Animals also have two modes of reproduction just like plants: asexual and sexual.

As diacussed
previously,  asexual reproduction is the generation of genetically identical offspring from a sole
parent, while sexual reproduction produces genetically varied offspring from the fertilization of an
egg and a sperm.

The following are examples of asexual reproduction in animals. Budding occurs when a new
individual forms as an outgrowth from any part of a living individual such as seen in hydra, an
invertebrate (Figure 2.6a). Sea anemones exhibit fission in which a parent individual divides itself
into two to produce another individual (Figure 2.6b). Fragmentation, the separation of an
individual into pieces (Figure 2.6c), is followed by the forming of new  individuals from the
pieces --a process called regeneration (Figure 2.6d). Such mode of reproduction is seen in a genus
of sea stars  (commonly and incorrectly known as starfish).

What are the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction? Animals or even plants
undergo asexual reproduction because producing an offspring would be faster without the need of
mates. A higher number of offspring may result from this type of reproduction since every
individual can reproduce, unlike in sexual reproduction wherein only females do. However, most
animals reproduce sexually. Genetic variation among the offspring is the key advantage of such
method since it ensures a higher survival rate. especially when conditions are difficult. Genetically
similar individuals in a population have a lower chance of survival because a single virus or
disease can wipe them all out in an instant.

Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Sexual reproduction involves fertilization of an egg (n, haploid) by a sperm (n, haploid) which
produces a zygote (2n, diploid). In humans, the haploid number is 23; hence, a diploid zygote has
46 chromosomes. The egg is a large cell compared with the small and motile sperm. Both gametes
are produced by meiosis which introduces gene shuffling, thereby creating genetically varied
daughter cells. Random fertilization of an egg by a sperm also contributes to the high genetic
variability among sexually-produced offspring.

For animals that have difficulty finding a mate, the solution is to have both sexual reproductive
systems which is called hermaphroditism (Hermes + Aphrodite). Selffertilization is possible but
rarely done in the animal kingdom. One of the few species that self-fertilize is the tapeworm
(Figure 2.7). Most animals that are hermaphrodites still need a mate. The advantage of having
both sex organs is that every individual is a possible mate.

There are also animals that can switch from asexual to sexual reproduction, such as the hydras.
They utilize asexual mode when conditions are favorable. However, they change their mode of
reproduction to sexual mode when conditions become difficult to survive, such as when the
temperature drops during winter.

Fertilization in sexually reproducing animals can vary depending on their habitat. External
fertilization, is used by aquatic animals such as fishes and amphibians. In this method, both male
and female individuals release their gametes in the environment where fertilization also occurs.

Timing is of immense importance. When the males release their sperm, there should be eggs in the
vicinity, and vice versa. To ensure the timing of release, these animals undergo courtship such as
seen in the clasping of a male on the female frog (amplexus) in Figure 2.8.

Internal fertilization is utilized by terrestrial organisms. Since the environment is dry, the sperm
should be near the egg inside the female reproductive tract for fertilization to take place; hence,
copulation (sexual intercourse) is necessary. Moreover, complex organs for the delivery and the
storage of gametes are needed such as seen in human reproductive systems.

Human Reproductive System

Male and female reproductive systems have three similarities: gonads for gamete production,
ducts for gamete delivery and stockpiling, and structures for copulation. The last one is an
evolutionary adaptation for living on land. Let us focus first on the female reproductive system.

Female Reproductive System

The ovary is where the egg cells are produced; hence, it is the female gonad. Egg cells develop
surrounded by follicle cells which nourish them. Estrogen hormones (group of hormones with
similar functions) are also produced by the follicles. Females are born with a finite number of
follicle cells approximately 1-2 million. However, only around 500 cells are released during a
female’s reproductive years. The monthly release of one egg, called ovulation, starts at puberty
and ends at menopause.

From the ovary (Figure 2.9), the egg cell moves towards an oviduct! fallopian tube. The ovary is
not physically connected with the oviduct. The egg cell is swept from the ovary by the cilia at the
finger-like projections of' the oviduct.

Fertilization can occur in the oviduct if sperm cells are present. The zygote moves from the
oviduct towards the uterus where pregnancy normally occurs. In the uterus, the zygote develops
into an embryo and later into a fetus. A zygote that starts to divide is termed an embryo until body
structures start to appear on the 9th week. From the 9th week until birth, the embryo is called a
fetUs. The endometrium lining of the uterus is rich with blood vessels that pass nutrients to and
wastes from the embryo to the mother.

The cervix forms the neck of the uterus found at its base. Below the cervix is the vagina which is
thin but composed of strong muscles. It receives the Sperm during copulation and functions as the
canal where the fetus is delivered during birth. There are also glands in the vagina which secrete
mucus for lubrication during intercourse.

