CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION TO ACCEPTANCE

SAMPLING PLANS
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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING PLANS

The term "Quality" plays an important role in

the field of industry. Basically the term quality with

specific reference to consumer products means," general

excellence". To be precise it means excellence in relation

to certain characteristics, that a consumer demand in a

particular product. For example, desirability,

performance, appearance, colour, safety are some of the

characteristics that a consumer wants in the product he is

using. Basically the quality of the product may be defined

as follows:

"The totality of features and

charac ter is t ics of a product of service that bear on

its ability to satisfy the stated or implied needs

of the user of that productn.

Thus quality is the term mainly related to

the amount of satisfaction derived by the user which can

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only be measured after the use of the

product. Further, it is subjective one changing

from person to person and time to time. In order

to measure the quality of a product above definition

will not help us and there is a necessity to

measure the quality of product through closely

related characteristics like, life time of the

equipment, breaking strength of a brick or yarn,

amount of sound produced after firing a

crackers and so on. These measures are analyzed

statistically and conclusions are drawn

accordingly.

Application of Statistical Techniques to

maintain the quality of an industrial output is called

"Statistical Quality Control". This new branch of

statistics gave birth in second World war after a

successful application of these techniques in the

production of war material like bullets, bombs, food

and medicine supplied to the soldiers in the battle

field. Since then, these techniques spread to all

industries throughout the world like a wild fire. The

researchers in the field of Statistical Quality

Control developed, numerous methods applicable in

different situations which are broadly classified as:

1) process Control,

2) Lot Acceptance Sampling Plans,

3) Rectifying inspection,
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4) Control Charts, and

5) Reliability.

Further, a British Statistician E.S.Page (34) in

1954 introduced Cumulative Sum (CUSUM) control charts,

primarily to maintain current control of a process. CUSUM

charts are mainly used to identify a sudden and persistent

change in the process average. we can also locate the

time of change more sharply with the help of CUSUM charts.

The fundamental difference between Shewhart control charts

and CUSUM Charts is that, in Shewhart charts a decision is

taken on the basis of a sample taken at the time 't' where

as in the CUSUM charts the decision is taken on the basis

of all the samples taken up to the time 't".

Among several techniques to control the quality,

Acceptance Sampling Plans are introduced mainly to accept

or reject the lots of finished products. Such type

of techniques are popularly used for those products where

testing involves destruction. For example, in the

manufacturing of Crackers, Bullets, Batteries, Bulbs and

so on, it is impossible to go for 100% inspection because

testing involves destruction if

1) The measuring characteristic is the amount of sound

produced firing the Crackers or Bullets.

or
2) Life time of an electric Bulb or Dry Batteries.
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Even though these techniques of Acceptance

Sampling Plans do not have direct impact on controlling the

quality of the product, they have a lot of indirect

effects to improve the same. For example, if a

particular product is continuously rejected for lack of

quality, automatically the producer strives to

improve the quality of the product. Otherwise, the

consumer will choose for another better quality product

and hencea low quality product is automatically

eliminated from the market.

In the middle of this century H.F.Dodge ( 5 )

introduced the concept of continuous sampling plans

in contrast to lot-by-lot acceptance sampling

plans.Continuous sampling plans are popularly used

in those processes where lots are not clearly defined.

For example, the production of cars coming off an

assembly line, Soft drink bottles from a continuous glass

ribbon machine, Welded leads emanating from a

welding operation and so on. In these situations

the lot size N is equal to 1 since units are produced

item by item. It is a well proved fact that

Continuous acceptance sampling plans can fruitfully

be used in the place of lot-by-lot acceptance sampling

plans.

Further, Continuous acceptance sampling plans

eliminates majority of problems in the formation of

lots. For instance, under conditions of continuous

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production, lot selection requires either the items

be allowed to accumulate at given points of

production or the "lot" be artificially marked as a

given segment of the items in the production line. The

first procedure which creates banks of items at various

production points requires extra space, increases

inventories and in case of explosive material produces

additional safety hazards.

In the second procedure, a lot of

special difficulties arise in demarcating the lots.

To avoid these difficulties continuous sampling plans

came into existence. First these procedures were

applied to non-destructive inspections on a go-no-go

basis of a continuous flow of individual units of

product offered to the inspector in the order of

production.

