sustainability

Article
Studies on Energy Dissipation Mechanism of an
Innovative Viscous Damper Filled with Oil and Silt
Zheng Lu 1,2 ID
, Junzuo Li 1 and Chuanguo Jia 3,4, *
1 Research Institute of Structural Engineering and Disaster Reduction, Tongji University,
Shanghai 200092, China; luzheng111@tongji.edu.cn (Z.L.); 1732580@tongji.edu.cn (J.L.)
2 State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
3 Key Laboratory of New Technology for Construction of Cities in Mountain Area, Chongqing University,
Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400045, China
4 School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
* Correspondence: jiachuanguo@cqu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-21-6598-2668; Fax: +86-21-6598-2224




Received: 20 March 2018; Accepted: 22 May 2018; Published: 29 May 2018


Abstract: To improve seismic performance of a traditional viscous damper, an innovative viscous

damper is proposed, in which the conventional damping medium is replaced by a mixture of oil
and silt. This new medium is expected to increase damping force and solve the problem that
arises out of the fact that the energy dissipation capacity of a conventional fluid viscous damper is
low for small displacements. Firstly, the design concept and device configurations are introduced,
then a cyclic loading test is applied to investigate the damper’s energy dissipation mechanism in
different conditions. Experimental results show that the damper exhibits displacement-dependent
characteristics for small displacements, indicating that the silt has changed its damping mechanism.
Furthermore, the effect of multiple test parameters on the damping force is analyzed, showcasing
that an increase in silt content can visibly increase the damping force. According to experimental
data, fitting models of the damping force are obtained and verified, thus promoting further
engineering applications.

Keywords: viscous damper; hybrid damper; seismic performance; cyclic loading test; silt

1. Introduction
The use of passive, semi-active, and active dampers to dissipate seismic energy is an effective
approach in the creation of earthquake-resilient structures [1–4]. Such energy dissipation devices
reduce structural seismic response and protect the structure from severe damage. As a type of passive
damper, viscous dampers were firstly used as shock absorbers in mechanical engineering [5]. Makris
and his group then began studying viscous dampers in civil engineering applications [6]. A fractional
derivative Maxwell model was proposed for viscous dampers, which were used for vibration
control and seismic isolation of buildings [6]. Fluid viscous dampers fabricated by Taylor Devices
have been applied to hundreds of bridges and buildings, displaying satisfactory performance [7].
To further improve performance, semi-active viscous dampers, such as variable orifice dampers and
magnetorheological (MR) dampers, were investigated [8,9]. These semi-active dampers can adjust
damping forces through variable ways, such as changing the area of the orifice or changing the state
of the damping medium to satisfy different excitations. Taylor and his group applied fluid viscous
dampers in a high-rise structure in order to suppress anticipated wind-induced accelerations [10].
Viscous dampers have been proven to be useful to reduce structural vibration under both wind and
earthquake excitations [10,11]. In addition, other scholars have also investigated performance tests,
analytical models, design methods, and other aspects of viscous dampers [12–15]. Constantinou

Sustainability 2018, 10, 1777; doi:10.3390/su10061777 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2018, 10, 1777 2 of 13

and Symans proved that viscous dampers could reduce both inter-story drifts and shear forces of
a structure [12]. A research by Taylor and Constantinou presented the test methodology, procedure and
results of full-scale viscous dampers with high-output forces, which was useful for further research [14].
Furthermore, many scholars have focused on the optimum design of viscous dampers for high-rise
buildings [15]. The advantages of viscous dampers include their ability to not contribute to additional
stiffness of a structure and great energy dissipation capacity. However, shortcomings do exist.
Viscous dampers are velocity-dependent. Compared to velocity-independent dampers such as
friction dampers [16,17], viscous dampers have much lower energy dissipation capacity for small
displacements [18]. In engineering applications, the performance of the damper is limited when
structural displacements are not large enough to activate them [19]. Hence, some displacement
amplification methods were studied. Berton and Bolander designed an amplification device based on
a gear-type mechanism and verified the device’s function through laboratory tests [20]. In addition,
Ribakov et al. suggested magnification of the effect of viscous dampers by lever arms [21]. However,
these methods make a structure more complicated and increase manufacturing costs, proving
unfavorable to a wide range of engineering applications.
A multiple damping mechanism is an effective way to reduce the primary structure’s
response [22,23]. Tsai et al. combined velocity-dependent and velocity-independent devices in
one frame, minimizing the shortcomings of individual dampers and effectively reducing structural
response [24]. Marko et al. studied the seismic response of a structure equipped with multiple types
of dampers [25]. Furthermore, some dampers with hybrid energy consumption mechanisms were
designed to enhance damping performance [26–30]. Lee and his group developed a new hybrid energy
dissipation device, combining a steel slit damper and rotational friction dampers [27]. Lu studied the
performance of particle dampers that had several energy dissipation mechanisms [29]. Inspired by
these experiences, a new type of viscous damper with a mixed damping medium consisting of silt and
silicone oil is proposed in this paper.
As a very common engineering material, the dynamic properties of soil have been studied
by scholars, who found that the deformation process of soil also dissipates energy [31–33].
The elastic-plastic model, which is displacement-dependent, is usually applied as the constitutive
model of the silt. This research attempts to enrich the damping mechanism of the viscous damper by
adding silt into the conventional damping medium. The high pressure in the cylinder of the damper
can force the saturated silt to deform and dissipate energy. In addition, the connection between
particles of saturated silt is weak, while its fluidity and viscosity is strong [34,35]. Therefore, the mixed
medium has enough fluidity, and viscosity is increased to enhance the damping force.
This paper investigated this new type of viscous damper. A corresponding performance test was
carried out to study its energy dissipation mechanism and a simplified damping force model was
proposed (based on experimental results) to facilitate further engineering applications.

2. Conceptual Design of Innovative Viscous Damper

2.1. Viscous Fluid Design

Methyl silicone oil is a commonly used energy dissipation medium for viscous dampers. Table 1
lists its physical properties. It has excellent electrical insulation tolerance, temperature tolerance, and
high compression modulus. It is hydrophobic and chemically inert, with small surface tension and
viscosity-temperature coefficient.
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Table 1.
Table Physical properties
1. Physical properties of
of methyl
methyl silicone
silicone oil.
oil.

Density/kg/m
Density/kg/m3
3
970970
Kinematic
Kinematicviscosity/cst
viscosity/cst(25
(25 °C)
◦ C) 1000 ± 50± 50
1000
viscosity/kg/(m·s)(25 ◦ C)
Dynamic
Dynamicviscosity/kg/(m·s) (25 °C) 0.970.97
Flash point/ ◦C 300300
Flash point/°C◦
Freezing point/ C −50
Freezing point/°C −50

The silt
The silt applied
appliedin in the
the test
test is
is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 1a.1a. Through
Throughmoisture
moisturecontent
contenttest
testand
andsievesievetest,
test,
the specimen can be classified as low-plasticity silt, which is homogeneous with
the specimen can be classified as low-plasticity silt, which is homogeneous with very little impurities. very little impurities.
The particles
The particles are
are very
very small,
small, likelike powder. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the moisture
moisture content
content isis 0.906%,
0.906%, whichwhich is is
extremely low.
extremely low. The
The plasticity index I p =
plasticity index = 9.6.
9.6. On
On mixing
mixing thethe silt
silt with
with methyl
methyl silicone
silicone oil,
oil, itit was
was found
found
that the
that the mixed
mixed medium
medium was was fluidic
fluidic after
after stirring
stirring and
and had
had great
great viscosity.
Firstly, the
Firstly, the silt
silt increases
increases the theviscosity
viscosityof ofthe
thedamping
dampingmedium
mediumand andthe
themaximum
maximumdamping
dampingforce. force.
Furthermore, special
Furthermore, special dynamic
dynamic characteristics
characteristicschange
changethe theoriginal
originalenergy
energy dissipation
dissipationproperty
property of of the
the
viscous damper
viscous damper by by bringing
bringing in in aa multiple
multiple energy
energy dissipation
dissipation mechanism.
mechanism. SeismicSeismicenergy
energyisisnot notonly
only
dissipated by
dissipated by viscous
viscousdamping,
damping,but also
but by the
also by deformation
the deformation of theofsilt particles
the and theand
silt particles friction
the between
friction
the particles
between and the cylinder.
the particles The reciprocating
and the cylinder. motion ofmotion
The reciprocating the piston forms
of the a relative
piston forms movement
a relative
between the
movement silt andthe
between the silt
silicone
and theoil. silicone
At the same time,
oil. At thethe
samesilt time,
is in athe
suspended
silt is in state, where contact
a suspended state,
between
where the particles
contact betweenisthe rare. Hence,
particles the fluidity
is rare. Hence,of thethe mixture
fluidity is enhanced.
of the In addition,
mixture is enhanced. Inthe excess
addition,
pore
the pressure
excess porereduces
pressurethe effective
reduces the shear stress
effective between
shear the silt particles,
stress between which increases
the silt particles, fluidity
which increases
as well. as well.
fluidity

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.1.Viscous
Viscousfluid
fluidcomposition:
composition: (a)
(a)silt;
silt;(b)
(b)mixture
mixtureof
ofmethyl
methylsilicone
silicone oil
oil and
and silt.
silt.

2.2. Structure of the Dampers

2.2. Structure of the Dampers
One type of damper (Damper 1) was designed and fabricated for a pre-test (based on a standard
One type of damper (Damper 1) was designed and fabricated for a pre-test (based on a standard
hydraulic cylinder), shown in Figure 2a. Two pores with diameter of 3 mm were punched on the
hydraulic cylinder), shown in Figure 2a. Two pores with diameter of 3 mm were punched on the piston.
piston. Then, by estimating the output force of the guide rod and the pressure on the piston plate,
Then, by estimating the output force of the guide rod and the pressure on the piston plate, another type
another type of damper (Damper 2) was designed to be tested by a different loading mechanism,
of damper (Damper 2) was designed to be tested by a different loading mechanism, which had a much
which had a much higher loading capacity, shown in Figure 2b. Damper 2 had four pores with
higher loading capacity, shown in Figure 2b. Damper 2 had four pores with diameters of 5 mm.
diameters of 5 mm.
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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 2. Structure of the dampers: (a) dimensions of Damper 1; (b) photo of Damper 2; (c) dimension
Figure 2. Structure of the dampers: (a) dimensions of Damper 1; (b) photo of Damper 2; (c) dimension
of Damper 2; (d) piston of Damper 2.
of Damper 2; (d) piston of Damper 2.

2.3. The Sustainable Design

As an easily obtainable material, silt not only enhances the seismic performance of the damper,
but also offers sustainability. Fluid viscous dampers are unable to exhibit great performance for small
displacements, and adding silt to the damping medium solves this problem. The mixture of silt and
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2.3. The Sustainable Design

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13
As an easily obtainable material, silt not only enhances the seismic performance of the damper,
but also offers sustainability. Fluid viscous dampers are unable to exhibit great performance for small
silicone oil can bring displacement-dependent features to the damper, which will be discussed in
displacements, and adding silt to the damping medium solves this problem. The mixture of silt and
later sections. Compared to other solutions (such as using lever arms to magnify the displacement or
silicone oil can bring displacement-dependent features to the damper, which will be discussed in
installing other types of dampers), the proposed damper possesses the desired properties without
later sections. Compared to other solutions (such as using lever arms to magnify the displacement or
the added costs of construction materials. In addition, when compared to semi-active or active
installing other types of dampers), the proposed damper possesses the desired properties without the
dampers such as MR dampers, the proposed damper can work without additional energy. Hence,
added costs of construction materials. In addition, when compared to semi-active or active dampers
the addition of silt is an economical approach to enhance the performance of conventional viscous
such as MR dampers, the proposed damper can work without additional energy. Hence, the addition
dampers.
of silt is an economical approach to enhance the performance of conventional viscous dampers.
3. Experimental Study
3. Experimental Study
The cyclic loading test is a pseudo-static test and is one of the most important experimental
The cyclic loading test is a pseudo-static test and is one of the most important experimental
methods to study seismic performance of structural systems or members. These tests aim to obtain
methods to study seismic performance of structural systems or members. These tests aim to obtain
properties such as energy dissipation capacity, hysteretic property and ductility, which are vital for
properties such as energy dissipation capacity, hysteretic property and ductility, which are vital for
earthquake-resilient design.
earthquake-resilient design.

3.1. Pre-Test
3.1. Pre-Test
Harmonic excitations
Harmonic excitations (sine(sine wave)
wave) withwith displacement
displacement amplitudes
amplitudes and and loading
loading frequencies
frequencies equal
equal
to 20 mm and 0.1 Hz were applied for preliminary study of the damper. The loading systemthis
to 20 mm and 0.1 Hz were applied for preliminary study of the damper. The loading system in in
pre-test
this hadhad
pre-test a capacity
a capacity of of
1010 kN kNforce.
force.The
Theloading
loadingprocedure
procedurewas was controlled
controlled by displacement.
by displacement.
Furthermore, Damper
Furthermore, Damper 11 was wastested
testedinintwo twotest conditions
test conditions and each
and condition
each conditionincluded
included10 cycles. The
10 cycles.
damping medium of Condition#1 was silicone oil while that of Condition#2
The damping medium of Condition#1 was silicone oil while that of Condition#2 was silicone oil with was silicone oil with 30%
silt (mass
30% ratio).
silt (mass ratio).
The hysteretic
The hysteretic curvescurvesof ofthe
thetwotwoconditions
conditionsareareshown
shownin inFigure
Figure3.3. TheThe shapes
shapes ofof the
the two
two curves
curves
were similar. The maximum damping force of Condition#1 and Condition#2 was 0.79 kN and 1.18 1.18
were similar. The maximum damping force of Condition#1 and Condition#2 was 0.79 kN and kN,
kN, respectively.
respectively. Theincreased
The silt silt increased the damping
the damping force force by 49.4%.
by 49.4%.
In order
In ordertototest
test this
this type
type of
of damper
damper in in more
more realistic
realistic operating
operating conditions
conditions (large
(large damping
damping forces
forces
in real engineering projects), a formal large-scale experiment was planned.
in real engineering projects), a formal large-scale experiment was planned. It sought to test dampersIt sought to test dampers
for small
for small displacements
displacements (3 (3 mm,
mm, 55mm).mm).Although
Although the authors
the authorstried
triedto test dampers
to test dampers without silt,silt,
without the
measured damping forces for small displacements (3 mm) were less than
the measured damping forces for small displacements (3 mm) were less than 2 kN because conventional2 kN because conventional
viscous dampers
viscous dampers could
could notnot yield
yield correspondingly
correspondingly high high damping
damping forces
forces for
for small
small displacements
displacements [7]. [7].
Consideringthat
Considering thatthethe loading
loading system
system possessed
possessedaa highhigh capacity
capacity ofof 100
100 kNkN force,
force, dampers
dampers without
without silt
silt
were not suitable to be tested in the formal
were not suitable to be tested in the formal experiment. experiment.

1 1.5
1
Damping force (kN)
Damping force (kN)

0.5
0.5
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1 -1.5
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Hysteretic curves of the dampers in pre-test: (a) Condition#1 (without silt); (b) Condition#2
Figure 3. Hysteretic curves of the dampers in pre-test: (a) Condition#1 (without silt); (b) Condition#2
(with silt).
(with silt).
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3.2.
The
3.2. Test Setupofprocedure
loading
Test Setup ofthe
theFormal
FormalwasExperiment
consistent with the pre-test. The test variables were silt content (mass
Experiment
ratio), loading displacement,
Theloading
loadingprocedure
procedurewas and
wasloading
consistent frequency.
with
The consistent with the
the pre-test.
pre-test.TheThetest
testvariables
variableswere
weresilt
siltcontent
content (mass
(mass
Damper
ratio), 2 was
loading studied in and
displacement, the loading
formal frequency.
experiment and test conditions were divided into three
ratio), loading displacement, and loading frequency.
groups Damper
with
Damperthe2silt
2was
wasmass ratioin
studied
studied inbeing 30%, 40%,
the formal
the formal and 50%,
experiment
experiment andrespectively.
and test
test conditions
conditions Orthogonal
were
weredivided testinto
divided in multiple
intothree
three
loading conditions
groups with thewas
silt applied
mass to
ratio each
being group.
30%, The
40%, amplitude
and 50%, of the loading
respectively. displacement
Orthogonal
groups with the silt mass ratio being 30%, 40%, and 50%, respectively. Orthogonal test in multiple test in varied
multiple from
3 mm loading conditions
to 20conditions
loading mm and the was applied
wasloading to
appliedfrequency each group. The
variedThe
to each group. fromamplitude of
0.5 Hz toof2.0
amplitude the loading
theHz. displacement
Theredisplacement
loading was a total of varied
33 test
varied
from 3 mm
conditions to 20 mm and theincluded
loading frequency varied from 0.5 displacement
Hz to 2.0 Hz. There was a total of 33
from 3 mm to 20 mm and the loading frequency varied from 0.5 Hz to 2.0 Hz. There was a total offorce
and each condition 15 cycles. The loading and the damping 33
were test conditions and each
each condition included 15 cycles.theThe loading displacement and the of damping
testrecorded
conditions during
and each loading cycle
condition includedto examine
15 cycles. The energy
loadingdissipation capacity
displacement and the the damper
damping
underforce were recorded
different excitations. during each loading cycle to examine the energy dissipation capacity of the
force were recorded during each loading cycle to examine the energy dissipation capacity of the
damper under different excitations.
The MTS
damper electro-hydraulic
under servo system was used in the formal experiment. As shown in Figure 4,
different excitations.
The MTS electro-hydraulic servo system was used in the formal experiment. As shown in Figure
the two The
blueMTS electro-hydraulic
plates were steel backing servoplates,
systemconnected
was used in to the
theformal
reaction experiment.
wall and theAs shown in Figure
floor, respectively.
4, the two blue plates were steel backing plates, connected to the reaction wall and the floor,
The4,respectively.
the two
yellow blue
part was plates
the were steel
actuator; the backing
green plates,
part was connected
the damper, to the
fixedreaction
on an
The yellow part was the actuator; the green part was the damper, fixed on an I-shape
wall and
I-shape theby
steel floor,
bolts;
therespectively.
I-shape steel The
was yellow
also part was the
connected to actuator;
the the green
backing plate part
by was the
bolts; and damper,
the fixed
steel by bolts; the I-shape steel was also connected to the backing plate by bolts; and the steel backingwas
steel on anplate
backing I-shape
steel
secured by bolts;
platetowas
the I-shape
thesecured
floor using steel was also bolts
to thepre-tensioned
connected
floor using pre-tensioned
to the backing
to minimize slips. plate
bolts to minimize
by bolts; and the steel backing
slips.
plate was secured to the floor using pre-tensioned bolts to minimize slips.

Figure 4. Test setup.

Figure 4. Test setup.
Figure 4. Test setup.
3.3. Experimental Results
3.3.3.3.
Experimental Results
Experimental Results
3.3.1. Hysteretic Curves
3.3.1. Hysteretic Curves
3.3.1. Hysteretic Curvesdisplacement as abscissa against the damping force as ordinate, the hysteretic
Using the loading
Using
curves the
under
Using
loading
theeach
displacement
test
loading condition were
displacement
asasdrawn.
abscissa against
The
abscissa
the
hysteretic
against
damping
the curves
damping
force
of the asgroups
three
force
ordinate,
with
as ordinate,
thehysteretic
hysteretic
thedifferent
curvessilt under
curves mass each
ratios
under test
each werecondition
test similar in
condition were
how
were drawn.
curvesThe
drawn. hysteretic
changed
The curves
withcurves
hysteretic ofthe
displacement
of thethree
three groups
amplitude
groups with
and
with different
loading
different
frequency.
siltsilt
mass ratiosCurves
were with silt
similar mass
in ratio
how of 30%
curves were presented
changed with as a typical
displacement case in
mass ratios were similar in how curves changed with displacement amplitude and loading Figure
amplitude 5. and loading
frequency. Curves with silt mass ratio of 30% were presented as a typical case
frequency. Curves with silt mass ratio of 30% were presented as a typical case in Figure 5. in Figure 5.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

Figure 5. Cont.
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(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

(i) (j)
Figure 5. Hysteretic curves (silt mass ratio = 30%) (displacement amplitude, loading frequency):
Figure 5. Hysteretic curves (silt mass ratio = 30%) (displacement amplitude, loading frequency):
(a) 3 mm, 0.5 Hz; (b) 5 mm, 0.5 Hz; (c) 5 mm, 1.0 Hz; (d) 5 mm, 2.0 Hz; (e) 10 mm, 0.5 Hz;
(a) 3 mm, 0.5 Hz; (b) 5 mm, 0.5 Hz; (c) 5 mm, 1.0 Hz; (d) 5 mm, 2.0 Hz; (e) 10 mm, 0.5 Hz; (f) 10 mm,
(f) 10 mm, 1.0 Hz; (g) 15 mm, 0.5 Hz; (h) 15 mm, 1.0 Hz; (i) 20 mm, 0.5 Hz; (j) 20 mm, 1.0 Hz.
1.0 Hz; (g) 15 mm, 0.5 Hz; (h) 15 mm, 1.0 Hz; (i) 20 mm, 0.5 Hz; (j) 20 mm, 1.0 Hz.
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By observing the changing process of the curves, it can be seen that when the amplitude of
By observing the changing process of the curves, it can be seen that when the amplitude of
loading displacement was small, the curve was plump and the shape was similar to a parallelogram.
loading displacement was small, the curve was plump and the shape was similar to a parallelogram.
With increase in amplitude, the curve became more rounded; then, despite the pinching phenomenon,
With increase in amplitude, the curve became more rounded; then, despite the pinching phenomenon,
the shape was closer to an oval. In conclusion, when the amplitude of loading displacement was large,
the shape was closer to an oval. In conclusion, when the amplitude of loading displacement was
the damper’s energy dissipation model was close to the Kelvin model of the conventional viscous
large, the damper’s energy dissipation model was close to the Kelvin model of the conventional
damper.
viscous damper.
The difference between this hysteretic characteristic and that of a conventional viscous damper
The difference between this hysteretic characteristic and that of a conventional viscous
was that the damping force included not only a velocity-dependent viscous force but also a
damper was that the damping force included not only a velocity-dependent viscous force but also
displacement-dependent hysteretic force. The displacement-dependent force was formed by the
a displacement-dependent hysteretic force. The displacement-dependent force was formed by the
effective stress of the piston on the silt particles, which was related to the constitutive model of the
effective stress of the piston on the silt particles, which was related to the constitutive model of the
silt. When the displacement was small, the energy was consumed by the elastic-plastic deformations
silt. When the displacement was small, the energy was consumed by the elastic-plastic deformations
of the silt. Hence, the hysteretic curve was close to a parallelogram, which was consistent with the
of the silt. Hence, the hysteretic curve was close to a parallelogram, which was consistent with
elastic-plastic model of the silt. When the displacement was large, the damping force increased
the elastic-plastic model of the silt. When the displacement was large, the damping force increased
considerably as the silt increased the viscosity of the medium. Energy consumption also gradually
considerably as the silt increased the viscosity of the medium. Energy consumption also gradually
showed velocity-dependent features and the damping force-displacement curve became an oval.
showed velocity-dependent features and the damping force-displacement curve became an oval.
Although the hysteretic curve under large displacement had a certain degree of pinching, the pattern
Although the hysteretic curve under large displacement had a certain degree of pinching, the pattern
of the change was still consistent with the expected result (that the energy dissipation mechanism
of the change was still consistent with the expected result (that the energy dissipation mechanism
was displacement-dependent for small displacement and velocity-dependent for large displacement).
was displacement-dependent for small displacement and velocity-dependent for large displacement).
The pinching phenomenon was probably because the viscous medium was not dense enough,
The pinching phenomenon was probably because the viscous medium was not dense enough, leading
leading to the existence of porosity in the cylinder. In addition, it was also probably due to the plastic
to the existence of porosity in the cylinder. In addition, it was also probably due to the plastic
deformation ability of the medium. When the piston moved to one side, the viscous medium was
deformation ability of the medium. When the piston moved to one side, the viscous medium was
unable to flow quickly through the pores to the other side of the cylinder. Hence, the other side was
unable to flow quickly through the pores to the other side of the cylinder. Hence, the other side was
not fully filled by the damping medium.
not fully filled by the damping medium.
3.3.2. Effect of Silt Content
3.3.2. Effect of Silt Content
As silt was the core difference between the proposed innovative viscous damper and the
As silt was the core difference between the proposed innovative viscous damper and the
conventional one, the effect of the silt content on hysteretic curves was studied, as shown in Figure 6.
conventional one, the effect of the silt content on hysteretic curves was studied, as shown in Figure 6.
Despite pinching, the curves were similar and almost oval. The damping force was considerably
Despite pinching, the curves were similar and almost oval. The damping force was considerably
increased with an increase in silt content (mass ratio). Furthermore, the silt also made the curves
increased with an increase in silt content (mass ratio). Furthermore, the silt also made the curves
plumper. However, it was also observed that the silt intensified the pinching phenomenon to a certain
plumper. However, it was also observed that the silt intensified the pinching phenomenon to
extent.
a certain extent.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Comparison of the hysteretic curves with different silt contents: (a) displacement amplitude
Figure 6. Comparison of the hysteretic curves with different silt contents: (a) displacement amplitude
==15
15mm;
mm;(b)(b)displacement
displacementamplitude
amplitude==20 20mm.
mm.

The relationship between the silt content and the maximum damper force is shown in Figure 7.
When the displacement amplitude was 5 mm, increasing the silt content did not visibly change the
maximum damping force. When the amplitude was larger, the effect of the silt was more notable.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1777 9 of 13

The relationship between the silt content and the maximum damper force is shown in Figure 7.
When the displacement
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maximum damping force. When the amplitude was larger, the effect of the silt was more notable.
This
This isis because
because when when the the displacement
displacement was was small,
small, the
the main
main contribution
contribution of of the
the silt
silt was
was toto dissipate
dissipate
energy by plastic deformation.
energy by plastic deformation. This
This part
part of
of energy
energy was
was small
small when
when compared to the total consumed
compared to the total consumed
energy,
energy, hence
hence the the damping
dampingforce
damping forcedid
force didnot
did notgreatly
not greatlyincrease.
greatly increase.As
increase. AsAsthe loading
the
the loading
loading displacement
displacement
displacement continued
continued
continued to
to
increase,
to increase,the damping
the damping force gradually
force graduallyexhibited velocity-dependent
exhibited velocity-dependent characteristics.
increase, the damping force gradually exhibited velocity-dependent characteristics. Since the siltcharacteristics. Since the
Since silt
the
considerably
silt considerably
considerably increased
increased
increased the viscosity
the the of
viscosity
viscosity the
of of medium,
thethe medium,
medium, the
thethegrowth
growthof
growth ofofthe
thedamping
the dampingforce
damping force in
force in large
in large
displacement
displacement positively
positively correlated
correlated with
with an
an increase
increase in
in silt
silt content.
content.
However,
However,when when
whenthe the amplitude
theamplitude
amplitudeof of displacement
ofdisplacement
displacementwas was
was1515 mm,
15mm, increasing
mm,increasing
increasing silt
silt content
content
silt content did
diddid not
not prove
prove
not prove to
to
be be effective
to effective
be effectivewhen when
when the
the mass mass ratio
ratio ratio
the mass exceeded
exceeded 40%,
40%, as
exceeded as
too as
40%, too
much much
too silt
much silt
weakened weakened
the fluidity
silt weakened the fluidity
the of of
the medium,
fluidity the
of the
medium,
medium, preventing
preventing it from passing
preventing it
it from passing
passing thorough
fromthorough the pores.the
thorough the pores.
pores.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Relationship
Relationship between the maximum damping force and the mass ratio of silt: (a) 0.5 Hz;
Figure 7. Relationship between
between the
the maximum
maximum damping
damping force
force and
and the
the mass
mass ratio
ratio of
of silt:
silt: (a)
(a) 0.5
0.5 Hz;
Hz;
(b)
(b) 1.0
1.0 Hz.
Hz.
(b) 1.0 Hz.

3.3.3.
3.3.3. Effect
Effect of Displacement Amplitude
Amplitude and and Loading
Loading Frequency
3.3.3. Effect of
of Displacement
Displacement Amplitude and Loading Frequency
Frequency
The
The effect
effect of displacement amplitude and loading frequency on the maximum damping force is
The effect of
of displacement
displacementamplitude
amplitudeand andloading
loadingfrequency
frequencyon onthe
themaximum
maximum damping
damping force
forceis
presented
presented in
in Figures
Figures 8
8 and
and 9.
9. It
It can
can be
be seen
seen that,
that, in
in general,
general, the
the maximum
maximum damping
damping force
force (Fmax)
(Fmax)
is presented in Figures 8 and 9. It can be seen that, in general, the maximum damping force (Fmax)
positively
positively relates
relates to
to displacement
displacement amplitude
amplitude andand loading
loading frequency. However, it can
can still
still be
be seen
seen that
positively relates to displacement amplitude and loading frequency. However, it
frequency. However, it can still be seen that
that
increasing loading
increasing loading frequency does not change Fmax visibly under small displacement amplitude,
increasing loading frequency
frequency doesdoes not change Fmax
not change Fmax visibly
visibly under
under small
small displacement
displacement amplitude,
amplitude,
especially
especially when
when the
the mass
mass ratio
ratio of
of silt
silt is
is large
large (( ≥≥ 40%
40% ).). This
This phenomenon
phenomenon is
is consistent
consistent with the
especially when the mass ratio of silt is large (> 40%). This phenomenon is consistent with the with the
previous
previous
previous conclusion
conclusion that
that the
the damper
damper is
is displacement-dependent
displacement-dependent for
for small
small displacements.
displacements.
conclusion that the damper is displacement-dependent for small displacements.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Figure 8. Cont.
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(c)
(c)
Figure 8.
Figure
Figure 8.8.Relationship
Relationshipbetween
Relationship between
between the
thethe maximum
maximum
maximum damping
damping
damping forcethe
forceforce
and and
and the displacement
the displacement
displacement amplitude:
amplitude:
amplitude: (a) mass
(a)
(a) mass
mass ratio
ratio of
of silt
silt == 50%;
50%; (b)
(b) mass
mass ratio
ratio of
of silt
silt == 40%;
40%; (c)
(c) mass
mass ratio
ratio
ratio of silt = 50%; (b) mass ratio of silt = 40%; (c) mass ratio of silt = 30%. of
of silt
silt == 30%.
30%.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c)
Figure 9.9. Relationship
Figure Relationship between
between thethe maximum
maximum damping
damping force
force and
and the the loading
loading frequency:
frequency:
Figure 9. Relationship between the maximum damping force and the loading frequency: (a) mass ratio
(a) mass ratio of silt = 50%; (b) mass ratio of silt = 40%; (c) mass ratio of silt =
(a) mass ratio of silt = 50%; (b) mass ratio of silt = 40%; (c) mass ratio of silt = 30%.30%.
of silt = 50%; (b) mass ratio of silt = 40%; (c) mass ratio of silt = 30%.

4.4.Simulation
SimulationResults
Resultsand andDiscussion
Discussion
4. Simulation Results and Discussion
Thedamping
The dampingforceforcemodels
modelsof ofthe
thedamper
damperunder
undersmall
smalland
andlarge
largedisplacements
displacementscan canbebeobtained
obtained
The damping force models of the damper under small and large displacements can be obtained
usingthe
using theleast
leastsquare
squaremethod.
method.
using the least square method.
Asdiscussed
As discussedearlier,
earlier,under
undersmall
smalldisplacement,
displacement,the thesilt
siltcan
canhelp
helpimprove
improvethe theperformance
performanceof ofthe
the
As discussed earlier, under small displacement, the silt can help improve the performance of
damperby
damper byproviding
providingdisplacement-dependent
displacement-dependentfeatures.
features.TheThenewnewdamper
dampercan canoffer
offerbetter
bettercontrol
controlofof
the damper by providing displacement-dependent features. The new damper can offer better control
the vibration
the vibration of
of the
the structure
structure during
during minor
minor earthquakes,
earthquakes, proving
proving toto be
be meaningful
meaningful for
for structural
structural
of the vibration of the structure during minor earthquakes, proving to be meaningful for structural
comfortdesign.
comfort design.Taking
Takingthethetest
testcondition
conditionthat
thatloading
loadingdisplacement
displacementand andfrequency
frequencyequals
equalsto to33mm
mm
comfort design. Taking the test condition that loading displacement and frequency equals to 3 mm
and0.5
and 0.5Hz
Hzasasaasample,
sample,the therelationship
relationshipbetween
betweendamping
dampingforce forceand
anddisplacement
displacementcan canbe
befitted
fittedas
asaa
and 0.5 Hz as a sample, the relationship between damping force and displacement can be fitted as
bilinear model,
bilinear model, as as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 10,
10, where
where and
and represent the
represent the stiffness
stiffness before
before and
and after
after
a bilinear model, as shown in Figure 10, where K0 and Kd represent the stiffness before and after
yielding,respectively.
yielding, respectively.PartPartofofthe
theexperimental
experimentaldata
dataisismarked
markedin inFigure
Figure10.
10.
yielding, respectively. Part of the experimental data is marked in Figure 10.
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Figure
Figure10.
Figure 10.Fitted
10. Fitteddisplacement-dependent
Fitted displacement-dependentmodel
displacement-dependent modelunder
model underaaasmall
under smalldisplacement
small displacement(3
displacement (3 mm).
mm).

Structures
Structures suffer
suffer large
large displacements
displacements during during major major earthquakes,
earthquakes, and and dampers
dampers are are hence
hence
Structures suffer large displacements during major earthquakes, and dampers are hence designed
designed
designed to protect them from severe damage or collapse. In this case, the bearing capacity of
to protect them from severe damage or collapse. In this case, the bearing capacity of the
the
to protect them from severe damage or collapse. In this case, the bearing capacity of the damper is
damper
damper is is critical.
critical. AsAs discussed
discussed earlier,
earlier, the
the damper
damper shows shows velocity-dependent
velocity-dependent features
features under
under large
large
critical. As discussed earlier, the damper shows velocity-dependent features under large displacements.
displacements.
displacements. The The data
data ofof test
test condition
condition that
that loading
loading displacement
displacement and and frequency
frequency equal
equal to to 20
20 mmmm
The data of test condition that loading displacement and frequency equal to 20 mm and 0.5 Hz can be
and
and 0.5
0.5 Hz
Hz can
can bebe fitted
fitted asas below:
below:
fitted as below:
=
F= = 3.008v.. 0.5700
3.008
3.008 /kN,,, v/mm
( ( ( FkN mm·s−1 ) )
kN mm ∙∙ ss )
(1)(1)
(1)
Velocity index
Velocity
Velocity index is
index is 0.57,
is 0.57, in
0.57, in
in the commonly
the commonly
commonly used used valuevalue range (0.3~1.95)
range (0.3~1.95) [7].
(0.3~1.95) [7]. Thedata
[7]. The
The data of
data of all
of all test
all test
test
conditions
conditions with
with silt
silt content
content of
of 30%
30% are
are taken
taken to
to verify
verify the
the rationality
rationality of
of Equation
Equation
conditions with silt content of 30% are taken to verify the rationality of Equation (1). Part of the typical (1).
(1). Part
Part of
of the
the typical
typical
data in
data
data in the
in the first
the first and
first and third
and third quadrants
third quadrants
quadrants of of the
of the hysteretic
the hysteretic curves is
hysteretic curves
curves is shown
is shown
shown in in Figure
in Figure
Figure 11.11. The difference
11. The
The difference
difference
between
between the experimental results and the fitted value is within 15%,
between the experimental results and the fitted value is within 15%, indicating that the model can
the experimental results and the fitted value is within 15%, indicating
indicating that
that the
the model
model can
can
accurately
accurately predict
accurately predict
predict thethe damping
the damping force.
damping force.
force.

Figure
Figure11.
Figure 11.Fitted
11. Fittedvelocity-dependent
Fitted velocity-dependentmodel
velocity-dependent modelunder
model underlarge
under largedisplacements.
large displacements.
displacements.

5.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Conclusions
This
This paper investigates a new type of viscous damper that adds silt to the damping medium to
This paper
paper investigates
investigates aa new
new type
type of
of viscous
viscous damper
damper that
that adds
adds silt
silt to
to the
the damping
damping medium
medium to
to
improve
improve its energy dissipation performance. The energy dissipation mechanism of this damper is
improve its its energy dissipation performance.
energy dissipation performance. The
The energy
energy dissipation
dissipation mechanism
mechanism of of this
this damper
damper is
is
studied
studied through aa cyclic loading experiment. The following conclusions are drawn:
studied through
through a cyclic
cyclic loading
loading experiment.
experiment. The
The following
following conclusions
conclusions are drawn:
are drawn:
(1)
(1) Silt
Silt can
can considerably
considerably increase
increase damping
damping force
force by
by enhancing
enhancing the
the viscosity
viscosity ofof the
the damping
damping medium.
medium.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1777 12 of 13

(1) Silt can considerably increase damping force by enhancing the viscosity of the damping medium.
(2) Silt can enrich the energy dissipation mechanism of the damper. Experimental results show that
the damper is displacement-dependent with a plump hysteretic curve for small displacements.
This displacement-dependent feature can improve the energy consumption ability of fluid viscous
dampers for small displacements. For large displacements, the damper is still velocity-dependent.
(3) Silt content has a great effect on the maximum damping force. Unless displacement is very
small (5 mm), increasing the content of silt can visibly increase the damping force. However,
the relationship between the damping forces and the silt content is complex, and not always
positive. Further studies engaging more test groups are required to determine the optimum mass
ratio of silt.
(4) For small displacements, the displacement-dependent damping force can be predicted by
a bilinear model. For large displacements, the damping force is velocity-dependent and can be
reasonably fitted.

Author Contributions: Zheng Lu wrote the paper and directed the study. Junzuo Li analyzed the data and
revised the paper. Chuanguo Jia conceived the idea, carried out the experiment, provided valuable discussions
and revised the paper. He took responsibility of the corresponding work.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial supports from the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 51408080).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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