. Figure 2.10 illustrates some of the parts in the female reproductive anatomy. From the outside,
the vulva refers to all parts of the female external genitalia. The labia minora are a pair of thin skin
folds which cover both the opening of the ,vagina and the urethra. The labia 'majora are a pair of
thick skin ridges that protect the genitalia. The hymen, a thin tissue, partially covers thevaginal
opening but is easily torn by rigorous activities other than sexual intercourse.
The clitoris is a highly sensitive small shaft which has a head or glaps and is covered by a hood,
the prepuce. Together with the vagina ano labia mmora, e clitoris enlarges because of the filling of
blood during sexual Intercourse.

Figure 2.11 shows the male reproductive anatomy. The male gonad which produces the sperm is a
pair of testes (sing.: testis). From each testis, the sperm cells swim to the epididymis where they
further develop and are stored. They then move to the vas deferens through muscular contractions.
The vas deferens circles the urinary bladder and then join with the duct of seminal vesicle to form
the ejaculatory duct which empties into the urethra. Unlike in females with separate openings for
urinary and reproductive functions, males use the same opening for urine and gametes (sperm).

The penis has structures similar to those in the clitoris, such as the glans (head), shaft (body), and
prepuce (foreskin). The prepuce is removed during circumcision. The glans is richly supplied with
nerve endings, making it highly sensitive. Semen is made up of sperms secreted by three glands:
seminal vesicle, prostate, and bulbourethral gland. The fluids from the seminal vesicle and the
prostate gland nourish the sperm. The bulbourethral secretion, which is an alkaline fluid, helps
neutralize the remaining urine in the urethra and the acidity of the vagina upon sperm deposition.
Ejaculation, the release of the semen, occurs during male orgasm. Approximately, there are 200-
500 million sperms in 2-5 ml (1 teaspoon) of secretions. Among the millions of sperm, only one
will be able to fertilize the egg.

The hormonal control of the male reproductive system is done by the hypothalamus (Figure 2.12).
The hypothalamus produces a releasing hormone which stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete
follicle-stimulating hormone (F SH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH signals the testes to
produce sperm while LH activates secretion of androgens, including the testosterone, which also
enhances sperm production. Moreover, androgens control sperm production through negative
feedback mechanism. They exert an inhibiting effect on the hypothalamus and an LH regulating
sperm production.

Gametogenesis

Sperm and egg (gametes) are produced through meiosis in a process called gametogenesis (Figure
2.13). Spermatogenesis, sperm production, is prolific, continuous, starts during male puberty, and
goes on until old age. For every one diploid parent cell, four haploid sperm cells are produced.

On the other hand, oogenesis, the egg cell production, starts at birth, continues at puberty, and
commonly waits for sperm to fertilize it. The process is discontinuous unlike spermatogenesis.
Once they reach a certain age, females experience menopause, the end of oogenesis. Note that
only one haploid egg cell is produced from every one diploid parent cell.
Female Reproductive Hormones

The cyclical production of an egg cell in the ovary is called the ovarian cycle. It usually recurs
every 28 days and simultaneously happens with the events in the uterus called the menstrual cycle.
The regulation of these two cycles is controlled by hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary,
which in turn is stimulated by the hypothalamus. Table 2.1 summarizes the different hormones
involved in regulating the reproductive cycle of females (ovarian + menstrual).

Reproductive cycle (Figure 2.14) starts on the first day of menstruation, the “monthly period”
of women when bleeding occurs. The uterine lining (endometrium) is shed in the absence of
pregnancy. This period is synchronized with the beginning of egg cell development in the ovary.
After the bloody discharge, the endometrium thickens in preparation for a possible implantation.
During this time, FSH continues to stimulate egg cell development, until it is released at ovulation,
induced by LH. After this, the follicle cells become a corpus Iuteum which secretes progesterone
and estrogen under LH control. These two ovarian hormones maintain the endometrium in the
uterus for several days in case pregnancy occurs. in the absence of a sperm, the egg cell does not
complete its development.  After sevral days,  the levels of ovarian hormones start to drop,
signaling the start of cyle. 

Fertilization

Fertilization is the meeting of the sperm and the egg where both gametes contribute haploid sets of
chromosomes to form the diploid zygote. Thls process is not an easy feat for the sperm where
millions try, but only one succeeds. The sperm’s structure (Figure 2.15) is critical to its
functions. Its head contains the haploid chromosome and on its tip is the acrosome, containing
enzymes that can tear down an egg cell covering. It also has a midpiece with mitochondria that
powers the long and difficult journey of the sperm. The tail supports its motility.

