equipment.In an
under voltage situation the circuit breaker disconnects the generator from the MSBD
automatically.
This is done with the help of an under voltage coil fitted inside the CB of the respective
generator which gets energized when the output voltage reaches desired value and hence holds
the CB in place when switched on.In the vent of voltage dropping below desired value thw coil
gets de-nergised and switches off the CB.
All running motors during under voltage condition hence come to a stop as the associated
contactor coil looses its magnetic strength releasing the contacts and thus preventing the motor
windings from getting damaged.
14. Describe Preferential Tripping.

Ans: To maintain generator operation during an overload, a preferential load shedding
arrangement is employed. This is achieved by a special overload relay, called preference trip
relay. If a generator overload condition develops, its preference overload trip will operate to
energize the timing relay. The timing relay then operates to disconnect non essential services in a
definite order at set time intervals, e.g.
 1st trip- air conditioning and ventilation -5 seconds

37
 2nd trip- refrigeration plant- 10 seconds

Page
 3rd trip- deck equipment- 15 seconds.

This order of tripping obviously varies with the ship type. When sufficient non essential load has
been disconnected, the preference overload trip resets and no further load is disconnected. In
many cases the preference trip protection is incorporated in a combined electronic relay which
also monitors generator over current and reverse power.
15. List the ways in which a circuit breaker can be tripped and explain purpose of
interlocks.
Ans: Tripping can be initiated:
1. Manually — a push button with mechanical linkage trips the latch.
2. Under voltage trip coil or relay (trips when de- energised)
3. Over current /short-circuit trip device or relay (trips when energised).
4. Solenoid trip coil — when energized by a remote push-button or relay (such as an
electronic over current relay)
Purpose of interlocks:
Mechanical interlocks are fitted to main circuit breakers to prevent racking-out if still in the ON
position. Care must be taken not to exert undue force if the breaker will not move, otherwise
damage may be caused to the interlocks and other mechanical parts. Electrical interlock switches
are connected into circuit-breaker control circuits to prevent incorrect sequence operation, e.g.
when a shore-supply breaker is closed onto a switchboard. The ship's generator breakers are
usually interlocked OFF to prevent parallel running of a ship's generator and the shore supply.
16. Explain how the fluorescent tubes are started up.

Ans: To strike a fluorescent tube, its gas filling (usually argon or krypton) must be ionised by a
voltage between its cathodes that is slightly higher than that required to maintain the normal
discharge. Two common methods are used to strike the tube:
 Switch-start circuit
 Transformer quick-start circuit.
switch-start circuit:
38
The circuit in Fig. shows a typical Switch-Start Circuit.

Page

The starting action is initiated by a glow type starter switch which is connected between opposite
ends of the tube. When the supply voltage is applied to the circuit, the full mains voltage appears
across the starter switch. A glow discharge occurs between the starter contacts which quickly
heat up, bend and touch each other. This allows current to flow through the lamp cathodes which
will cause the tube ends to heat up and glow before the tube actually strikes. The tube strikes
when the starter switch re-opens as it cools down during its closed (non-glow) period. When the
starter switch opens it interrupts an inductive coil (choke) circuit which produces a surge voltage
across the tube which then strikes. The tube is now full-away and the reduced arc voltage across
it is not sufficient to re-start the glow discharge in the starter so its contacts remain open.
Transformer quick-start circuit:
An example of a transformer quick-start circuit is shown in Fig. The lamp discharge begins as
soon as the cathodes reach their operating temperature. A capacitive effect between the cathodes
and the earthed metalwork of the fitting ionises the gas and the tube strikes very quickly.
17. Explain the location, color and power of navigation lights and how the
uninterrupted working is ensured.
Ans:
By far the most common arrangement is to have five specially designed navigation running lights
referred to as Foremast, Mainmast (or Aftmast), Port, Starboard and Stern. Two anchor lights,
fitted forward and aft, may also be switched from the Navigation Light Panel on the bridge. The
39
side lights are red for Port and green for Starboard while the other lights are white. For vessels
length more than 50 metres, the masthead light(s) must be visible from a range of six nautical
Page
miles and the other navigation lights from three nautical miles. To achieve such visibility, special

incandescent filament lamps are used each with a typical power rating of 65 W but 60 W and 40
W ratings are also permitted in some cases. Due to the essential safety requirement for
navigation lights it is common practice to have two fittings at each position, or two lamps and
lampholders within a special dual fitting. Each light is separately supplied, switched, fused and
monitored from a Navigation Light Panel in the wheelhouse.
The electric power is provided usually at 220 V a.c. with a main supply fed from the essential
services section of the main switchboard.
Uninterrupted Power Supply (U.P.S.): To avoid the loss of essential services, they are
supported by an uninterruptible power supply or UPS. These can be for battery supported d.c.
supplies or a.c. supplies both of which can be configured as continuous UPS or standby UPS.
Fig. shows an a.c. supported UPS arrangement:
18. Emergency Lights, how they are marked, which lights are connected to emergency
power supply system. What interval should they be tested.
Ans:
Emergency light fittings are specially identified, often with a red disc, to indicate their function.
Most of the emergency lighting is continually powered from the ship's emergency switchboard at
220 V a.c. A few emergency lights may be supplied from the ship's 24 V d.c. battery, e.g. at the
radio-telephone position in the wheelhouse, the main machinery spaces and the steering flat.
Emergency lights are tested every week.
40
Page

