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Pressure drop due to fluid friction has been measured in a smooth tube; in six smooth
concentric annuli; and between smooth, parallel, flat plates. The data cover the viscous,
transition, and lower turbulent ranges of flow. Friction factors are in agreement with
theory in the viscous range and can be correlated uniquely in the fully turbulent range by
means of a modified hydraulic radius concept. Limits of the transition region in annuli are
functions of the ratio of inner and outer radii. Correlations in the fully turbulent range
permit friction factors for the noncircular ducts to be predicted within the uncertainty
of smooth-tube data. Such factors can be used for the purpose of correlating other variables
as well as for direct calculation of pressure drop.
f =
16
.YRe 4) (7)
Reynolds Number
Fig. 1A.
N,, x 16'
50
40
RADIUS RATIO = 0 0 2 6 0
mg 30
x
e20
I I I l l I
rl
1
sition region and the friction factor
behavior within that region have not
20 40 60 80 100 200 been established adequately. A few
Reynolds Number NRe2x 16' consistent data, such as Carpenter's, are
Fig. 1E. available, but no single investigator has
obtained precise data over a wide range
of radius ratios. The dye studies of
Prengle and Rothfus indicated a pro-
gressive spread of sinuous flow over the
RADIUS RATIO = 0.3312 main stream in annuli a t Reynolds
numbers above 700. Although this
220 behavior was similar to that in smooth
tubes, the authors could not extend their
data to establish the Reynolds number
at which the first disturbance eddy was
cast off.
- - Turbulent Flow
4- - It is customary to deal with friction
I in fully turbulent flow through noncircular
ducts by applying the hydraulic radius
concept to the entire stream. I n brief,
this assumes that the friction factor in
Equation ( 5 ) can be obtained from the
smooth-tube correlation a t the Reynolds
number defined in Equation (4).
A force balance on the entire stream
LAMINAR EQN. RADIUS RATIO L 0.4987
shows that if the skin friction is equal
at all points on the wetted perimeter,
320
f = 0.079/(NR,)0.26 (10)
Sage and coworkers (3, 5, 6) have ob-
tained friction data for flow between
parallel plates which are in approximate
agreement with Equation (10) a t Reyn-
olds numbers from 6,960 to 53,200. It
should be noted that infinite parallel 0.0 01 02 03 04 05 6.6 07 08 0.9 1.0
plates are simulated in practice by Radius Ratio r, /r2
rectangular passages of large-aspect ratio.
Fig. 2. Comparison of over-all friction factors in the lower turbulent range with those
It is exceptionally difficult to isolate calculated by means of hydraulic radius applied to the whole annular stream.
conditions in the central portion of such
ducts from side effects; therefore, it is not
surprising that friction factors for parallel
configuration, the velocity profile goes
plates are generally measured with less
through a maximum point and the local
precision than those for tubes.
Early measurements of friction in shearing stress reaches zero. I n fully
concentric annuli reviewed by Wiegand viscous flow, the force balance on a If T is taken to be T I or rz, the radii of
and Baker (11) show conflicting devia- differential element of fluid predicts that the inner and outer surfaces, respectively,
tions from Equation (10) with varying the definite hydraulic radii R,, and RH2
radius ratios. More recent data on local can be specified through Equation (12).
velocities as well as friction (4, 8) have For example,
pointed toward a more consistent de-
pendence of friction factor on the geom-
etry of the conduit. Katz and Knudsen (4) and Rothfus,
Monrad, and Seneca1 (8) have shown by
velocity measurements that the same It is apparent that R H l loses significance
EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT relationship serves to represent r,,, in fully as the core is made vanishingly small.
Static pressure gradients were measured turbulent flow as well as in the viscous The portion of the fluid between the
in a brass tube and six concentric annuli range. Rothfus and coworkers (9) have radius of maximum velocity and the
formed by fitting the tube with metallic used drag measurements at the core t o outer surface of the annulus is of more
cores of various radii. Pressure drops were show that the radius of maximum velocity immediate concern for purposes of
also obtained in a brass duct of rectangular does not, however, obey Equation (11) correlation.
cross section. Principal dimensions of the in the transition range. Exceptions to The pressure gradient due to friction
various conduits are summarized in Table 2. this are the limiting cases of tubes and is related to the skin friction, ~ ~ a gt ~ ,
Upstream calming lengths varied from 167 parallel plates where symmetry forces the outer boundary through the force
to 450 equivalent. diameters. the point of maximum velocity to remain
The test fluid was water at room tem- balance
perature. Isothermal flow was maintained undisturbed.
by means of heat exchangers installed in If a portion of the fluid lying between
the external piping system through which the radius of maximum velocity and an
the water was circulated steadily and arbitrary radius r is considered, the
continuously. hydraulic radius for this segment may which is the equivalent of Equation (8).
The pressure differences were indicated be defined in the usual manner. The By analogy with Equation ( 5 ) ) a friction
on vertical U-tube manometers designed cross-sectional area occupied by the factor fz for the outer surface can be
to minimize contamination of the liquid- fluid is T ( T ~ - r,Z) and the perimeter defined in such manner as to make
liquid interface. Use of a micromanometer over which fluid shear is exerted is simply
was avoided through the selection of
monochlorobenzene as a manometer fluid. 27rr, since no shear exists a t the radius
Since the specific gravity of monochloro- of maximum velocity. Thus
benzene a t 20°C. is 1.1084 referred t o water
at 20"C., the desired degree of multiplica-
tion was obtained in the manometer TABLE
2
readings at low pressure differences. For DIMENSIONS
OF EXPERIMENTAL
CONDUITS
larger differences in pressure, carbon
tetrachloride was used as the manometer Outer tube Inner tube
fluid. Conduit Material rz, in. Material T I , in. ( r l / r z ) r2 - rl, in. r,, in.