In operation, continuous sampling is an acceptancea

rectification inspection procedure which involves alternate

periods of 100% and sampling inspection. To start with,

the product is sampled off the line in a pre-determined

ratio 'f' until a defect is found. The finding of one or

more defects, depending on the plan used, is the

signal for 100% inspection to begin. Sampling is

resumed when a certain number of successive

defect-free units 'i' have been Inspected and thus

the cycle is repeated. So for, a brief introduction to

acceptance sampling plans is given. Now we proceed

to give the chief objectives of this dissertation.

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1.2 MOTIVATION

Application of continuous Acceptance Sampling

plans in a production process suggested in 1960 Swan, W.D

and Kemp, K.W (13) using CUSUM charts. Further

Beattie, D.W (8) in 1962 suggested a continuous

acceptance sampling plan, when the items are

manufactured continuously and the decision rule is required

to decide whether to continue the production of the product

or to stop the same.

In 1970 Prairie, R.R and Zimmer, W.J (36)

constructed acceptance sampling plans for continuously

produced products asstaming the response to variable

measurement follows a Normal Distribution with unknown

Mean (v) and Variance (<^) which are determined through

a destructive test. Schneider, H (j&l) in 1985, studied

the performance of acceptance sampling plans when the

variable under consideration is distributed as a Normal

Distribution.

Further, in 1990 Kakoty, S and Chakraborty,

A.B (23) described an acceptance sampling plan for doubly

truncated normal variate based on CUSUM charts. They

further investigated the effect of truncation points on

1) Average Run Length and... 2) TYPE-C OC CURVES of

acceptance sampling plan. Recently in 1993 Sarma, K.L.A.P

and Mohammed Akhtar, P (39) suggested various

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optimization methods applicable in continuous acceptance

sampling plans, when the variable under consideration

follows:
(i) Truncated Negative Exponential Distribution,

(ii) Truncated Hyper-Exponential Distribution,

(iii) Truncated Erlangian Distribution,

(iv) Truncated Weibull Distribution, and

(v) Truncated Two Parametric Gamma Distribution.

Further, they developed number of computer

programs to optimize different parameters of acceptance

sampling plans, like

1) Average Run Length (ARL),

2) TYPE-C OC Curves, and

3) The probability of accepting a lot under the plan

namely P(A).

Results are obtained with the help of latest

sophisticated calculating device and conclusions are

drawn based on the numerical results obtained through

the computer. The method of solution in the above works

of Sarma, K.L.A.P and Mohammed Akhtar, P (39) is heavily

based on an iterative procedure using Gauss-Chebyshev

polynomial to evaluate the integrals coming accross the

expressions in the calculation probability of acceptance

sampling plan P(A).

While the above mentioned elebrated works

have remarkable value in improving the quality of an

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industrial output in different situations, the area of

continuous sampling plan is still fertile to have a lot

of scope for tampering numerous new sampling

plans. Further, there are numerous optimization

techniques available in literature which can fruitfully

be used in acceptance sampling plans to optimize various

parameters of these plans.

Krishna Murthy, E.B and Sen, S.K (26) suggested

various methods to solve the Integrals based on the nature

of integral and the type of the limits of an integral.

The value of the integral is mainly based on evaluation

method of integration used, which inturn based on the

weights and abscissae used in the method.

The main objective of this dissertation is

to obtain the results of optimization of the

parameters of acceptance sampling plans using Lobatto

Integration Method and to compare these results with

those results obtained by Sar"»a, K.L.A.P and Mohammed

Akhtar, P (39) which uses Gauss-Chebyshev Integration

method. Further, optimization of the plans under the

following two methods of solutions namely:

Using Method-I Gauss-Chebyshev Integral Method

and Method-II Lobatto Integration Method, to evaluate

the integrals in the calculation of P(A) are compared

critically and analyzed based on the numerical results

obtained when the variable under consideration is a

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"Truncated Negative Exponential Distribution" and

suggested best method of optimization of parameters of an

acceptance sampling plan. Keeping these in view computer

programs are developed and numerical results are obtained

which facilitate the required comparision.

The following section deals with a brief literature

review relavent to the present study.