19. Explain how an Earthing Fault in a circuit can be detected and rectified.
Ans: Regulations require that an earth fault monitor is fitted to the main switchboard to indicate
the presence of an earth fault o n each isolated section of a distribution system, e.g. on the 440 V
and 220 V sections. An earth fault monitor can be either a set of indicator lamps or an instrument
(calibrated in M-Ohms or K-Ohms) to show the system IR value to earth.
1. Earth fault monitoring with lamps: Earth indication lamps in a 3-phase a.c. system are
arranged as shown in Fig. When the system is healthy (no earth faults) then the lamps glow with
equal half brilliance. If an earth fault occurs on one line, the lamp connected to that line goes dim
or extinguished. The other lamps experience an increased voltage so will glow brighter than
before.
2. Earth fault monitoring by d.c. injection: In this type of earth fault Instrument, monitor
connects a small A.c. voltage to the distribution system. Any resulting A.c. current is a measure
of the insulation resistance of the system. The injection-type instrument limits the maximum
earth fault monitoring current to only 1 mA (compared with about 60 mA for earth lamps), and
the meter indicates insulation resistance directly in kQ or MQ. The monitor triggers an alarm
when its set value is reached.
Rectification of earth faults:
 By isolating the machinery one by one from main switch board

 By use of megger.
Need of bunting: it acts as a conductor between machinery body and ship hull. It is required
because the machinery body is insulated from ship body by rubber bush (shock absorber) in
foundation bolt.
In case of earthed neutral system: it is provided to avoid shock hazard in case of current leakage
to body.
41
In case of insulated neutral system: to indicate & give warning against current leakage to
Page
machinery body.

20. By simple sketches show the difference between insulated neutral system and
earthed neutral system.
Ans: INSULATED NEUTRAL SYSTEM:
An insulated neutral system is one that is totally electrically insulated from earth (ship's hull).
An insulated system is one that is electrically insulated from the earth. A majority of ships use
the three phase wire distribution system , with the neutral point of the alternator insulated. Very
little current will flow due to an earth fault on one phase, because there is no easy path for it to
the hull and back to the electrical system.
With such system, an essential electrical motor with an earth fault can be kept running until
stoppage for repair is convenient. Full phase fault only occur if an earth fault occurs on an other
phase as well. The priority requirement onboard the ship is to maintain a continuity of the
electrical supply to the equipment in the event of of a single earth fault occurring.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Theoretically no danger of electrical shock to humans.
2. Gives the warning when earth fault occurs with one phase, no need of stopping machinery.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. more costly as for getting low voltage supply(220v), needs transformers.
2. Earth fault tracing is very hard.
3. As high voltage involve, if full phase fault occurs, heavy damage take place.
EARTHED NEUTRAL SYSTEM

An earthed neutral system has the supply neutral point connected to earth.
An earth neutral system has the neutral point connected to the earth. A few vessels have
electrical distribution system with an earthed neutral system. In such systems, the neutral point of
the alternator is connected to the ship hull system. Danger exists when a neutral is connected to
the hull because three phases e.g. R, S, T are always at a different potential in comparison to the
42
neutral. When a neutral is connected to the hull, the generator center is extended as a node
throughout the entire length of the ship incorporating all conductive materials connected to the
Page
hull.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Earth fault tracing is easy.
2. No need of transformer, as low voltage (220v) is available between one phase and neutral,
hence economical.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Any accidental contacts with current carrying conductor are fatal to human.
2. When earth fault occurs machinery cannot be run till earth fault is rectified.
3. No any pre warning before earth fault occurs.
21. Explain how an earth fault occurs and its effect on the insulated distribution system.
Ans: An earth fault is due to a break in the insulation, allowing the conductor to touch the hull
or an earthed metal enclosure. If a second earth fault occurred on another line in the insulated
system, the two earth faults together would be equivalent to a short-circuit fault (via the ship's
hull) and the resulting large current would operate protection devices and cause disconnection of
perhaps essential services creating a risk to the safety of the ship. An insulated distribution
system therefore requires two earth faults on two different lines to cause an earth fault current to
flow.
22. Describe the procedure to locate earth faults. Explain principle of using earth fault
instruments.
Ans: Procedure to locate earth fault:
 After getting the earth fault indication, to locate fault point. :

 Take the permission from Chief Engineer to isolate machinery from MSB one by one.
 Generally Deck machineries, Defrost heaters, Ballast pumps, Bow thrusters, Laundry
machines, Calorifier are the most suspected items. They should be checked first.
 Switch off the MCB‟s one by one and keep watching the earth indicator. Indication will
disappear when the breaker connected to the faulty circuit is switched off.
 After detection isolate particular circuit.
 Further tracing can be done with the help of a Megger.
43
Page