For fertilization to occur, the sperm has to penetrate the egg’s covering and be recognized by
receptors on its surface. This recognition ensures the union of sperm and egg from the same
species which is specially important In external fertilization. Once the nucleus of the sperm enters
the cell, the egg cell membrane becomes rigid and impenetrable. This prevents multiple sperms
from fertilizing the egg.

Embryonic DeveIOpment

How does a one-celled zygote become a complex organism with defined organ systems? First, it
undergoes successive cell divisions to form an embryo made up of a ball of cells (Figure 2.16).
This stage is called Cleavage. The holldw ball of cells is called the blastula while the space inside
is the blastocoel.

An embryo at its early development can completely split its ball of cells from each other and
develop separately just like regular zygotes. This phenomenon rarely occurs and produces
identical twins (monozygotic) with the same genetic makeup. Dizygotic twins or fraternal twins
form from two separate eggs and are fertilized by two different sperms; hence, they are genetically
different.

Gastrulation is the stage of development which organizes the blastula into three different layers of
cells (germ layers) now called the gastrula. This is characterized by cell movement. Moreover, this
stage will pave the way for the development of organs. The three germ layers from the outermost
are ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system and the outer
layer of our skin. Endoderm forms the digestive tract.

The mesoderm forms the other organs such as muscles, heart, kidney, and the dermis (inner layer
of skin).

Organogenesis (organ formation) starts immediately after the germ layers are formed. Each group
of cells begins developing into embryonic organs shortly after gastrulation. Several processes
affect the development of organs and parts of the organism, including induction in which cells
influence the behavror of other cells to develop into specific tissues; cell migration which helps
form differentiated tissues; and apoptosis (programmed cell death) which plays a key role in
developing specific body parts such as the hands. During hand development, cells in between
fingers are killed through apoptosis.

Human Embryonic Development

The length of human embryonic development from conception to birth is three trimesters. Each
one is made up of three months. Refer to Figure 2.17 for the changes in a developing fetus.

First Trimester Organogenesis occurs during this period; hence, this is the most delicate stage.
Exposure to drugs, alcohol, radiation, and other harmful substances can damage the embryo. After
nine weeks, the embryo, now called a fetus, has majority of its organs, its rib and back muscles,
and little arms and legs with fingers and toes. At 5.5 cm (2.2 inches) long, the fetus is capable of
movements such as sucking, turning its head, and moving its limbs. By the end of this period, the
fetus’ sex can be determined and its heartbeat can be monitored.

Second Trimester. This period and the last trimester are characterized by continued growth and
development of organs. Eyebrows, eyelashes, arms, legs, and nails have all lengthened. The fetus
now measures 19 cm (7.6 inches) at 20 weeks. Fetal movement can now be felt by the mother
whose pregnancy is now quite obvious with enlarged abdomen.

Third Trimester -At 28 weeks until birth, dramatic and rapid fetal growth is evident in the last
trimester. This brings more discomfort to the mother as her abdominal organs become compressed
by the enlarged uterus. This results in frequent urination, difficulty in digestion, and back muscle
pains. A premature infant born as early as 24 weeks can survive with medication and special care
and often develops and grows normally. Fuli ‘ term babies are born with an average weight of 3-
4 kg (6-8 pounds).
Summary of Key Concepts

1. Asexual reproduction creates offspring which are genetically similar to the sole parent. in
contrast, sexual reproduction requires the union of sperm and egg from two parents; hence,
producing genetically varied offspring. Asexual reproduction is more often used when conditions
are favorable, while sexual reproduction is utilized when conditions become more difficult. This
usually happens since genetically varied offspring have a higher chance of survival in unfavorable
conditions than offspring which are clones of their parents.

2. The angiosperm gonads are the stamens which produce the sperm and the carpels which
produce the egg. The sperm is formed in the anther and passes through the pollen tube to reach the
egg in the ovary of a plant. The fertilized ovule then matures into the seed and the ovary becomes
the fruit. When seeds are planted on soil, the germination and the growth of a new plant starts and
continues the plant life cycle.

3. Many aquatic animals use external fertilization in moist habitats as the gametes are released in
the environment. Internal fertilization is utilized by terrestrial animals where the sperm is
deposited inside the female’s reproductive tract.

4. The human male gonad which produces the sperm is the pair of testes, while the ovary is the
female counterpart. Fertilization can occur in the oviduct, and the zygote then moves towards the
uterus where it matures into a fetus.

5. Vertebrate embryonic development has similar stages, starting from cleavage which produces a
hollow ball of cells called the blastula. Gastrulation follows, forming cell germ layers which will
eventually form into different organs during organogenesis.

6. Human embryonic development is divided into three trimesters, with each trimester having
characteristic milestones. Organogenesis is mostly completed during the first trimester, while the
second and third trimesters are characterized by rapid growth and further development of organs.