1.3 A BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW

As it is already mentioned earlier that the

main object of this dissertation is to suggest various

continuous acceptance sampling plans, when the

varible under consideration follows Truncated

Negative Exponential Distribution. Now we proceed to

define some important concepts used in the

dissertation along with relevant literature review, in

the following section.

1.3-i CONTINUOUS ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING PLANS

The concept of continuous sampling plans in

contrast to lot-by-lot acceptance sampling plans was fisrt

introduced by H.F.Dodge (5) of Bell Telephone

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Laboratories, in the year 1943. In a continuous production

of products it is difficult to demarcate lots, because

lots are not normally created as a natural result of

the production process. Under continuous production, it

is already mentioned that, the selection of the lot

requires

(i) The items be allowed to accumulate at a given

point of production.

or
(ii) Lot be artificially marked off as a given segment

of the items in the production line.

Since each one of the above mentioned methods

has its own drawbacks and limitations, special sampling

inspection schemes were developed which are applicable,

when the production is continuous. For instance,

H.F.Dodge (6) suggested a scheme called CSP-I which is

applicable to non-destructive inspection, on a go-no-go

basis, of a continuous flow of individual units of product

submitted to the inspector in the order of their production.

The operation of CSP-1 is briefly explained as follows:

OPERATION SCHEME OF CSP-I

CSP-1 scheme is to be started with 100% inspection

of the products produced continuously. As soon as

'i' consecutive units of product are found to be

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free of defects, 100% inspection is discontinued

and only a fraction (f) of the units are inspected.

Usually 'i' is called as "Clearing Interval" and 'f'

as "Sampling Frequency". The units in the sample are to

be selected at random one item at a time, from the

continuous flow of production of that product. If a

sample unit is found defective reversion is immediately

made to 100% inspection and the cycle is completed. In

testing defect free units are to be substuted in the

place of defective units found. Usually "Sampling

frequency" and "Clearing interval" of a sampling plan

chages from product to productand determined based

on practical considerations. A schematic representation

of the above explained CSP-1 is given in Fig 1.3.1.

Many situations, where the defects of a product

can further be classified into two categories namely

"Major" and "Minor" defects. CSP-1 can be applied

separately to each class of defects in the above

situation. More precisely there will be an 'i' major and

'J' minor but it will be convenient to use same 'f'.

Under this Joint scheme it will be possible for

production to be under 100% inspection for major defects,

but under sample inspection for minor defects or

vice-versa. When they are both under sampling

inspection, howevdr, the same units of product will be

sampled for inspection for major defects as well as for

minor defects.
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Fig. 1.3.1 Dodge CSP-1 procedure

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It is important to note that, if production is

under 100% inspection for major defects, for instance,

but under sampling inspection for minor defects,

discovery of a unit of product with a minor defect

among the non-sampled units being inspected 100% for major

defects shold not a cause for shifting from sampling to 100%

inspection of minor defects, and similarly when minor

defects are under 100% inspection and major defects are

under sampling inspection.

Later on , some variations came in the first

version of Dodge continuous sampling plan, CSP-1. The

variations are mainly based on the following two

concepts namely:

(i) It is a common practice that a single isolated

defective item inspected invited 100% inspection

in CSP-1. But this can be violated in those

situations when we deal with minor defects. Thus

CSP-1 is to be modified and these modified

versions suggested by Dodge,H.F and Torrey,M.N

(9) are known as CSP-2 and CSP-3. Under CSP-2

100% inspection will not be restored until

two defective sample units are found with in a

space of k-sample units. It is likely that 'k' is

equated to 'i'. CSP-3 follows CSP-2 but gives

additional protection against spotty production. It

required that after a defective unit has been

found in sampling inspection, the immediately

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following four units should be inspected. If any

of these four is defective 100% inspection is to

be adopted. If none is defective CSP-2 is to

be continued. Inter-relationships between CSP-1,

CSP-2 and CSP-3 are clearly explained in Fig 1.3.2.

ii) Further, in CSP-1 sudden changes from sampling to

100% and vice-versa take place and to avoid these

sudden changes Lieberman,G.J and Soloman,H (27)

proposed other sampling plans based on several

"levels" usually known as "Multi-level sampling

plans". The operation procedure of these schemes

starts on the similar lines of CSP-1. That is,

these plans start with 100% inspection and go to a

fraction 'f' as soon as a run of 'i' non-defective

units are found. When, however, under sampling

inspection at rate '1/f' run of 'i' consecutive

sample units have been found free of defects

sampling at the rate of '1/f2' Again if a

run of 'i' consecutive sample units is found

free of defects resort is made to sampling at the

ratio of '1/f 3 ' and so on, as the designer of the

plan wishes to go. If at any time when

under sampling inspection a defective unit is

found, return is immediately made to the next lower

level of sampling. ....