Competency No. 08 : Operate and Maintain Alternators, Generators And Control

Systems
Course Covered 8.3 : Routine testing and maintenance of electrical components MSB
fittings, batteries and alarm systems.
1. Routine insulation values of motors, starter circuits and other electrical equipments.
Ans: Minimum insulation value must be more than 1 Megaohms.
Starter circuits: Each circuit should have an insulation resistance between conductors and
between each conductor and ground of not less than the following:
Up to 5 A load : 2 M-Ohms
Up to 10 A load : 1 M-Ohms
Up to 25 A load : 400,000 ohms
Up to 50 A load : 250,000 ohms
Over 50 A load : 100,000 ohms
2. Describe or demonstrate maintenance of main circuit breakers and routine checks

carried out.
Ans:
Figure shows how each main circuit breaker is mounted on guide rails inside a main switchboard
44
cubicle from which it must be withdrawn and isolated from the bus-bars for maintenance and
testing. The breaker and its guide rails are usually mounted in a special cassette bolted into the
Page
switchboard cubicle and electrically connected to bus bars. If repair work demands that the

breaker is to be completely removed from its cassette then usually a special hoist or fork-lift is
required for large, heavy-duty units.
The action of withdrawing the circuitbreaker causes a safety shutter to cover the live bus-bar
contacts at the rear of its cubicle.The mechanical linkage in a circuitbreaker is quite complex and
should not be interfered with except for maintenance and lubrication as specified by the
manufacturer. The main fixed and moving contacts are of copper (sometimes of special arc
resistant alloy or silver tipped) and usually silver-alloy coated. Main contacts should not be
scraped or filed. If the main contacts suffer severe burning they will probably require
realignment as specified by the manufacturer.
Procedure to remove Main Circuit Breaker:

1. Go through the instruction manual, before starting of removal.
2. Inform the bridge for blackout condition for maintenance
3. Obtain permission from chief engineer.
4. Keep the tools required, ready.
5. Isolate the generator from bus bar.
6. Stop the generator engine and lock it.
7. Open or release the locking nut.
8. Insert crank rod into the circuit breaker, and rotate it in anti clock wise direction. It acts as
puller screw.
9. Soon the circuit breaker starts coming out , initially resistance is being offered due to locking
contact.
10. Usually there are 4 position s for circuit breaker
a. Engaged position: in this position main contact, auxiliary contacts and earth contact are in
engage position with bus bar.
b. Test position: in this position main contacts are separated form bus bar . all relays can be
tested in this position for their operations.
c. Isolated position: in this position both main and auxiliary contacts are isolated form the
bus bar
d. Remove position: All contacts are separated from bus bar. Now MCB can be shifted from
bus bar with the help of chain block.
45
Page

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN
1. Read the manual completely.
2. Isolate the respective Auxiliary Engine by shutting off the Air & Fuel line valves & place
WARNING boards wherever required.
2. Check the operation of emergency lighting before blackout.
3. Keep the air bottles ready for restarting generator after maintenance.
4. Discharge the static electricity in bus bar before starting maintenance.
5. Spring energy in coiled spring should be released.
6. Keep ready all tools required.
3. Inspecting and testing of trip switches and its set values including low voltage &
over current trips.
Ans: Trips are generally tested by simulating the condition. Each generator has its own over
current trip, set generally at 110% of rated current, instantaneous operation. And under voltage
trip is set at 80 % of rated voltage.
4. Maintenance of lighting transformers & lighting systems.

Ans: Testing Transformers for Lighting and Power
A high-potential test shall be carried out on every transformer preferably with the transformer
hot, immediately after the temperature rise test; the test shall be applied between the winding
under test and the remaining windings, frame and tank of the transformer all connected to
ground.
The test shall be made with ac at a convenient frequency between 25 Hz and twice the rated
frequency and the full test voltage and shall be maintained for one (1) minute without
breakdown.
Induced potential should be tested.
Temperature rise: rated voltage at rated frequency shall be applied to the primary windings of a
transformer with rated load connected to the secondary windings; as an alternative, tests resulting
in losses approximating those obtained under normal or specified load conditions may be
applied; the test shall be continued until constant temperatures are attained.
46
Insulation resistance test of the transformer windings shall be carried out, preferably with the
transformer winding hot, immediately after the temperature rise test and shall be not less than
Page
one megaohm.

5. Tests on battery, alarm system etc.

Ans: Battery maintenance includes keeping the cell tops clean and dry, checking the tightness of
terminal nuts and applying a smear of petroleum jelly to such connections to prevent corrosion.
Be most careful when handling the battery electrolyte (e.g. when using a hydrometer to check its
specific gravity). Use protective rubber gloves and eye goggles when handling electrolyte.
Insulated spanners should be available for use on cell connections to prevent accidental short-
circuiting of battery terminals. Such a short-circuit across the terminals of just one cell of a
battery will cause a blinding flash with the probability of the cell being seriously damaged.
The state of charge held by a lead-acid battery is best indicated by a test on the electrolyte
specific gravity (SG) by using a hydrometer as shown in Fig. A fully charged lead-acid cell has
an SG of about 1.27-1.285 (often written as 1270-1285) which falls to about 1.1 (or 1100) when
fully discharged. The cell voltage also falls during discharge and its value can also be used as an
indication of the state of charge. A lead-acid battery may be safely discharged until the cell
voltage drops to approximately 1.73 V (measured while delivering load current).
The state of charge of an alkaline battery cell cannot be determined from its SG value. The
electrolyte density does not change during charge/discharge cycles but gradually falls during the
lifetime of the battery. New alkaline cells have an SG of around 1190. When this reduces to
about 1145 (which may take 5-10 years depending on the duty cycle) the electrolyte must be
completely renewed or the battery replaced. Discharge of alkaline cells should be discontinued
when the cell voltage has fallen to about 1.1 V.
47
Page