Tube brass 0.3750 - - 0,0000 - 0.000
Annulus 1 brass 0.3750 Steel 0,0098 0.0260 0,365 0.139
BASIS OF CORRELATION
2 brass 0.37!50 Steel 0.0250 0.0667 0.350 0.161
The steady, uniform, isothermal flow 3 brass 0.3750 Steel 0.0469 0.1251 0.328 0.182
of an incompressible fluid through any 4 brass 0.3750 Steel 0.0620 0.1653 0.313 0.195
smooth, concentric annulus will be 5 brass 0,3750 Copper 0,1242 0.3312 0.251 0.238
6 brass 0.3750 Copper 0.1870 0.4987 0.188 0.276
considered, including the limiting cases Parallel plates* brass m Brass m 1.0000 0.700
of tubes and parallel plates. At some
radial distance T, from the center of the *Rectangular passage, 14 in. wide by 0.700 in. clearance.
4000
t- -I
parallel plates is this the same as dealing
with the entire stream.
Extending the hydraulic radius concept
in this manner implies that the friction
factor f 2 a t the outer wall should be
obtained from the smooth-tube correla-
tion a t the Reynolds number
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION annuli. Since the experimental uncer- It is, therefore, apparent that the friction
tainty is greater in the case of parallel factor calculated by means of over-all
The experimental data* are sum- plates, as previously mentioned, Equa- hydraulic radius must differ from the
marized in Figure 1 as graphs of f 2 tion (17) can still be taken to represent actual friction factor by an amount
against N,,, on logarithmic coordinates. these data adequately. In addition to dependent on the radius ratio of the
The abscissae have been calculated from the wide range of radius ratios covered conduit. There is also a small effect of
Equation (16) and the ordinates from by the present data, Rothfus, Monrad, Reynolds number since the value of the
Equation (15). The radius of maximum and Senecal have observed that their exponent in the last equation is related to
velocity has been obtained from Equa- data for annuli having radius ratios of the dope of the logarithmic friction-
tion (11) over the whole Reynolds-number 0.1625 and 0.650 also obey Equation (17) factor-Reynolds-number correlation.
range, since the behavior of r, in the in the lower turbulent range. It can, The friction-factor ratio of Equation
transition region is not well known. therefore, be concluded that a unique (20) is shown a t various radius ratios
Comparison of Equations (5) and (15) correlation for all concentric annuli is in Figure 2. It is apparent that the error
shows that attainable through application of the due to using the over-all hydraulic-radius
hydraulic radius concept to the portion method reaches a maximum value a t
fz = (2) f(p) = 1 Re
(18) of the fluid lying between the outer
boundary of the conduit and the radius
of maximum velocity.
Tl/r2 = 0.11. Since niany commercial
annuli have radius ratios between 0.5 and
1.0, the error incurred may not be very
Therefore, in fully viscous flow, combina- Since the friction factor a t the outer serious if pressure drop alone is the
tion of Equations ( 7 ) and (18) yields surface is so accurately correlated in this important variable. On the other hand,
the theoretical expression manner, it is of interest to inquire what a t lower radius ratios or where precise
magnitude of error would be incurred by friction data are required as a basis for
using the equivalent diameter for the other correlations, the application of
whole stream in the usual way. I n this hydraulic radius to the whole stream may
case the over-all friction factor f, defined not be sufficiently accurate. In any case
by Equations (5) and (6), is assumed to the correction obtained from Equation
obey Equation (10) with the Reynolds (20) or Figure 2 very simply reduces the
number calculated by means of Equation error to a negligible percentage in the
Values of the bracketed term a t various (4). On the other hand, the actual values lower turbulent range.
radius ratios are shown in Table 1. The of f must be related to the experimental Even a t Reynolds numbers above
experimental data are in exact agreement values of f 2 through Equation (18). 100,000 i t is recommended that f 2 be
with Equation (19) a t low Reynolds Combination of Equations (lo), (17), and obtained from the smooth-tube correla-
numbers where entirely viscous flow can (18) shows the actual over-all friction tion at NRe9and the pressure drop calcu-
reasonably be expected. factor to be related to the friction factor lated by means of Equation (15). The
In the fully turbulent range the friction predicted from over-all hydraulic radius friction factor fl a t the inner surface,
factors for all three cross sections obey by the equation defined by Equation (15) with the
Equation (17) very closely. The parallel- equivalent diameter
plate data deviate from the tube curve factual
somewhat more than do the data for f hydraulic radius
*Complete tabular material has been deposited replacing the equivalent diameter Dez,
as document 5438 with the American Documenta-
tion Institute, Photoduplication Service, Library of can easily be related to the friction factor
Congress, Washington 25, D. C., and may be obtained f2. As shown by Rothfus, Monrad, and
for $6.25 for photoprints or $2.50 for 35-mm. micro-
film. Senecal,