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START

Fig. 1.3.2. Dodge C S P - 1,2,3 procedure

 The effect of this multi-level sampling plan

obviously reduces the inspection load when the

production is good and increases it when the

production is bad. Green Wood,J. A C1€D also

suggested multi-level plans similar to the

Lieberman-Soloman plans except that they call for

100X inspection of all product units represented

by any sample unit that proves to be defective. A

schematic representation of multi-level plan is

presented in Fig 1.3.3.

Other continuous sampling plans are also suggested

by Wald, A and Woifowitz, J C443, usually known as "Block

Continuous plans". The continuous sampling plans

discussed so far namely multi-level and Dodge continuous

plans basically assume a study flow of production with

no attempt to segregate the product into lots or

segments.

While either of these procedures may be carried out

by sampling at random fraction *f* units from successive

segments of a geven size, special plans have been designed

for this purpose which are popularly known as “ Block

Continuous Plans".

These plans divide the sequence of production into

successive blocks, taking a prescribed sample in each

block. Later Girshick, M. A C17> has provided a

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Fig.1.3.3 Multi-level procedure

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modification of the Wald-Walfowitz approach which avoids

the necessity for segmenting production, but which

achieves essentially the same result.

1.3.2 CUMULATIVE RESULT PLANS

The continuous sampling plans discussed so far

require a knowledge of the results from the immediately

preceding samples as part of the action rule for

any sample inspected. This can be clearly seen in

CSP-2 and CSP-3, but applies to all the plans

discussed. Thus continuous sampling plans are a member of

the class of, the so called "Cumulative result plans",

other members include "Skip-lot-plan", "Chain sampling

plan" and "Cone-Dodge Cumulative result plan".

In brief, cumulative result plans basically

involve lot-by-lot inspection of a stream of

product. In general, cumulative result plans require

certain assumptions to be met about the nature of the

inspection. As described by Dodge, H.F (5) in

introducing chain sampling plans,

1) The lot should be one of a continous series of supply.

2) Lots should, normally be expected to be of the

same quality.

3) The consumer should have no reason to believe

that the lot to be inspected is poorer than any

of the immediately preceding lots.
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4) The consumer must have confidence in the supplier,

in that advantage would not be taken of a good

record to slip in a sub-standard lot.

Under these assumptions it is reasonable to use

the record of previous inspections as a means of reducing

the amount of inspection required on any given lot.

Other cumulative result plans are

i) Skip-lot sampling plans,

and ii) Chain Sampling Plans,

whose operation procedures are explained as follows.

1.3.2.1 SKIP-LOT SAMPLING PALN

Continuous sampling plans are intended to

be applied on individual units produced in a sequence from

a continuous flow of supply. The principles of Continuous

Sampling can also be applied to individual lots received in

a steady stream from a trusted supplier. Just as units

are skipped during the sampling phase of

continuous sampling plan, so lots may also be skipped

and thus the sampling plan is termed as Skip-lot sampling

plan usually denoted by SKSP. The first version of

this plan namely SKSP-1 was introduced by Dodge, H.F (7)

for the inspection of raw materials purchased regularly

from a common source. The procedure of SKSP-1 is

schematically represented in the 1.3.4.

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START

INSPECT i
SUCCESSIVE
LOTS

LOT
r
REJECTED
NO LOT
REJECTED

RANDOMLY INSPECT
A FRACTION f OF
THE LOTS

LOT NO LOT
REJECTED REJECTED

Fig. 1.3.4. Skip-lot procedure

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While SKSP-1 was intended to be used in

circumstances leading to a simple and absolute go-no-go

decision on each lot, the continuous sampling approach

to skipping lots may be utilized when a standard

sampling plan is applied to each lot.

Usually when sampling plans are used the

producer's or consumer's risk is also to be

considered. By considering the above two risks in

the sampling plan, Dodge, H.F and Perry, R.L (10)

introduced another SKSP-LOT Sampling Plan known as SKSP-2.

These plans are intended to be applied to a series of

lots or batches of discrete items which are sampled using

a standard Reference Sampling Plan.

1.3.2 CHAIN SAMPLING PLAN

Chain sampling plans were first introduced by

Dodge, H.F (6) basically to overcome the problem of

lack of discrimination in c=0 sampling plans, where

'c'is the acceptance number of the sampling plan. The

procedure was developed to Chain together the most recent

inspections in a way that would build up the shoulder of

the Operating Characteristic (OC) curve of c=0 plans.

This is especially used in situations where small samples

are demanded because of the economic or physical difficulty

of obtaining a sample.. This sampling scheme is usually

known as CHSP-1, whose operation procedure is

schematically represented in Fig 1.3.5.

 cJ
START

INSPECT SAMPLE
OF n
FROM CURRENT LOT

NO ONE TWO OR MORE

DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE DEFECTIVES
FOUND FOUND FOUND

Fig. 1.3.5 ChSP - 1 Procedure

1.3. 3 CONTINUOUS ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING PLANS BASED ON

CUMULATIVE SUM CONTROL CHARTS

The concept of Cumulative Sum (CUSUM) control chart

was first introduced by British Statistician E.S.Page

(34) It is already mentioned that the basic difference

between Shewhart Control Chart and CUSUM chart is that the

decision is taken mainly on the sample's information at time

't' in a informer one, where as the action is to be taken

based on all the data taken up to time 't' in latter

one.

Further, CUSUM charts are mainly used to maintain

current control of a process. Its chief advantage over

the ordinary Shewhart chart is that, it may be

equally effective and less expensive.

The concept of CUSUM Technique was introduced in

continuous acceptance sampling plans by Ewan,W.D and

Kemp, K.W (13), Kemp, K.W (25) and Beattie, D.W (2) for

various kinds of problems arising day-to-day in quality

control when the production is continuous. The

principal feature of CUSUM techniques is that

successive values of a varible are compared with a

predetermined target or reference value, and the CUSUM of

deviations from this value is plotted on a chart or

recorded in a tabulation. If the cumulation reaches

or exceeds a predetermined decision interval, this can be

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considered as an indication that a change has occureed in

the mean level of the variable (Vide Bessel, A.F).

The main attraction towards CUSUM chart

is that, this can identify more rapidly a small and

persistent change occurred in the process of production

when compared to x-chart of Shewhart. This fact is

also demonstrated by Marquardt, D.W (30) in U.S. industry

to maintain tight control over a process. Gibra, I.N

(16) gave a brief review of earlier literature on this

topic. William H. Woodall (46) mentioned in his paper

that basically there are two criticisms on the application

of CUSUM procedure, namely:

i) The first criticism made by E.S.Page (33), Ewan,

W.D (12) and Duncan, A.J (11) is that the CUSUM may

be too sensitive to small shifts in the process

mean in some applications. Gibra, I.N (16)

states that the CUSUM chart should not be used

or should be used with greater care when some slack in

the process is permissible. To overcome this problem

W.H. Woddall (46) recommends that in-control,

in-difference and out-of control regions of shifts

be defined.

ii) The second criticism of the CUSUM procedure is that

it does not detect large shifts in the mean as

quickly as the Shewhart x-chart. Lucas, J.M and

Crosier, R.B (29) effectively met this criticism by

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combining Shewhart Control limit with the CUSUM

procedure. Various other methods where also

suggested by the researchers to overcome the

above two criticisms on CUSUM charts. A lot of

research work is going on the application of

CUSUM charts in continuous acceptance sampling

plans. Very recently M.R.Reynolds and et.al(38)

introduced CUSUM charts with variable sampling

intervals usually CUSUM chart is maintained by

taking samples at fixed time intervals and

plotting a CUSUM of differences between the

sample means and the target value in time order on

the chart. The process mean is considered to

be on target as long as the CUSUM statistic

computed from the samples does not fall into the

signal region of the chart.

The value of the CUSUM statistic in the signal

region would be taken as an indication that the process

mean has changed and that the possible causes of the

change should be investigated. In M.R.Reynolds and

et.al (38) article they suggested CUSUM chart when

the time between samples is varied as a function of

the CUSUM statistic and this new chart is called

Variable Sampling Intervals (VSI)-CUSUM chart. When

VSI-CUSUM chart falls close to the signal region

this can be taken as an indication that the mean level

of the process may have shifted.

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The chief advantage of VSI-CUSUM chart is

that, it is used during a short sampling interval so that

more information about the process can be obtained

quickly and any significant range in the process

mean can quickly be detected. On the other hand if

the CUSUM statistic is not close to the signal region this

would be an indication that the process mean is close

to the target. In this case a longer sampling

interval will be used by the VSI-CUSUM chart.

In brief, VSI-CUSUM chart switches between different

rates of sampling depend on what on what is being observed

from the data. Samples are taken at a faster rate when

there is some indication that there may be a shift in

the process mean and less frequently if there does not

seem to be any problem in the process. They have

also compared the efficiency of VSI-CUSUM chart with other

charts and also suggested methods to choose the

parameters of VSI-CUSUM chart.

Further, F.F.Gan (15) in his paper Introduced

the concept of optimization of CUSUM charts. He defined

an optimal CUSUM chart as a CUSUM chart with a fixed

in-control Average Hun Length (ARL) which has the smallest

ARL for a specified shift 'A ' in the mean.

Further, Sensitivity analysis of optimal CUSUM chart

for various values of 'k' and 'L' is compared with

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various ' A ' values, for ARL 250 when the process is

in-control, and the values of ARL when the process is

out-of-control.

Further, D. M. Hawkins (21) has suggested a fast

and accurate approximation for ARL of CUSUM control charts.

Usually the performance of CUSUM chart is measured by the

ARL which further depends on the parameter 'h' and 'k'.

Larger the values of these parameter produces the longer

ARL's.

1.4 BASIC CONCEPTS USED IN THE WORK

The concepts of operation characteristics (OC)

curves and Average Run Lenth (ARL) are more frequently

used in this dissertation, hence it is more appropriate here

to discuss the basic definitions, types and some Important

properties of these concepts which play a vital role

in the theory of SQC.

1.4.1 THE OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

The Operating Characteristic (OC) curve occupies an

important place in acceptance sampling plan while Judging

the efficiency of various sampling plans. In order to

select the best sampling plan it is desirable to compare the

performance of various sampling plans under consideration

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over a range of possible quality levels of submitted

product. An excellent picture of this performance is

given by the OC curve. For any given fraction defective

'p' in a submitted lot OC curve shows the probability of

P(A) that such lot will be accepted by the given sampling

plan. In other words the OC curve shows the long-run

percentage of submitted lots that would be accepted

if a great many lots of any stated quality were submitted

for inspection.

CONSTRUCTION OF OC CURVE

The method of construction of OC curve is mainly

based on calculation of probability of lot acceptance

denoted by P(A) for various assumed values of lot's quality

denoted 'P'. 'P' is usually represented on the X-axis

and P(A) on the Y-axis. A number of points (P,P{A)>

will be obtined and plotted on the graph. These

points are joined by a smooth curve which is the OC curve

of the plan, calculation of P(A) changes from plan to plan.

CLASSIFICATION OF OC CURVES

Basically two types of OC curves come

occross in the literature. They are TYPE-A and TYPE-B

OC curves. The TYPE-A OC curve gives the probability of

accepting an isolated lot - where as TYPE-B OC curve gives

the probability of accepting a lot from a randomly operating

 29
process turning out product of an average quality 'p'.

In brief the basic difference between TYPE-A and TYPE-B OC

curves is explained as follows:

The TYPE-A OC curve describes how a consumer is

likely to view the Operating Characteristics of a sampling

plan when he buys isolated lots of material or thinks about

the quality of individual lots rather than the average

quality of a stream of lots. The TYPE-B OC curve

describes how a consumer is likely to view the Operating

Characteristics of a sampling plan when he is buying a

steady stream of material from a given supplier.

It is important to note that TYPE-A OC curve depends

on the size of the lot under consideration and as the

lot size is large TYPE-A OC curve approaches TYPE-B OC

curve. In other words TYPE-B OC curve can be taken

as a good approximation to TYPE-A OC curve when the lots are

large, say, more than 10 times of the sample. Usually

TYPE-A OC curve for large lots will be denoted by

TYPE~Al and for small lots, it is denoted by TYPE-Ag

OC curves.

1.4.2 AVERAGE RUN LENGTH CARL)

Just as the OC curve of an acceptance sampling plan

brings out the salient characteristics of the plan, Average

Run Length (ARL) curve of a control scheme can also be

 30
considered as a good way of concisely picturing some of its

important characteristics. If a process average starts at

x and subsequently changes by an amount ' A ' and if

this change persists until detected, the number of sample

points that will on the average have to be plotted before

the given control scheme will pick-up the change is called

ARL of the scheme associated with the specified change in

the process.

In the case of Shewhart control chart it is easy

to find out the ARL because with the help of an OC

curve we can find the probability P(A) of failing to

pick-up a specified change in a single sample

after the change has occurred hence l-P(A) gives the

probability of identifying the change, whereas in CUSUM

charts determining ARL is not an easy Job. For continuous

variables direct derivation of ARL usually requires the

assistance of a computer either to solve the

integral equations that arise in the analytical

formulation of the problem or through Simulation.

Basically there are two types of ARL curves. They

are :
1. ARL curve for one sided CUSUM scheme, and

2. ARL curve for two sided CUSUM scheme.

 31

1. ARL FOR ONE SIDED CUSUM SCHEME

Kemp, K.W (24) has constructed a nomograph for

*

finding approximate values of the ARL s of same one-sided

CUSUM schemes when the variable plotted is Normally

distributed. The nomograph constructed by him is given in

Fig 1.4.1 The method of using this nomograph is

explained as follows:

Let ma denote an acceptance quality level and mr

(>ma) be barely tolerable, and worse quality being

resectable level. Let 'k' denote the reference value such

that ma < k < m^ and let the process standard deviation a*

is known. Then for a one sided CUSUM scheme with a

specified reference value 'k', decision interval 'h' and

sample size 'n' w can find ARL s at in and nr as

v __
'4"n'
follows. In the Fig 1.4.1 note the point on the h—j-line
a
yielded by the given the point on the line |k-m|4n 7r

glven by setting m=ma denote this point by 'B'.

Join these points 'A' and 'B' the ARL at ma. To find the
ARL at mr> find the point on the |k-m| 4n / &4 by

substituting m = mr denote this point by 'C' now Join 'A'

and 'C' through a line such that it cuts L . This point

r
on L„ is the ARL at m .
r r
 32

La
r* too

- 200

- 250

~ 200

350
a*
£- 400

£.450

b1-550
poo,
h *°°
j* 550
»- 700
750
f-. 800
s
9* 900
S
S. 1000

Reproduced from Apptttd Slalluki Vof. XI (1962). p. 23.

o*a
F ilcj .1.4.1
 33

The same procedure can be used to find the ARL s

for other values of m, using La line, when m<k and Lr

when m>k. A similar procedure can be used to sketch the

ARL curve for a negative one sided CUSUM chart when

the barely tolerable quality level mr(<ma) and the decision

interval is '-h'.

2. ARL FOR TWO SIDED CUSUM SCHEME

The ARL for two sided CUSUM scheme can readily be

*

described with the help of the ARL s for two one sided

schemes. K.W.Kemp (25 ) has shown that L^mj is the ARL at

'm' of a one sided scheme with reference value k^Om) and

decision interval 'h', and if Lg^j is the ARL at m of a

one sided scheme with reference value k2<<m) and decision

interval '-h', Ld^mJ is the ARL at

y-i- = y—i + -y-i . ___ (1.4.1)

^d(m) l(m) ^(m)

<0

Various methods have been used to evaluate ARL s for

CUSUM schemes. Among these S.Vardeman and et.al (42 )

obtained solutions for ARL's of CUSUM schemes when

observations were exponentially distributed. Such type

of results have immense value when the observations

arise naturally in the context of monitoring the occurrence

of rare events. Lucas, J.M (28) applies the CUSUM idea

 34
to data on the occurrence of industrial accident. The

monitoring of congential malformations discussed by

Chen,R (4) and of background radiation discussed by

Marshall, R.A.G (31) are other areas when exponential

distribution can fruitfully be applied.

1.4.3 TYPE-C OC CURVES

The concept of TYPE-C OC curve was first introduced

by Read, D.R and Beattie, D.W (2), which is the

probability of acceptance of an item as a function of

incoming quality. It will be clear that this probability

P(A) is given by the proportion of items accepted when the

incoming quality is constant. Thus

P(A) = Proportion of items accepted

= No. of samples on the normal chart

Total No. of samples taken

L(0) + L(0)
where L( 0) = ARL on normal chart

l/<0) =
and ARL on return chart.

Formula (1.4..2) assumes a constant rate of

sampling on both normal and return charts. If this is
not so, then denote g,
 35

fraction sampled on Normal chart

® “ fraction sampled on Return chart

and
L(0>
P( A) = L(0) + gL'(0) ..... (1.4.3)

The concepts of normal chart and return chart

of a continuous acceptance sampling plan is given in Fig

1.4.2.

The portion of the chart in the interval (o,h) is

called "The Normal chart " and the portion of the chart
between h and h1 is called "The Return Chart". Usually h is

called the decision interval and h* is called the return

interval. TYPE-C OC curve plays a predominant, role in the

field of continuous acceptance sampling plans to

determine the effectiveness of the plan. Basically

there are two criteria to measure the effectiveness of the

plan, first one is based on the ARL. This criterion is used

by Ewan, W.D and Kemp, K.W (13). They have used two ARL's

of which one ARL for the normal chart and another one for

the return chart.

The second criterion to determine the

effectiveness of the plan is through the OC curve of the

plan. This criterion was used by Albrecht, A. and et.al (4)

in which they used the concept of Acceptable

 36

0-1 0 I 0 2 I 2-1 0 I 2 I 2 2 I 0-1 0 t-2 0-1-2 0 I 0-1 0-1-2 0-1

d-k
Fio-i i• if /2 . A chart for determining whm to accept and when not
• to accept the flow of product.
 3V
Quality Level (AQL) and Obdectable Quality Level

(OQL) and used the formulae of sequential analysis

introduced by Wald, A (43) to describe the OC curve.

But Wald's formulae apply to those plans for sequential

sampling from lots of fixed size.

When the sampling is done from varying lot

sizes or from continuous production the method of

calculating OC curve differs and this new type of OC curve

is called TYPE-C OC curve by Read, D.R and Beattie, D.W

(37), which is a function of incoming quality of the

product submitted for inspection.

15 CHAPTER SUMMARIES

This dissertation consists of three chapters.

Chapter I is introductory in nature consisting of brief

introduction to continuous sampling plans applicable in the

production of those products whose quality is determined

through destructive tests. The concepts and different

continuous sampling plans are discussed in detail relevant

to the present study along with a brief historical note on

the development of continuous acceptance sampling plans.

Chapter II deals with a brief introduction to CASP

CUSUM scheme and also discussed method of optimising the

 38

parameters of the scheme adopted by SARMA, K* L. A* P and

MOHAMMED AKHTAR, P (39) in 1993. Basically the method of

solution applying Gauss-Chebyshev method of evaluating

Integrals in expressions coming accross are discussed.

This method is referenced as Method I throughout the

dissertation. Another method of solution known as Method

II is discussed which is mainly based on LOBATTO method of

Integration and explained the method of optimisation of

parameters of ARL of CASP-CUSUM schemes.

Chapter III deals with the Computerised results of

Average Run Length (ARL) and probability of acceptance by

both methods explained in Chapter II. The results obtained

are critically compared particularly when the underlying

distribution is a Truncated Negative Exponential

Distribution and also discussed the effects of truncation

points, methods of solution on the parameters of the

CASP-CUSUM schemes. The results obtained in both methods

and conclusions are drawn accordingly to optimise the

parameters of the scheme. Finally the dissertation is

appended with the list of references coming accross this

dissertation.