Systems
Course Covered 8.4 : Study of semi conductors, diodes, transistors, amplifiers, thyristors
and their testing, ships internal communication system and electric
Steering gear.
1. Theoretical knowledge of semiconductor components, diodes, transistor, thyristors

and their function and operation.
Ans: A semiconductor is a solid whose electrical conductivity can be controlled by adding
impurities. A semiconductor is a material that has an electrical resistivity between that of a
conductor and an insulator. An external electrical field changes a semiconductor's resistivity.
Silicon is used to create most semiconductors commercially. Dozens of other materials are used,
including germanium, gallium arsenide, and silicon carbide. A pure semiconductor is often
called an “intrinsic” semiconductor. The conductivity, or ability to conduct, of semiconductor
material can be drastically changed by adding other elements, called “impurities” to the melted
intrinsic material and then allowing the melt to solidify into a new and different crystal. This
process is called "doping"
Diode: A diode is a two terminal semiconductor device which acts like a one-way gate in a
circuit. A diode allows current to easily flow in one direction and not the other. In other words,
a diode has a very low resistance in one direction and a very high resistance in the other.
TRANSISTOR: A transistor is a three terminal device made of semiconductor material. The

terminals are named: emitter, base and collector. There are two types of transistors, NPN and
PNP. P and N stand for semiconductor crystal types which have an excess of positive and
negative charge respectively. The base current controls the output collector current. A transistor
can be considered to be a form of variable resistor.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is used in
radio, telephone, computer and other electronic systems. The transistor is often cited as being
one of the greatest achievements in the 20th century, and some consider it one of the most
important technological breakthroughs in human history. Some transistors are packaged
individually but most are found in integrated circuits.
48
Page

Thyristors: The thyristors is a four-layer semiconducting device, with each layer consisting of
alternately N-type or P-type material, for example P-N-P-N. The main terminals, labeled anode
and cathode, are across the full four layers, and the control terminal, called the gate, is attached
to p-type material near to the cathode. (A variant called an SCS—Silicon Controlled Switch—
brings all four layers out to terminals.) The operation of a thyristors can be understood in terms
of a pair of tightly coupled Bipolar Junction Transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching
action.
Thyristors have three states:
Reverse blocking mode — Voltage is applied in the direction that would be blocked by a diode
Forward blocking mode — Voltage is applied in the direction that would cause a diode to
conduct, but the thyristors has not yet been triggered into conduction
Forward conducting mode — The thyristors has been triggered into conduction and will remain
conducting until the forward current drops below a threshold value known as the "holding
current"
Some of the devices which comes under thyristors are
a) Silicon controlled rectifier
b) Triac
c) Diac
d) Silicon controlled switch
2. Laboratory testing and familiarization of each electronic component mentioned

above.
Ans: done in practical lab.
3. Amplifiers and oscillators. Circuit diagram and explanation.

Ans:
An amplifier or simply amp, is any device that changes, usually increases, the amplitude of a
signal. The relationship of the input to the output of an amplifier—usually expressed as a
function of the input frequency—is called the transfer function of the amplifier, and the
magnitude of the transfer function is termed the gain.
In popular use, the term usually describes an electronic amplifier, in which the input "signal" is
usually voltage or current. In audio applications, amplifiers operate loudspeakers used in PA
systems to make the human voice louder or play recorded music. Amplifiers may be classified
according to the input (source) they are designed to amplify (such as a guitar amplifier, to
perform with an electric guitar), the device they are intended to drive (such as a headphone
49
amplifier), the frequency range of the signals (Audio, IF, RF, and VHF amplifiers, for example),
Page

whether they invert the signal (inverting amplifiers and non-inverting amplifiers), or the type of
device used in the amplification (valve or tube amplifiers, FET amplifiers, etc.).
An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic signal, often
a sine wave or a square wave.
A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates an AC waveform at a
frequency below ≈20 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to
distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.
Oscillators designed to produce a high-power AC output from a DC supply are usually called
inverters.
The waveform generators which are used to generate pure sinusoidal waveforms of fixed
amplitude and frequency are called oscillators.
4. Ships Internal Communication System.

Ans: ships have following communication systems:
 Intercom: between engine room and bridge room, between bridge and steering roometc.
 Battery less phone: no need of power, sound energy converted into electronic signals and
again at other end signals converted to sound.
 Sound power phone: similar to above, but sound is converted in to electric signals
 Exchange type phone: connects every part of the ship using phone cables connected to
central exchange panel.
 Public address system: used to carry address to all ship personnels and operated from
bridge.
 Walkie talkie: wireless system and used during maintenance work.
5. Communication system, modulation and demodulation, their necessity and circuit

explanation.
Ans: Modulation is the process of varying one waveform in relation to another waveform. In
telecommunications, modulation is used to convey a message, or a musician may modulate the
tone from a musical instrument by varying its volume, timing and pitch. Often a high-frequency
sinusoid waveform is used as carrier signal to convey a lower frequency signal. The three key
parameters of a sine wave are its amplitude ("volume"), its phase ("timing") and its frequency
("pitch"), all of which can be modified in accordance with a low frequency information signal to
obtain the modulated signal.
A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a device that performs the
inverse operation of modulation is known as a demodulator (sometimes detector or demod).
50
Page

Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal from a modulated
carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit used to recover the information content
from the modulated carrier wave.
These terms are traditionally used in connection with radio receivers, but many other systems use
many kinds of demodulators. Another common one is in a modem, which is a contraction of the
terms modulator/demodulator.
Need for Modulation:

The velocity of electromagnetic waves is 3 x 108ms-1. On the other hand, the velocity of sound
waves cannot be used to transmit intelligence to far off places. Only electromagnetic waves can
be made to do this.
Modulation is extremely necessary in communication systems due to the following reasons:
 Practical Antenna Length (L)

When free space is the communication channel, antennas radiate and receiver the signal.
Theory shows that the antennas operate effective only when their dimensions are of the
order of the magnitude of wavelength of the signal being transmitted.
The audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Suppose a frequency of 20 kHz is to

be radiated directly into space. For this,
This is too long antenna to be constructed practically. So, it is impracticable to radiate

audio signal directly into space.
Let us now calculate the length of the antenna if a carrier wave of say, 1000kHz is used
to carry the signal.
An antenna of 300m length can be easily constructed.
 Wireless Communication
51
One desirable feature of radio transmission is that it should be carried without wires (i.e.,)
Page
radiated into space. At audio frequencies, radiation is not practicable because the

efficiency of radiation is poor. However, efficient radiation of electrical energy is

possible at high frequencies (>20kHz). For this reason, modulation is always done in
communication systems.
 Operating Range
The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. The greater the frequency of the wave,
the greater is the energy possessed by it. As the audio signal frequencies are small, these
cannot be transmitted over large distances if radiated directly into space. The only
practical solution is to modulate a high frequency carrier wave with audio signal and
permit the transmission to occur at this high frequency (carrier frequency).
6. Various sensors used onboard ships.

Pressure sensors, temperature sensors, level sensors, RPM sensors, photo sensors,
water Salinometer.
Ans: Electrical sensors are often called as transducers as they convert mechanical quantity into
electrical one.
 Pressure sensors:
o Direct type:
 Manometers
 Bourdon tube pressure guage
 Diaphragm type pressure guage
o Electrical type(transducers):
 Strain type:when pressure applied to metal wire/coil, microvoltage get
induced which is proportional to applied pressure & used as signal.
 Linear motion type: it make combined use of diaphragm &LVDT. It will give
output voltage according to diaphragm expansion which is proportional to
applied pressure.
 Temperature sensors:
o Direct indicating
 Liquid in glass:mercury filled in glass capillary
 Bourdon tube type: mercury or gas filled in bourdon tube & sealed.
 Bimetallic strip: coil of bimetallic material wound & unwound against
temperature change & show reading on dial.
o Electrical:
 Resistance thermometer: metallic conductor changes its resistance
according to the temperature change (resistance is directly proportional to
temperature).
 Thermocouples: if circuit is formed, consisting of two dissimilar metallic
conductors & their junctions are kept at different temperatures, a current
52
will flow in circuit.

 Thermistor: semiconductor material used in circuit. Similar to resistance
Page
thermometer but resistance inversely proportional to temperature.

 Level sensors:
o Direct type:
 Gauge glass/Sight glass
 Float gauge
 Magnetic float gauge
 Hydrostatic gauge: use of pressure gauge for measuring level in tank.(
diaphragm)
o Electrical :
Electrical capacitance gauge: capacitance between two electrodes varies according to
quantity of dielectric material. There is much difference in conductivity of air and
liquid. In this method, probe act as one electrode & tank surface act as another
electrode. As the level of tank varies, capacitance between electrodes also varies.
 RPM sensors: these are sensors which consist of transmitter & receiver (light type).
Some reflective marking will be made on rotary surface. Light will be reflected and
received by receiver. Frequency of reflections calculated on time basis to calculate
RPM.(RPM is directly proportional to frequency. Frequency is multiplied by 60 to get
rotary speed in RPM.
 Photo sensors: these are mostly L.D.R.(light dependent resistance). Resistance will vary
according to light intensity. Photo sensors are used in flame eye of boilers, incinerators,
and mist detectors.
 Water Salinometer: water to be tested is passed between two electrodes. If salinity
increases, the conductivity of liquid between electrodes varies & respectively capacitance
in the circuit changes which is calibrated with reference value.
7. Practical use of VHF.

Ans: VHF is used for communication between ships and between ship & port control.
VHF is commonly known as walki-talkie onboard ship. It have a talk button on it.by pressing the
talk switch one can transmit the message to all other vhf sets operating on the same channel.
While talking you can‟t receive the messages. It have standby battery time of 24 hours and
continuous use of 6-8 hours.it works over a range of 5-7 nautical miles.
VHF (Very high frequency) is the radio frequency range from 30 MHz to 300 MHz. Frequencies
immediately below VHF are denoted High frequency (HF), and the next higher frequencies are
known as Ultra high frequency (UHF). The frequency allocation is done by ITU.
53
Page

8. Explain the Generator Protection scheme.
 Apart from direct temperature measurement of the stator windings and the internal air,
the protection of a generator is largely based on the sensing of current and voltage from
CTs and VTs.
 The number and type of protective relay functions increases with the generator kVA
rating and voltage level.
 Protective relays are electromagnetic (traditional) or electronic (increasingly more
common) which are mounted on the generator front panel of the main switchboard.
 Some protective functions may be grouped together within a single relay case. Settings
for level and time-delay must be periodically checked by injecting currents and/or
voltages directly into the relay
 Some typical relay types employed for generator protection are outlined in Fig.
OCIT
 The Over Current Inverse Time relay function monitors general balanced overloading
and has current/time settings determined by the overall protective discrimination scheme.
 Typical setting ranges for current (I) and time (t) are:
I>: 0.7-2. In7 (In = normal or rated generator current) and t: l-10s
OC (INST.)
 "Instantaneous" trip to protect against extremely high over current caused by a short-
circuit fault. Typical setting ranges are:
I» : 2-lO.In, and t: 0.1-ls
NFS
 A Negative Phase Sequence relay determines the amount of unbalance in the stator
54
currents which is an indirect measure of the generator stator and rotor temperature. A
relatively small degree of unbalance causes a significantly increased temperature rise so
Page
the NFS current setting is low at around 0.2. In.

DIFF
 This is a differential measurement of current at each end of a stator phase winding. This
comparison of current is to detect an internal fault in the stator
windings which may be caused by partially short-circuited coil turns and/or earth faults.
Current settings for this very serious fault are very low e.g. about 0.1. In.
EL
 An Earth Leakage relay (sometimes called Zero Phase Sequence) detects a earth fault
current returning back through the earthed neutral connection. In a ship's HV generator
system the earth fault current is limited by a high impedance NER (neutral earthing
resistor) or earthing transformer so the pick-up current setting is very low, e.g. 1-5 A with
a time delay of 0.1-0.5 s.
UV/OV
 Under Voltage and Over Voltage functions are monitored by these relays with
settings of around O.S.Un and 1.2.Un respectively (Un = rated voltage) with time delays
of about 2s. An overvoltage function may not be required in many protection schemes
UF/OF
 Under and Over Frequency settings are typically 58 Hz and 62 Hz for a 60 Hz
system.
LO
 This is the master Lock Out or trip/ hand-reset relay responsible for tripping the
generator circuit breaker. Its action is instantaneous when triggered by a
protective relay. It can also be used to trip the generator prime-mover and
initiate generator field suppression together with the signaling of an alarm.
RP
 Generators intended to operate in parallel must have reverse power protection
 A reverse power relay monitors the direction of power flowing between the
generator and the load. If a prime-mover failure occurred the generator would
act as a motor. The reverse power relay detects this fault and acts to trip the
generator circuit-breaker.
 The pick-up power level setting and time-delay setting are adjustable and are
pre-set to suit the prime-mover. If the prime mover is a turbine, very little
power is absorbed when motoring and a reverse-power pick-up setting of 2-3%
is usual.
 If the prime mover is a diesel then a setting range of 5-15% is usually adopted.
A time delay range of about0.5-3 s is usual.
 The RP relay operation is easily checked during a generator changeover. The
outgoing generator is gradually throttled down so that it motors causing the
reverse power relay to trip its generator circuit-breaker.
55
Page

Training Manual
Commissioning and performance of electrical equipment on board ship:
Main switch board/ engine controls
Assignment no. 77
1. What are functional features of MSB?
a) It receives supply from the main generator.
b) Houses the Power Management System
c) Has all the controls for the Generators
d) Acts as a distribution centre of power to various machinery
e) Has the necessasary instrumentation, alarm & safety systems monitoring the
entire power plant.
2. What are the cold checks to be done before energizing the main switch board?
a) Check insulation of the bus bar.
b) Check that the earthing system in order.
c) Check that all alarm & trips are working by simulation test.
3. What are the general units in the MSB that require calibration and testing
periodically?
a) Under voltage relay/ over voltage relay
b) Over current relay
c) Reverse power relay
d) Under frequency/over frequency relay
e) Voltmeter, ammeter, power meter
f) Frequency meter
g) Synchroscope
4. Why is the insulation of the cable recorded and what instrument is used to do so?
It is done to know the condition of the cables. Megger is the instrument used to do so.
5. What are preferential trips? What is its significance?

These are non essential trips. When the generator is overloaded, non essential loads are
tripped off from bus bar to reduce load on generator e.g. Air Conditioning Plant,
Refrigeration Plant, Galley Power etc.
6. Give the abbreviation of AVR? What is its significance?

AVR stands for automatic voltage regulator. AVR senses the generator output voltage &
according to regulate exciter field current to maintain the voltage at its set value.
7. What Safety Protection is provided for the Alternator?

a) Over current relay: trips off due to heavy current flow in circuit.
b) Under voltage relay: without normal voltage from generator, it will trip the MSB
56
c) Over speed relay: due to sudden removal of load, engine RPM increases and
over speed relay trips the engine.
Page

d) Reverse power relay: after tripping a generator, when other generator starts,
reverse power relay avoids the motorizing of stopped generator.
e) Thermal relay: when heavy current passes, due to heat generation , relay trips off
the circuit.
8. What are the main conditions for two generators to be matched the circuit breakers
of the incoming generator is closed on the bus bar (or operating generator) for
paralleling.
a) Voltage must be Identical
b) Frequency must be Identical
c) Phase sequence must be Identical
Assignment no. 78
Calibrator : Fluke 5700 A R.F. signal GENERATOR.
1. What is a calibrator?
It is an electronic instrument for testing of audio frequency transformer, loudspeakers,
microphones etc.
Electronic instruments
Assignment no. 79
Calibrator: Echo Simulator
1. Which are the devices that are tested and calibrated by echo simulator?
a) Echo Sounder
b) SONAR
2. What are the functional features of an echo simulator?
Echo simulator is use to produce simulation for testing of instruments which works of
echo property such as SONAR. It delays to reflect the sound wave received from the
system to be tested.
3. Briefly describe the working of an echo simulator?

Simulator measures the unit power transmitted to it for device under test sending back a
simulated echo with features. It is possible to determine (as stated in the function) echo
separated seat until successive phase come out from device under test. 57
Page

Assignment no. 80
Measuring instrument: Oscilloscope
1. What does abbreviation CRO stands for?
CRO stands for cathode ray oscilloscope.
2. Study the front panel of CRO and describe the features.

a) Time based control
b) Voltage gain control
c) Horizontal position control
d) Vertical position control
e) Trigger switch, hold, off, level control, height control
f) Intensity focus control
3. Briefly describe applications where CRO can be used?

Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, telecommunications, and
industry. General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic equipment
and laboratory work such as Study of wave shapes of original signal, measuring
amplitude distortion and deviation from normal, measuring voltage frequency and phase
shift.
Assignment no. 81
Semiconductors, diodes, transistors, amplifiers & thyristors
1. What are Semiconductors?
Substances, whose conductivity lies between insulator and conductor are known as
semiconductors. e.g. silicon and germanium. When temperature is raised, the resistance
of semiconductor is decreased and conduction is increased.
2. Identify the symbols from the figure 3.1

a) Resistor
b) Capacitor
c) Battery
d) P-N diode
e) NPN transistor
f) Zener diode
g) Variable rheostat
h) Operational amplifier
i) Inductor
j) Transistor
58
Page

3. Study the figure 3.2 and identify the bias of diodes and mark the polarity?
a) Forward bias
b) Reverse bias
4. Identify the type of transistors from figure 3.3 a

a) NPN transistor
b) PNP transistor
5. What is the firing angle of a Thyristor?

The angle at which the SCR starts to conduct (i.e. OFF to ON state) is known as firing or
triggering angle.
6. What is a full wave rectifier and its types?

Full wave rectifier is a device which is used to convert AC to DC. Its types are: centre
tapped and bridge type.
7. What is a voltage regulator and its significance?

It is a device which provides stabilized output voltage even when there is a fluctuation in
the input e.g. zener diode
8. Briefly describe how can you test a diode with a multimeter?

When a multimeter is connected to the diode which is forward biased, it should show
high current flow in the circuit.
59
When a multimeter is connected to the diode in reverse bias, it should indicate high
resistance level.
Page

Assignment no 82
A. Describe the features of a analog meter and digital meters?
Analog instruments are cheap and simple. Analog meter movements are relatively simple
& operate under a wide range of environments.
A digital instrument indicates the reading directly in decimal numbers & therefore arrest
errors on account of human factors like parallax & approximation are eliminated. Digital
instruments are without moving parts so avoiding mechanical errors.
B. Why are digital meters preferred over analog meters?

a) Precise measurement,
b) Easy handling,
c) Minimum errors in the device.
C. What does abbreviation CRO stands for? Briefly describe its features and use.
CRO- cathode ray oscilloscope.
It is used to measure voltage, phase and frequency of a signal.
Features:
a) size & portability control,
b) focus control,
c) intensity control,
d) signal positioning knobs,
e) time base controls.
D. Briefly describe the features of a signal generator and its applications
Signal generator is an electronic device that generates repeating or non-repeating
electronic signals (in either the analog or digital domains). They are generally used in
designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic or electro acoustic devices.
E. Describe briefly the significance of a frequency counter.?

It is a digital instrument that can be used to measure the frequency of any periodic
waveform. Frequency counter usually measures the no. of oscillations or pulses per
second in a repeatative electronic signal.
F. What does abbreviation RADAR stand for? Briefly describe its application.
RADAR: radio detection and ranging.
RADAR is used onboard ship and by port control to detect the nearby ships , their path
and their speed. It provides the continuous accurate evaluation position & speed of ship
to reduce workload. It improves the standard of collision avoidance at sea.
G. What are the features of a GYRO COMPASS? briefly describe its applications
60
It is provided to correct the error induced by speed on latitude and longitude. The system
is designed to enable steering, once the information related to course of voyage and
Page
relevant information is fed to system.

Assignment no. 83
Instruments: speed log, echo sounder
1. Briefly describe the application of an echo sounder.
It provides information about depth of water underneath the ship to aid the navigation. It
also scales out the deep range compared to shallow range.
2. Study the echo sounder and name various parts

a) Transducer
b) amplifier
c) display unit
d) stylus recorder
e) transmitter
f) receiver
g) event maker
3. Specify the application of a speed log?

Speed log is used to measure the actual speed of the vessel. It is also helps to efficiency
calculation work during voyage.
4. Study the speed log and name the components

a) Sensor solenoid
b) amplifier
c) speed indicator
d) distance indicator
Synchronization followed by generator changeover:

1. Before starting of parallelizing operation (synchronization), allow the incoming generator
to warm up sufficiently & check all running parameters are within normal range.
2. Check for the voltage & frequency of incoming generator, it should be matching with
running generator. In practice, frequency of incoming generator is kept slightly above the
frequency of running generator to avoid reverse power condition.
3. To start synchronization, put the selector switch to incoming generator position, the
synchronoscope will start working.
4. If the flickering light in a synchronoscope rotates anticlockwise then increase the speed
(frequency) of incoming generator. If it rotates clockwise, then look for the speed of
rotation of light.
61
5. If the rotational speed of light is more then there is a much more difference frequency of
running generator. Try to minimize the difference in frequencies by adjusting the speed
Page
so that synchronoscope indicator lights rotate very slowly in clockwise direction.

6. When movement of light become slow in clockwise direction, wait till 11‟oclock position
of light & then put ON the breaker of incoming generator( at 12‟oclock position , both
generator will have same phase sequence). The synchronoscope lights stops rotating and
12‟oclock position light glowing brightly.
7. Now both generators are running in parallel. Switch off the synchronoscope. Start
sharing/shifting the load from the running generator to incoming generator by increasing
the speed of incoming generator & decreasing the speed of running generator
simultaneously. Keep constant eye on KW meter of both generators (KW meter shows
load shared by that generator) & frequency meter of bus bar. If the frequency is increased
or decreased above the rated frequency then increase or reduce the speed of both
generators at a time as required.
8. When nearly 90% of load shifted to the incoming generator, put OFF the breaker of
outgoing generator (previously running) from bus bar. This avoids the reverse power
condition. Now load is completely taken by the incoming generator, its speed will
decrease suddenly, try to maintain its frequency by adjusting the speed.
9. Allow the outgoing generator to run idle for some time, to cool down and to avoid
thermal stresses.
62
Page

Wiring diagrams:
63
Page

64
Page

c8 PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

c8 PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

C-08 MARINE ELECTROTECHNOLOGY

Function: Electronics & Electrical Knowledge at Operational Level

MARINE ELECTRO TECHNOLOGY

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Competency No. 08 : Operate and Maintain Alternators, Generators and Control

1. Explain how alternating current is produced in a simple loop rotating in magnetic

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Main parts of DC generator are

reluctance to the flux through the armature from N-pole to S-pole.

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

E.M.F. equation of a generator

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Constructionally there is no basic difference between a DC generator and a DC motor

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Equation for finding the Torque of the motor:

Factors deciding the speed of motor:

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Speed control of motors:

supplied by a motor-generator set which consists of either a dc or an ac motor M2

directly coupled to generator G.the motor M2 runs approximately at constant speed.

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Speed control of series motors

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Power losses in DC motors:

5. Types of DC motors and their applications

Types of motor applications

6. Starters for DC motor. Circuit explanation

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

2. Four point starter:

7. Alternating current trough resistance, inductance and capacitance. Draw graphs

AC Circuit Containing Resistance only

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

AC Circuit Containing Pure Inductance only

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

The relation between XL and f is a straight line.

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

The arrow in the anticlockwise direction indicates E leads I by 90o.

current, the external source should do some work for which

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Therefore, in small time dt, the work done will be:

where Io represents the maximum value of current.

AC Circuit with Pure Capacitance only

Let an AC source be connected across pure inductive element.

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

?plays the role of a resistance and is known as capacitive reactance Xc.

AC Circuit, Inductance and Capacitance Circuit (LCR in series)

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

8. Explain Impedence and compare it with resistance of a DC circuit.

Using equations (1) and (2),

I = Io sin (wt -q) 18

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

The second term is zero over complete cycle i.e.,

Recall the diagram to determine effective voltage in LCR circuit.

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

of construction are shown in figure.

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Main parts and their functions (Brushless type Alternator):

A.V.R. (Automatic Voltage Regulator):

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

concept restricted to AC.

GME & BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL