HPGD3103 Instructional Technologies May18 (Bookmark) PDF

HPGD3103
Instructional Technologies
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HPGD3103
INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGIES
Assoc Prof Dr Wan Zah Wan Ali
Assoc Prof Dr Ramlah Hamzah
Dr Rosini Abu
Tengku Putri Norishah Tengku Shariman

Project Director: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Wan Zah Wan Ali

Assoc Prof Dr Ramlah Hamzah
Dr Rosini Abu
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Tengku Putri Norishah Tengku Shariman

Multimedia University
Translator: Prof Dr Rio Sumarni Shariffudin
Enhancer: Dr Dorothy Dewitt
Adapted by: Teh Lai Ling

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, December 2010

Second Edition, April 2018
Copyright © Open University Malaysia, April 2018, HPGD3103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xiăxv
Topic 1 Introduction to Instructional Technology 1

1.1 The Concept of Technology 2
1.2 The Concept of Instruction 3
1.3 Instructional Technology 4
1.3.1 The Definition of Instructional Technology 4
1.3.2 What is Instructional Technology? 5
1.3.3 Terminology Related to Instructional Technology 6
1.4 Domains 7
Summary 9
Key Terms 9
References 9
Topic 2 Instructional Design 11

2.1 Learning and Instruction 12
2.1.1 What is Learning? 12
2.1.2 What is Instruction? 13
2.2 Instructional Design 14
2.2.1 Definition 14
2.2.2 Importance of Instructional Design 16
2.3 Traditional Instructional Design 18
2.3.1 Instructional System Development 18
2.4 Traditional Instructional Design versus 20
Systematic Instructional Design
2.5 Nine Events of Instruction 22
Summary 23
Key Terms 24
References 24

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Learning Theories and Instructional Design (ID) 26

3.1 Behaviourist Learning Theory 27
3.1.1 Pavlov 27
3.1.2 Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) 28
3.1.3 John B. Watson (1878-1958) 29
3.1.4 B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) 30
3.2 Implications of Behaviourist Learning Theories in Education 32
3.2.1 Behavioural Objectives 33
3.2.2 BloomÊs Taxonomy 33
3.2.3 GagneÊs Learning Objectives Taxonomy (1972) 34
3.2.4 Mastery Learning 35
3.2.5 Industrial and Military Approach 35
3.2.6 Teaching Machine and Programmed Instruction 35
3.2.7 Individualised Learning 36
3.3 Cognitive Learning Theory 38
3.3.1 Jean Piaget (1896-1980) 38
3.3.2 Implications of Cognitive Theory in Learning 40
3.3.3 Main Concepts of Cognitive Theory 41
3.4 Constructivism 43
3.4.1 Learning and Constructivism 45
3.4.2 Implication of Constructivism on Teaching 46
3.4.3 NeedhamÊs Five-phase Processing Model 47
3.4.4 Constructivism and Instructional Design 47
3.4.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Behaviourist, 49
Cognitive and Constructivist Theories
3.5 Summary of Learning Theories 50
Summary 51
Key Terms 51
References 51
Topic 4 Instructional Systems Design Models 53

4.1 Dick and CareyÊs Model 55
4.2 Hannafin and PeckÊs Model 56
4.3 Assure Model 57
4.4 Knirk and GustafsonÊs Design Model 58
4.5 Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs Model 59
4.6 Gerlach-ElyÊs Model 61
4.7 Rapid Prototyping Model 62
4.8 Agne and Briggs System Model 63
4.9 ADDIE Model 64
4.10 Differences between Instructional Design Models 66

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
4.11 Components in Instructional Design Model 71

4.11.1 Analysis 71
4.11.2 Design 73
4.11.3 Development 73
4.11.4 Implementation 74
4.11.5 Evaluation 75
Summary 75
Key Terms 76
References 76
Topic 5 Putting ID Theories into Practice 77

5.1 Dick and CareyÊs Model 78
5.2 ASSURE Model 86
5.3 Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs Model 89
Summary 95
Key Terms 96
References 96
Topic 6 Teaching and Learning Strategies 97

6.1 Teaching Strategies 98
6.1.1 Definition of Teaching Strategies 98
6.1.2 Development of Teaching Strategies 99
6.1.3 Direct Instruction (DI) 100
6.1.4 Cooperative Learning 103
6.1.5 Learning Styles 107
6.1.6 Indirect Instruction 109
6.1.7 Problem-based Learning 111
6.2 Thinking Skills 113
6.2.1 What are Thinking Skills? 113
6.2.2 Importance of Thinking Skills 115
6.2.3 Categories of Thinking Skills 116
6.2.4 Critical and Creative Thinking 118
6.2.5 Problem Solving 119
6.2.6 Decision Making 120
6.3 Thinking Tools 122
6.3.1 Mind Map 122
6.3.2 Graphic Organiser 127
6.3.3 Socratic Questioning 133
Summary 135
Key Terms 136
References 136

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Components of Instruction 138

7.1 Definitions and Characteristics of Learning Outcomes 139
7.1.1 Alternative Names of Learning Outcomes 141
7.2 Purposes and Functions of Learning Outcomes 143
7.3 Elements of Learning Outcomes 147
7.4 Three Domains of Learning Outcomes 148
7.4.1 Cognitive Domain 150
7.4.2 Affective Domain 152
7.4.3 Psychomotor Domain 153
Summary 156
Key Terms 156
References 157
Topic 8 Instructional Media 158

8.1 Categories of Instructional Media 159
8.1.1 Categories of Media 159
8.1.2 Types of Technology-based Instructional Media 161
8.2 Purpose of Using Instructional Media 162
8.3 Factors of Instructional Media Selection 165
8.3.1 Instructional Outcomes 168
8.3.2 Students 168
8.3.3 Methods/Instructional Strategies 169
8.3.4 Practicality 171
8.4 Designing Instructional Media 172
Summary 173
Key Terms 174
References 174
Topic 9 Educational Technology in Schools 175

9.1 Current Trends in Educational Technology in Schools 176
9.2 Current Trends in Malaysia 178
9.2.1 Smart Schools 178
9.2.2 1BestariNet and FrogVLE 180
9.2.3 STEM 180
9.2.4 Computational Thinking 181
9.3 The Use of Technologies in Classrooms 182
9.4 Best Practices 183
9.4.1 Case Study in South Korea 184
9.4.2 Case Study in Australia 187
9.4.3 Case Study in England, United Kingdom 191
9.4.4 Case Study in Singapore 194

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Summary 201
Key Terms 202
References 203
Topic 10 Instructional Media 206

10.1 Mobile Learning 208
10.1.1 A New Model for Learning: Mobigogy 212
10.2 Search Technologies 215
10.2.1 Specialised Search Tools 216
10.2.2 Application of Search Technologies in the Future 218
10.3 Blog and Vlog 219
10.3.1 Characteristics of a Blog 220
10.3.2 Characteristics of a Vlog 222
10.3.3 Blogging/VloggingÊs Benefits for Students 224
10.3.4 Blogging/VloggingÊs Benefits for Educators 226
10.4 Podcasting and Vodcasting 228
10.4.1 Factors for the Explosive Growth of Podcasting 228
10.4.2 Compelling Uses for Podcasting in an 230
Educational Setting
10.5 Virtual Worlds 231
10.5.1 Artificial Intelligence: Virtual Learning Companions 231
10.5.2 Virtual Reality 233
10.6 The Next Wave of E-Learning: Connectivism and Web 2.0 235
10.7 Conclusion 237
Summary 238
Key Terms 239
References 239

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully. It tells you briefly what the course is
about and how you can work your way through the course material. It also
suggests the amount of time to spend in order to complete the course successfully.
Please keep on referring to Course Guide as you go through the course material as
it will help you to clarify important study components or points you might have
missed.
INTRODUCTION
HPGD3103 Instructional Technologies is a course offered by Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth four credit hours and should be covered
over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to learners taking the Postgraduate Diploma in Teaching
programme. The main aim of the course is to provide you with critical thinking,
problem solving and lifelong learning skills to be applied in the field of academic
research.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course will be conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a four-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 160
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 160 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 4
Study the module 66
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 8
Online participation 30
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 37
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe the historical development and important concepts, principles and

theories of instructional technology; and
2. Apply these concepts, theories and principles in a situational context.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 begins with an introduction to instructional technology and concepts

related to instructional technology.
Topic 2 elaborates on the definitions of instructional design and its importance.

The comparison of traditional instructional design to systematic instructional
design is also discussed.
Topic 3 describes the fundamentals of learning theories and relates these theories
to learning and instruction.
Topic 4 provides an overview and highlights the features, differences and

similarities among several instructional systems design models used in education.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Topic 5 gives examples of the use of selected instructional design models in

developing learning materials and learning environments.
Topic 6 describes the application of learning theories in designing teaching

strategies, as well as the concept of thinking skills and the application of thinking
tools for learning.
Topic 7 elaborates on the components of learning by focusing on the function and

elements of learning outcomes and domains of learning.
Topic 8 discusses the categories of instructional media, the purpose of using

instructional media and also the factors in selecting the instructional media.
Topic 9 highlights some of the latest developments related to educational

technology in schools today, some of them are initiated by the Ministry of
Education.
Topic 10 examines some of the more recent trends in technologies, the application
of these trends in education and the changing role of students, instructors and
administrators with the use of these technologies.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have
completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently
refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your
understanding of the topic.
SelfăCheck: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one subăsection or a few subă
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the subăsection(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Activity: Like SelfăCheck, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module
and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in
higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and
evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks,
journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list can appear
in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References section), at the
end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or
refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional information needed and to
enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
REFERENCES
Association of Specialist Group Work. (1992). Professional standards for training
group workers. Alexandria, Virginia.
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2014). The systematic design of instruction.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Morrison, G. R. (2011). Designing effective instruction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design
and technology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising eăjournals, eătheses, eăbooks and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you
are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.

Topic  Introduction to
Instructional
1 Technology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Define technology, instruction and instructional technology;
2. Discuss the main concepts of instructional technology; and
3. Identify domains and functions of instructional technology.
 INTRODUCTION
The concept of instructional technology has often been misinterpreted. When we
come across "instructional technology", we may conclude that it involves the usage
and application of technology equipment such as computers, televisions and
overhead projectors as well as applications and tools such as videos, PowerPoint
slides. DVDs and even cloud applications being used in the teaching process.
However, this is a misconception about instructional technology.
The field of instructional technology is not about the use of technology in

education; instead, it is a discipline, a field of study, a craft and an art. Equipment,
applications and tools may be used to improve the quality of the instruction and
the production of instructional material to cater to learnersÊ needs. In this topic,
the concept of technology and instruction is discussed to define instructional
technology and the domains which define it.

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
1.1 THE CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY

Many will say that technology involves machines or products created by modern
science. This covers only a part of technology. Technology is comprised of two
Greek words ă techne which means art, craft or skill, and logia, which refers to a
body of knowledge (Spector, 2015; Webster's Dictionary, 1994). While many
people might use the word "technology" to refer to manufactured objects such as
computers and telephones, technology can also be the application of knowledge
for a practical purpose (Spector, 2012). Galbraith (1967) defines technology as:
„⁄the systematic application of scientific knowledge and other organised

knowledge to practical task.‰
Evans and Nation (2000) explain that technology is not a tool but an art or science
of how to use a tool for a purpose. Seels & Richey (1994) states that technology
included tools, processes, applications, skills and organisation. Technology in
education or instruction is more than the technical application of tools, machines,
computers, products and communication systems (such as multimedia,
computerised instruction, games, simulations or interactive video). It also
encompasses the „application of the principles of science in order to solve learning
problems...‰ In other words, technology is the practical application of knowledge
for a purpose (Spector, 2015).
Therefore, technology in any discipline is the knowledge resulting from studies

and explorations in that discipline which is used to perform tasks subject to that
discipline skilfully. Technology in any discipline is based firstly on theoretical
findings and secondly on practical and applied conclusions of that discipline in
order to prepare the grounds for applying those findings to resolve problems in
that particular context (Fardanesh, 2007). Technology changes (keeps evolving)
since knowledge is progressing and the goals and intentions of people are dynamic
(Spector, 2015). Moreover, as technology changes, what people do and what they
can do changes as well (Spector, 2015). As a result of this evolution in technology,
telephones and computers have become portable and used for other purposes such
as taking photographs and finding locations, instead of just communication.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
What is technology? Is the definition of technology limited by

hardware? Discuss your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY  3
1.2 THE CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTION

Instruction has many meanings. In education, instruction is the act of teaching
something to somebody. Fardanesh (2007) states that instruction is a
conglomeration of decisions and activities that are made and carried out to achieve
the desired outcomes for learners. He explains some of the decisions and activities
as follows:
(a) Examining learnersÊ prior knowledge;
(b) Determining the structure and combination of learning material;
(c) Using incentives and feedback;
(d) Determining required capabilities for desired learning outcomes;
(e) Identifying required learning conditions;
(f) Identifying ways to measure learning outcomes;
(g) Determining presentation strategies;
(h) Determining the time necessary for learning;
(i) Informing learners about learning goals;
(j) Communicating with learners;
(k) Providing learning material;
(l) Setting appropriate standards for performance and evaluation; and
(m) Managing learning processes.
The stated list is by no means complete. Instruction is a multifaceted and complex

process which needs to be studied and dealt with as a unique and goal-oriented
process. Thus, the main purpose of instruction is to create a good quality learning
environment. Such an environment will enhance learnersÊ thinking and help them
to become better human beings.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
What is instruction? When does instruction occur? Discuss your answer

in the myINSPIRE forum. Share your answers with your coursemates in
the myINSPIRE forum.

1.3 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

There are several definitions of instructional technology by scholars in the field.
Do you think there are any similarities in the definitions? Let us review each of
them.
1.3.1 The Definition of Instructional Technology

Molenda (2003) states that instructional technology is the art and science of
designing, producing and using ă with economy and elegance ă solutions to
institutional problems; these solutions may combine verbal or audio-visual media
and may be experienced with or without human mediation and may take the form
of learners, courses or whole systems that facilitate learning efficiently, effectively
and humanely.
Meanwhile, Illinois School District U-46 (U-46.org, 2005) claims that instructional
technology is the use of a variety of teaching tools to improve student learning. At
the mention of instructional technology, we usually think of computers and
computer software, but instructional technology is not limited to the use of
computers in the classroom. In fact, instructional technology describes all the tools
used for teaching and learning such as cameras, CD players, PDAs, GPS devices,
computer-based probes, calculators and electronic tools.
In 1994, the Association for Education Communications and Technology (AECT)

states the following and this definition has been maintained since then:
„Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development,

utilisation, management and evaluation of processes and resources for
learning.‰

From all these definitions, a new definition of instructional technology was born
which emphasised mental processes and cognitive analysis of learning tasks. It
was suggested by Reiser (2001) as shown in the following:
„The field of instructional design and technology encompasses the analysis of

learning and performance problems, and the design, development,
implementation, evaluation and management of instructional and non-
instructional processes and resources intended to improve learning and
performance in a variety of settings, particularly educational institutions and
the workplace. Professionals in the field of instructional design and
technology often use systematic instructional design procedures and employ
a variety of instructional media to accomplish their goals. Moreover, in recent
years, they have paid increasing attention to non-instructional solutions to
some performance problems.‰
1.3.2 What is Instructional Technology?

There are instructional designers in the field that feel that instructional technology
should be for innovating and leading change (Kowch, 2013). Hence, the need to be
able to innovate and lead transformation in the field is important. The AECT
president at that time, Michael Spector (2010) agrees with this notion as he says
that „Our profession takes the notion of change seriously; we are typically trying
to establish that a particular instructional approach or use of a particular
technology will result in improved learning‰. So, what then is instructional
technology?
As technology evolves, our pedagogy needs to change. Hence, the focus of

instructional designers is to facilitate and improve „learning and performance‰
(Spector, 2010). Spector (2010) continues „As a consequence, our profession takes
the notion of change seriously; we are typically trying to establish that a particular
instructional approach or use of a particular technology will result in improved
learning.‰ (Spector, 2010)

ACTIVITY 1.1
The field of instructional technology is well-conceptualised in a position

paper by McGriff (2001). Make some time to read it. It is available
at https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED470149
Next, please read Reeves, T. C. & Oh, E. G. (2016) paper on The goals
and methods of educational technology research over a quarter century
(1989-2014). Has the definition of instructional technology evolved?
Discuss the trends in research in this field. You may refer to the
following webpage: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11423-
016-9474-1. Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
1.3.3 Terminology Related to Instructional

Technology
There are many terms related to instructional technology, some of which are
explained in Table 1.1:
Table 1.1: Terms Related to Instructional Technology
Term Definition
Instruction A planned process that facilitates learning.
Instructional systems A group of interdependent parts that work together to
accomplish a goal such as a classroom or learning
management system.
ISD/ID This refers to Instructional Systems Design (or also
known as Instructional Systems Development) that
requires sound decision making to determine the who,
what, when, where, why and how of training. ISD is often
called System Approach to Training (SAT) or Analysis,
Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate (ADDIE).
Instructional context This refers to the physical and psychological
environment in which instruction is delivered or in
which transfer occurs. We call it the learning
environment.
Individualised instruction This means the use, by students, of systematically
designed learning activities and materials specifically
chosen to suit their individual interests, abilities and
experience. Such instruction is usually self-paced.

1.4 DOMAINS
Instructional technology is a multifaceted field. Seels and Richey (1994) identify
five domains which contribute to the field. They can be remember with the
mnemonic acronym M-DUDE which stands for:
(a) Management (M);
(b) Design (D);
(c) Utilisation (U);
(d) Development (D); and
(e) Evaluation (E).
The five domains are as depicted in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Domains of the field of instructional technology

The Definition and Terminology Committee has provided description for each of
the five domains (Seels & Richey, 1994) as follows:
(a) Design refers to the process of specifying conditions for learning. The design
component demonstrates knowledge, skills and dispositions to design
conditions for learning by applying principles of instructional systems
design, message design, instructional strategies and learner characteristics.
(b) Development refers to the process of translating the design specifications

into physical form. Development includes the actual creation of instructional
material and experiences, along with the resulting products. Development
includes knowledge, skills and dispositions to develop instructional material
and experiences using (by applying principles, theories, and research related
to) print, audio-visual, computer-based and integrated technologies.
(c) Utilisation refers to the use of processes and resources for learning.
Utilisation incorporates knowledge, skills and dispositions to use processes
and resources for learning by applying principles and theories of (and
research related to) media utilisation, diffusion, implementations and policy-
making.
(d) Management refers to processes for controlling instructional technology. It

includes the application of principles of projects, resources, delivery systems
and information management to the planning, organising, coordination and
supervision of instructional technology.
(e) Evaluation is the process for determining the adequacy of instruction.

Evaluation focuses on the application of principles of problem analysis,
criterion-referenced measurement, formative and summative evaluation,
and long-range planning to the evaluation of products and processes of
learning.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
In the myINSPIRE forum, answer the following questions:
(a) Discuss what is instructional technology.
(b) Discuss the function of each domain of instructional technology.
(c) What are the five domains in educational technology as proposed

by Seels and Richey? What does each domain entail?

Ć Technology can be defined as the knowledge resulting from studies and

explorations in a particular discipline that is used to perform tasks, subject to
that discipline.
Ć Instruction is a group of decisions and activities made and carried out to

achieve the desired outcomes for learners. The main purpose of it is to create a
good quality learning environment.
Ć Instructional technology has been defined in many ways in the topic. However,
the latest one emphasises on mental processes and cognitive analysis of
learning tasks.
Ć Five domains contribute to instructional technology and they are collectively

known as M-DUDE: management, design, utilisation, development and
evaluation.
Instruction M-DUDE
Instructional technology Technology
Kowch, E. G. (2013). Whither thee, educational technology? Suggesting a critical

expansion of our epistemology for emerging leaders. TechTrends: Linking
Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 57 (5), 25-34.
Reeves, T. C., & Oh, E. G. (2016, August, 17) The goals and methods of educational
technology research over a quarter century (1989î2014). Retrieved from
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11423-016-9474-1
Reiser, R. A. (2001). A history of instructional design and technology: Part II: A

history of instructional design. Educational Technology Research and
Development, 49(2), 57-67.

Seels, B. B., & Richey, R. C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and
domains of the field. Bloomington, IN: Association for Educational
Communications and Technology.
Spector, J. M. (2010). Educational technology and change. TechTrends: Linking

Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 54 (5), 6-7.
Spector, J. M. (2015). Foundations of educational technology: Integrative

approaches and interdisciplinary perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge.
U-46.org (2005) Definition of instructional technology. Retrieved from www.u-

46.org/it/DefinitionofInstructionalTechnology.htm

Topic  Instructional
Design
2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define learning and instructional design;
2. Describe instructional design concepts;
3. State the importance of the instructional design process;
4. Compare traditional instructional design to the systematic
instructional system development; and
5. Describe the nine events of instruction.
 INTRODUCTION
There is awareness among instructors from both academic institutions and
corporate industries on designing their own teaching and learning materials for
students and workers. However, how are these instructional materials designed?
Designing instructional materials is not easy as it involves many aspects such as
instructional design theories, learning theories and instructional media. The
instructional design may guarantee effective teaching and learning.
In this topic, we will begin by defining what learning and instructional design are.
The concepts of instructional design will also be discussed. Moreover, we will also
address the importance of the instructional design process and later compare
traditional instructional design to systematic instructional system development.

12  TOPIC 2 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
2.1 LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

This subtopic will kick-start our discussion on instructional design. We will look
into the definitions that make up the term „learning and instruction‰.
2.1.1 What is Learning?

Learning is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviours,
including skills, knowledge, understanding, values and wisdom. It is the product
of experience and the goal of education.
Learning may also be defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, attitudes or

skills from study, instruction or experience (Miller & Findlay, 1996). Learning
results in a relatively permanent change in behaviour that may or may not be a
result of instruction (Morrison, Ross, Kemp & Kalman, 2011). In short, learning is
said to occur when there is a change in studentsÊ behaviour due to their interaction
with their surroundings. Some examples of the learning process are as follows:
(a) A child is fixing a bicycle tyre with the help of instructions from his father.
He is interacting with his surroundings ă the bicycle and his father. Learning
is said to happen here.
(b) You are baking a cake with the help from your mother. She explains to you
the ingredients used and the right temperature needed to bake a cake. You
are involved in the learning process.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
From your understanding, define learning. Give examples (besides from

the examples given in subtopic 2.1.1) when learning occurs. Share your
answer with your coursemates during the tutorial session.

TOPIC 2 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN  13
2.1.2 What is Instruction?

Instruction is the act of instructing, teaching or furnishing with knowledge or
information. It may also be defined as the methods and processes by which pupils'
behaviours are changed. Instruction is arranging conditions and contingent
relationships, by using materials or media, whereby learning occurs according to
plan.
The term „teaching‰ refers typically to methodology or strategies chosen in

arranging the information, activities, approaches or media to help students achieve
their objectives.
Dick, Carey & Carey (2014) define instruction as a set of events or activities
presented in a structured or planned manner through one or more media, with
specific learning goals for the learners to achieve specific behaviours. Some
examples of instruction are as follows:
(a) Mrs Lee, a Physics teacher, is preparing a lesson plan for her class the next
day. She decides to use a demonstration of an experiment as the lesson
involves a dangerous experiment. The teaching process is happening here.
(b) Mrs Ravi and her husband have agreed to educate their daughter on sexually
transmitted diseases. As this is a sensitive issue, they decide to use the
discussion method. They begin by showing pictures and videos of socially
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, and then ask questions and ask their
daughter to predict what could happen when the socially unacceptable
behaviour is continued. Their method of teaching is by asking questions and
having discussions.
Can instruction take place without a teacher? Consider the following case:
Watch a YouTube video titled Mental Health Awareness. Is there any instructions
going on? Is there any learning? A viewer of the video would learn about the
concept of mental health and at the same time pick up pointers on the warning
signs, preventive measure or actions to be taken when he watches the video.
Hence, the instruction can take place without a teacher. In what other cases does
instruction occur when there is no teacher present?
This means that instruction is a complex process and does not depend on a set of
guidelines and rules of instructional design. Instead, instruction for learning
depends on theories of communication, philosophy, psychology and sociology
(DeWitt, Alias & Siraj, 2014). This is because, in order for instruction to be effective,
one needs to communicate in a manner that can enable interactions and motivate
a person to learn.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
Define instruction using your own words. Provide an example of it as

well. Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
2.2 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

As learning is an active process and occurs within the learner, it is important for
the learner to build his own experiences for construction of knowledge. Hence, it
is not only important to design the instructional material, but also the instructional
environment so that the learning process is effective. Hence, instructional design
is used to design the learning environment for teaching and training.
2.2.1 Definition
The goal of the instructional design is to make learning more efficient and effective
(Morrison, Ross, Kemp & Kalman, 2011). Whether the learning takes place in a
face-to-face situation with the teacher in front of the students, in an online
environment or blended environment, we need instructional design to make the
best learning experience. An instruction is a set of events that facilitate learning,
but with instructional design, a creative pattern or a rational, logical and sequential
process is employed to solve instructional problems (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2015).
Hence, instructional design focuses on solving instructional problems so that
performance can be improved.
Thus, instructional design can be defined as a systematic process of translating

principles of learning and instruction into plans for to achieve the desired goals
(Gagne & Briggs, 1979). However, there are many different definitions of
instructional design which reflects the underlying philosophies and viewpoints of
what is involved in the learning process (Siemens, 2002). However, Thompson
(2001) has noted that these definitions have common features and involve the
following (see Figure 2.1):

Figure 2.1: Common features to the different definitions of instructional design

Source: Thompson (2001)
Some of these definitions are presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Definitions of Instructional Design
Source Definition
Reigeluth (1983) The process of deciding which methods of instruction are best
for bringing about desired changes in student knowledge and
skills for a specific student population.
Seels and Richey Instructional systems design (ISD) defined it as „an organised
(1994) procedure that includes the steps of analysing, designing,
developing, implementing and evaluating instruction‰.
Reiser & Dempsey The theory and practice of design, development, utilisation,
(2002) management, and evaluation of processes and resources for
learning.
Branch & Kopcha Instructional design is intended to be an iterative process of
(2014) planning outcomes, selecting effective strategies for teaching
and learning, choosing relevant technologies, identifying
educational media, and measuring performance.

SELF-CHECK 2.3
How do you think instructional design can be best defined? From the
definitions provided, how do you summarise the term „instructional
design‰? Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Reflect on all the given definitions and construct one that is based on
your teaching experience.
Instructional design is a systematic process where elements such as

teachers, students, media, teaching aids and learning environment are
taken into consideration and given specific purposes in the teaching and
learning process.
The process involves a systematic instructional design sequence ă

beginning with analysis, design, development, implementation and
evaluation. Do you agree with this definition? Discuss this in the
myINSPIRE forum..
2.2.2 Importance of Instructional Design

At present, new knowledge such as technologies, perspectives and gadgets is
being created at tremendous speed. There is a wide array of knowledge available
and we have to choose this knowledge wisely. Companies which are involved in
new knowledge creation have to keep pace with these advances in technology.
They face the problem of providing their staff with in-service training to keep up
with these new advances. Moreover, at the same time, educational institutions
need to provide just-in-time knowledge to their learners who need up-to-date
information and current research to progress in their studies. What is required are
effective and efficient designs to deliver training and information. Hence,
instructional design is important for this purpose.
Instructional design has been used in business and government, in the medical
field, military and of course, education. It is noted that some industries spend large
amounts of money on training which requires instructional design. For example,
Accenture invested USD841 million on staff training and professional
development in 2015 with a total of 15 million hours of training delivered or at an
average of more than 40 hours per employee (Accenture, Jan 13, 2016).

According to Morrison, Ross, Kemp & Kalman (2011), training in business and
governmental agencies can be grouped into four broad areas: technical training,
soft-skill training, management and supervisory training, and sales training, while
in the medical field, training is for continuing education to update skills and
maintain certification. In education, instructional design has been used in higher
education to improve teaching skills and assist with course development, as well
as to work on the design and development of distance education courses
(Morrison, Ross, Kemp & Kalman, 2011).
The objective of instructional design is to serve the learning needs and success of
students through effective presentation of content and fostering interaction. The
practice of instructional design process can help to:
(a) Improve teaching efficiency;
(b) Enhance teaching effectiveness;
(c) Ensure studentsÊ interest in the lesson taught;
(d) Ensure that the teaching and learning process is cost-effective;
(e) Ensure that the learning content matches the intended objectives;
(f) Ensure that the teaching can be applied to various suitable scenarios; and
(g) Ensure that the teaching plan adheres to the time allocation.
Thus, a systematic process of instructional design enables an educator or instructor

to:
(a) Identify the performance problem;
(b) Determine the goals and objectives;
(c) Define learners and their needs;
(d) Develop strategies to meet needs and goals;
(e) Assess learning outcomes; and
(f) Evaluate whether the goals, objectives and needs are met.

ACTIVITY 2.2
How and when would you employ instructional design at your

workplace? Why is instructional design important in your organisation?
You may share your answers in the myINSPIRE forum.
2.3 TRADITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

The traditional instructional design was originally contrived to solve instructional
problems (DeWitt, Alias & Siraj, 2014). It was meant to be prescriptive and was
used to prescribe suitable processes and products to be used in different
educational settings. The focus was on an outcome-based process of analysing the
content knowledge as the purpose of the design was to ensure that the learning
outcomes were achieved (DeWitt et al., 2012). The traditional model of
instructional design emphasised the traditional skills about knowledge of theory,
models and processes (Irlbeck, 2011). Hence, the earlier definitions of instructional
design were process-based definitions that attempted to define this complex
process in which the final output was the design of a product.
2.3.1 Instructional System Development

Educators and professionals in instructional design technology (IDT) are
becoming aware of an emerging message that IDT is changing as a profession as it
needs to take into consideration technology proficiency, an awareness of design,
and an ability to communicate along with traditional skills about knowledge of
theory, models, and processes (Irlbeck, 2011).
The roles and tasks of an instructional designer are evolving. There is a shift
towards a more user-centred perspective instead of the traditional content-centred
perspective of earlier definitions (Kim, Lee, Merrill, Spector, & van Merriënboer,
2008). This means that there is more awareness of the context and processes of
learning (Irlbeck, 2011).
Instructional design focuses on solving instructional problems. Hence, Jonassen

(2002) and other instructional designers have rejected the prescriptive
instructional design models as problem-solving is not an activity that can be
uniformly applied (Irlbeck, 2011). So how can we determine skills and principles
that instructional designers and technologists need to know to practice? One
possibility is using a principle-based approach combined with problem-solving
approaches to solve instructional design problems (Irlbeck, 2011).

Irlbeck (2011) suggests generic steps for problem-solving strategies are used to
advance skills that enable advanced instructional designers to understand and
implement complex learning interventions.
The traditional systematic teaching (Dick and Carey, 1978), and instructional
systems development or ISD (Branson, 1975) used the components and sequence
of planning, design, develop, execute and evaluate such as in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Example of an instructional design model
Recent approaches to instructional design focus on the cognitive processes of

learning for problem-solving (DeWitt et al., 2014; Irlbeck, 2011). In these new
designs, the learner, the learning process and the learning context are emphasised
(Driscoll & Bruner, 2005). However, as there are individual differences in the
learner and his environment, provisions would need to be made for different types
of tools for different styles of learning (DeWitt et al., 2014).
SELF-CHECK 2.4
What do you think is traditional instructional design? Describe it in your

own words in the myINSPIRE forum.

2.4 TRADITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

VERSUS SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTIONAL
DESIGN
In this subtopic, we will be comparing the traditional instructional design versus
systematic instructional design. We will be looking at various instructional
components as depicted in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Traditional Instruction versus Systematic Instruction
Instructional
Traditional Instruction Systematic Instruction
Components
Aims Based on: Based on:
 Traditional curriculum.  Evaluation needs.
 Alternatively, previous  Task analysis.
syllabus.  External or global reference.
 Internal reference.
Objectives  Stated as teachersÊ  Stated based on evaluation
accomplishments. needs or task analysis.
 Identical for all students.  Stated as behavioural
accomplishments.
 Selected based on studentsÊ
needs.
StudentsÊ  Students are not told.  Mentioned to the students
awareness about  Acquired intuitively from before the lessons or stated
the objectives textbooks and the lesson. clearly in the presentation.
Previous  Are not considered.  Taken into consideration.

knowledge  All students have the  Different set of objectives
same objectives and based on studentsÊ previous
activities. knowledge and abilities.
Expected  Normal curve.  Possibly skewed.
achievement
Mastery learning  Only a handful of  Almost all students master all
students master all the the objectives.
objectives.
 Hits-and-misses.
Grading  Norm-referencing (based  Criterion referencing (based
on comparison with other on mastery of the objectives).
students).

Recovery  Usually, are not planned.  Planned for students who

 There are no amendments need assistance.
to the objectives or  A different suitable objective
teaching approach. is set.
 Opt for an alternative
teaching approach.
Testing  Mainly to give grades.  To evaluate studentsÊ
progress.
 To identify mastery of skill.
 To identify problem learning
areas.
 To evaluate oneÊs teaching.
Interpretation of  Students are weak.  Teachers have to modify and
objectives failure improve teaching techniques
and approaches.
Course  Materials are chosen first.  Objectives are stated first,
development  Created unsystematically. followed by selection of
materials.
Selecting  Based on priority and  Based on objectives and
materials and easiness to obtain. studentsÊ characteristics.
teaching aids  Effectiveness is not  Based on theories and studies.
known and secondary.  Effectiveness is known
beforehand.
Learning  Based on content logic  Based on previous knowledge
sequence and the list of topics. and teaching principles.
Teaching  According to teacherÊs  Selected based on teaching
strategies preferences. objectives.
 Based on priority and  Utilise different types of
familiarity. strategies such as
behaviourist, cognitive and
constructivist.
 Based on theories and studies.
Evaluation  Usually never takes place.  Systematically planned and
 Usually not often.
systematically planned.
Review of the  Happens only once in a  Takes place almost all the
teaching material while. time.

SELF-CHECK 2.5
Answer the following questions in the myINSPIRE forum.
(a) Give two examples of situations of instruction and learning.
(b) Differentiate between traditional instructional design and

systematic instructional design.
(c) Discuss the purpose of giving tests in traditional instructional

design and systematic instructional design.
2.5 NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

Robert Gagné proposed a series of events which follow a systematic instructional
design process that shares the behaviourist approach to learning, with a focus on
the outcomes or behaviours of instruction or training (Northern Illinois University
Faculty Development and Instructional Design Center Division of Academic
Affairs, 2018). Gagne's nine general steps of instruction for learning are as
described in Table 2.3:
Table 2.3: Gagne's Nine General Steps of Instruction for Learning
Step Description
Gain attention To gain studentsÊ attention, the teacher should present a
good problem, a new situation, use multimedia and ask
questions. This helps to ground the lesson, and to
motivate students to remain focused.
Describe the goal The teacher should state the goals or objectives explicitly
e.g. state exactly what students will be able to
accomplish and how they will be able to use the
knowledge.
Stimulate recall of prior The teacher reminds the student of prior knowledge
knowledge relevant to the current lesson (facts, rules, procedures or
skills). Show how knowledge is connected, provide the
student with a framework that helps to learn and to
remember. Tests can be included.
Present the material to be Present the information using, e.g. text, graphics,
learned simulations, figures, pictures, sound, etc. Chunk
information (avoid memory overload, recall
information).

Provide guidance for Presentation of content is different from instructions on

learning how to learn. Use advanced organisers.
Elicit performance "practice" Let the learner do something with the newly acquired
behaviour by practising the skills or applying
knowledge. At least use Multiple Choice Questions or
MCQs.
Provide informative Teacher shows correctness of the learnerÊs response,
feedback analyses learner's behaviour and may present a good
step-by-step solution of the problem.
Assess performance test Assess performance test, if the lesson has been learned.
Also sometimes give general progress information.
Enhance retention and For example, inform the learner about similar problem
transfer situations and provide additional practice. Put the
learner in a transfer situation. Perhaps let the learner
review the lesson.
These events are intended to promote the transfer of knowledge or information

from perception through the stages of memory. Gagne bases his events of
instruction on the cognitive information processing learning theory.
Ć The systematic process of instructional design enables an educator or

instructor to basically improve his way of delivering the subject matter to the
respective recipients.
Ć The practice of instructional design process can basically improve the teaching
and learning processes and benefit both teachers and students.
Ć A comparison between the traditional and systematic instructional design is

focused on the aims, objectives, studentsÊ awareness of the objectives, previous
knowledge and also the expected achievement.

Gagne's nine events of instruction Traditional instructional design

Systematic instructional design
Accenture (Jan 13, 2016). Accenture invests more than US$840 million in employee
learning and professional development. Retrieved from
https://newsroom.accenture.com/news/accenture-invests-more-than-us-
840-million-in-employee-learning-and-professional-development.htm
DeWitt, D., Alias, N., & Siraj, S. (2014). Transforming learning: Collaborative
mLearning for a problem-centered approach. UM Press: Kuala Lumpur.
Driscoll, M. P., & Bruner, K. J. (2005). The cognitive revolution and instructional
design. In Royer, J. M. (2005). The cognitive revolution in educational
psychology. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Pub.
Irlbeck, S. A. (2011). Educating for an instructional design and technology future.

The Journal of Applied Instructional Design, 1(2), 19-24.
Kim, C., Lee, J., Merrill, M. D., Spector, J. M., & van Merriënboer, J. (2008).
Foundations for the Future. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. van
Merriënboer, & M. P. Driscoll (eds.) Handbook of research on educational
communications and technology (3rd ed.). (pp. 807-815). New York, NY:
Taylor & Francis.
Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kemp, J. E., & Kalman, H. (2011). Designing effective
instruction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Northern Illinois University Faculty Development and Instructional Design

Center Divisions of Academic Affairs. (n.d). GagneÊs nine events of
instruction. Retrieved from https:www.niu.edu/facdev/
Reigeluth, C. M. (1983). Meaningfulness and instruction: Relating what is being

learned to what a student knows. Instructional Science, 12(3), 197-218.

and Technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Rowland, G. (1993). Designing and Instructional Design. Educational technology

research and development (1042-1629), 41 (1), 79.
Thompson, N. (2001). Why ID? The benefits of instructional design models.

Teaching with technology today, 7(6). Retrieved https://www.wisconsin.
edu/systemwide-it/teaching-with-technology-today/

Topic  Learning
Theories and
3 Instructional
Design (ID)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the fundamentals of behaviourist learning theory;
2. Describe the fundamentals of cognitive learning theory;
3. Discuss the fundamentals of constructivist learning theory;
4. Relate between instructional design and learning theories; and
5. Give examples for application of learning theories and instructional
design.
 INTRODUCTION
The practice of instructional design or ID has been influenced by psychological
theories which explain how learning occurs. Hence, learning theories have made
an impact on instructional design. There are three major learning theories which
can be divided into the following: behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist. The
design of instruction requires the bridging of these theories in pedagogy,
instructional design and technology. If students fail to understand the strengths
and weaknesses of each theory, it will be difficult to apply it to designing
instruction.

TOPIC 3 LEARNING THEORIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID)  27
Novice and untrained designers may design instructional material based on

inaccurate theory, or worse, no theory at all. No matter how sophisticated or
advanced the technology used to create the learning material or learning
environment, if they are not developed based on theory, as well as pedagogical and
instructional design principles, they will be worthless. Therefore, in this topic, we
will discuss behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism.
3.1 BEHAVIOURIST LEARNING THEORY

In the behaviourist view, learning takes place only if there are changes in
behaviour. For example, in a class, if a teacher questioned a student and he is able
to answer, this meant learning has taken place.
In general, the behaviourist theory centres on the study of observable and

measurable or overt behaviours (Good & Brophy, 1990). It views the mind as a
„black box‰ which reacts to observable and measurable stimulations. This theory
neglects the thinking process that occurs in mind. Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson and
Skinner were noted for their contributions in the development of this theory.
3.1.1 Pavlov
Pavlov developed classical conditioning or stimulant replacements. His famous
experiment involves a dog, food and a bell as summarised in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: The Effects of Classical Conditioning
Procedure Observation
Before conditioning Ring a bell in front of the dog. No traces of saliva observed.
Place food in front of the dog. Traces of saliva appeared.

During conditioning Ring the bell a few seconds Traces of saliva appeared.
before placing the food in front
of the dog.
After conditioning Ring the bell (no food). Traces of saliva appeared.
Generalisation of Ring a similar sounding sound Traces of saliva appeared.
stimulations as the bell.
Termination Stop the stimulus (bell rings Saliva stopped.
and food) temporarily.
Response again Place food. Traces of saliva reappeared.

28  TOPIC 3 LEARNING THEORIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID)
Discrimination Ring a different sounding bell. The dog was able to

distinguish which sound
comes with food.
High-level After the dog has been Traces of saliva appeared.
conditioning conditioned, give an
uncommon stimulus (for
example, light).
3.1.2 Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

Edward Thorndike first experimented on animals before he ventured into his
interest in human psychology. He proposed the connectionism theory in his
publication, Animal Intelligence, in 1898. This theory states that learning is the
development of connection between stimulus and response (S-R).
He uses animals like hungry cats, dogs, fish and monkeys in his experiments. In
one of his experiments, the cat was put in a cage where a string could be triggered
to obtain the food. By trial and error, the cat gradually developed a behaviour that
was rewarded with food.
The theory proposed by Thorndike consists of three laws: law of effect, law of
exercise and law of readiness as in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Thorndike's Three Laws: Law of Effect, Law of Exercise and Law of Readiness
Laws Description
The connection of S-R strengthens when the response is given is
satisfactory.
Otherwise, if the response is painful, the connection weakens.
Law of effect
Response satisfactory S-R connection = Strong
Response painful S-R connection = Weak
Exercise refers to the repetition of a chain of S-R.
S-R connection strengthens when there is practical exercise.
Plenty of exercise. S-R connection = Strong
Law of exercise
Little amount of exercise. S-R connection = Weak
Plenty of exercises but no Not necessarily helps increase
response. achievement.

Refers to the internal preparation of each individual.

Does not refer to maturity or physical growth but readiness in
Law of readiness oneself to act.
A series of responses can be combined to achieve a specified goal,
however, if prevented can create a feeling of dislike.
The principles of Thorndike theory are as follows:
(a) Learning requires practical exercise and reward;
(b) A series of responses can be combined;
(c) A transfer of learning caused by a situation experienced before; and
(d) Intelligence is a number of functional S-R connections made.
3.1.3 John B. Watson (1878-1958)

John B. Watson is the first American psychologist who applied PavlovÊs ideas. Like
other behaviourists, Watson was involved in animal research before venturing into
the research of human behaviour.
Watson believes that human beings are born with reflex and emotions such as love
and anger. Other types of behaviour are the product of S-R conditioning.
He demonstrated classical conditioning using a little boy named Albert and a

white mouse. The classical conditioning used is described in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Classical conditioning used in AlbertÊs case
Procedure Observation
 Albert touches the mouse.  Albert is not afraid.
 A loud noise is sounded the  Albert is afraid of the sound; by
moment Albert touches the mouse. conditioning, he begins to fear the
mouse.
 The mouse is replaced with another  AlbertÊs fears expand to other small
small animal. animals.
 The fear is terminated by showing  The fear from conditioning is strong
Albert, a mouse without the noise. and long-lasting (Harris: 1979,
Samelson: 1980, cited in Good &
Brophy: 1990).

SELF-CHECK 3.1
What principles of learning did Pavlov, Thorndike and Watson

promote? State your explanation in the myINSPIRE forum.
3.1.4 B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

B. F. Skinner used a box called the „Skinner Box‰ in his experiment. In this
experiment, a hungry mouse was let loose in the box. When the mouse pressed on
the lever, food will emerge. After unintentionally pressing the lever a few times
(and food emerged every time), the mouse learned that:
Pressing the lever (G) = Emerging of food (R)
The act of pressing the lever (G), which operated on its surroundings, is known as
an operand. Operands create a response (R) which makes the mouse press the
lever. The mouseÊs behaviour is strengthened and possibly repeated in the same
situation. This learning is called operant conditioning.
Skinner believes in S-R patterns in conditioned behaviour. His theory is about the
change in behaviour that can be observed and not in the process happening in the
mind. The books written by Skinner, Walden Two (1948) and Science and Human
Behaviour (1953), emphasise operand conditioning, not classic conditioning. Table
3.4 depicts the relationship between action and response according to Skinner's
experiment.
Table 3.4: The Relationship between Action and Response According to Skinner's
Experiment
Action Response
Positive reinforcement or reward Rewarded response most probably will be
repeated.
Negative reinforcement Response followed by pain and hardship will
not be repeated.
Destruction or no reinforcement Response which is not reinforced will not be
repeated (ignoring studentsÊ wrongdoings will
terminate the behaviour).
Penalty Painful response will not be repeated.

The difference between these two types of conditioning is that in operant

conditioning, the individual may create the response. Table 3.5 shows the types of
reinforcement based on Skinner's experiments.
Table 3.5: Types of Reinforcement Based on SkinnerÊs Experiments
Experiment Action
SkinnerÊs Behaviour Formation Animal began to make the connection
Trapped animal took a long time to realise between lever and food.
that pressing a lever would produce food.
Behaviours that led to the desired

behaviour would be rewarded:
Animal glanced at the lever Rewarded
Animal moved towards lever Rewarded
Animal touched the lever Rewarded
Positive Reinforcement Sequence

The frequency and strength of the desired
response were improved by the giving of
exciting rewards.
Positive reinforcement was divided into

continuous and scheduled reinforcement.
Continuous reinforcement meant that each
time a desired behaviour occurred,
reinforcement was given to make sure the
behaviour occurred. When the behaviour
occurred, reinforcement did not have to be
100% and could be given in partial
portions (scheduled reinforcement):
Fixed interval Reinforcement is given after a specified
time.
Varied interval Reinforcement given did not have fixed
time.
Fixed ratio Correct response must be achieved before
reinforcement.
Varied ratio Correct response must be achieved before
reinforcement (no fixed intervals).

The underlying principles of this theory are as shown in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Principles of SkinnerÊs Theory
Principle Example
Positively reinforced behaviours will be Students when continuously given
repeated. Intermittent reinforcement is feedback and praise for a behaviour will be
very effective; able to repeat the behaviour.
Information is given a little at a time to The behaviour to be learnt should be
reinforce the response (shaping); and taught incrementally with feedback so as
to shape the correct behaviour.
Reinforcement can be generalised and Reinforcement given can be for one
create second-order conditioning. behaviour which can be linked to another
behaviour, such as the dog salivates when
hearing the bell.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
In the myINSPIRE forum, answer the following questions.
(a) What are the learning principles from SkinnerÊs theory?
(b) Differentiate between classical conditioning and operant

conditioning. Illustrate your explanation with appropriate
examples.
3.2 IMPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIOURIST

LEARNING THEORIES IN EDUCATION
The behaviourist theories of education were used in the audiovisual
communication era. Media provided the stimulus which would, in turn, provide
the appropriate response. Instructional materials which were interactive could be
designed with feedback to provide positive reinforcement for learning. Selection
of the wrong response could be followed with suggestions and tips to encourage
the correct response. SkinnerÊs principles of behaviour modification also enabled
behaviour before and after intervention or instruction, to be observed. According
to this principle, for learning to be effective, there should be a change in behaviour
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007).

There were also other important aspects of learning and instruction which arose
from this theory such as behavioural objectives and concepts of feedback which
influenced the field and contributed to ideas such as programmed instruction
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007). Some of the contributions arising from behavioural
theories are discussed in the following subtopics.
3.2.1 Behavioural Objectives

Behavioural objectives state learning objectives in a specified form. Behavioural
objectives can be summarised in the mnemonic ABCD (audience, behaviour,
condition and degree) (Mager, 1984). This is important as learning was viewed as
a change in behaviour.
3.2.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom led a group of psychologists to create a thinking
behaviour classification in the learning process. As shown in Table 3.7, there are
six levels of BloomÊs Taxonomy, ranging from „Knowledge‰ (the easiest) to
„Evaluation‰ (the most difficult).
Table 3.7: Six Levels in the Bloom's Taxonomy
Levels Descriptions
Knowledge  Observe and recall information such as date, location and
basic lesson contents
 Example: list, define, show, group, tabulate, state, name
Understanding  Understand the information, translate them into new
context, compare and make predictions
 Example: simplify, differentiate, compare, discuss, expand
Application  Make use of the information, method and concept given in
new situation
 Example: show, calculate, check, relate
Analysis  Observe patterns, arrange, identify components
 Example: explain, connect, divide, refer
Synthesis  Use existing idea to generate new idea, make generalisation,
summarise
 Example: integrate, rearrange, design, formulate, rewrite
Evaluation  Compare ideas, evaluate, make selections, confirm evidence
 Example: evaluate, decide, test, support

3.2.3 Gagne’s Learning Objectives Taxonomy (1972)

Gagne proposed his taxonomy of learning to classify learning outcomes for the
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains in 1985. This classification enabled
teachers to identify the types and levels of skills which needed to be taught (see
Table 3.8).
Table 3.8: Levels of the Gagne's Learning Objectives Taxonomy
Levels Descriptions
Verbal information  Verbal information is linked to the knowledge that
requires students to memorise information.
 Also known as declarative knowledge.
 Example: Name the capital of Malaysia.
Intellectual skill  At a higher level compared to verbal information as it
utilises cognitive processes.
 Also known as procedural knowledge.
 Divided into three levels ă understanding a concept
(lowest), use of rules (intermediate) and problem-
solving (highest).
 Example: A student uses the Pythagoras Theorem,
square root and rules to solve problems.
Cognitive strategy  The skill to control own learning and thinking.
 Example: Analyse information before answering
questions.
Attitude  Feelings or trust in oneself that motivates a person to
perform a task.
Motor skill  Any activity that involves one or all parts of the body in
performing a task.
 Example: Dancing, sewing, typing and conducting
experiments.

3.2.4 Mastery Learning

Mastery learning was created by Morrisson in the 1930s. The formulas used in this
method are pre-test, teach, test result, use procedure, teach and test until real
learning is achieved (Morrison, 1931, in Saettler, 1990).
Mastery learning assumes that all students can master the materials provided.
Bloom expanded on MorrisonÊs idea but believed that mastery learning was only
suitable for lower cognitive levels and not appropriate for teaching higher
cognitive levels.
3.2.5 Industrial and Military Approach

In industrial and military training, the behavioural objectives are written as an
explanation about specific results of the behaviour which are observable and
measurable. Robert Mager in „Preparing Instructional Objectives‰ (1962) required
teachers to employ behavioural objectives so that the required learning could be
envisioned. Gagne and Briggs, both from the industrial and military psychology
backgrounds, suggested a set of instructions to write objectives. In the late 1960s,
writing behavioural objectives became the norm.
3.2.6 Teaching Machine and Programmed Instruction

B. F. Skinner was famous for programmed instruction. Table 3.9 are names/event
of those who contributed.
Table 3.9: Contributors for the Teaching Machine and Programmed Instruction
Contributor Contribution
Sydney L. Pressey (1925) Introduced a machine to administer multiple choice
questions.
Peterson (1931) PresseyÊs student who built a teaching machine.
World War II (1939-1945) Phase checks tool (the 1940s and 1950s) teaches and tests
the skill to assemble and disassemble instruments.
Norman A. Crowder Trained electronic tool function troubleshooting.
(1921-1998)
B. F. Skinner (1965) SkinnerÊs Machine. Students answer questions and receive
a response (Saettler, 1990).

The stated contributions formed the framework for programmed instruction when
the design for individualised instruction began.
3.2.7 Individualised Learning

Individualised instruction resembles programmed teaching and teaching
machine. It was introduced in 1900 and revived in 1960. Keller (1963) introduced
the Keller Plan comprising of the following:
(a) Individual Prescribed Instruction (IPI) by Learning Research and

Development Centre, University of Pittsburgh (1964); and
(b) Programme for Learning in Accordance with Needs (PLAN) (1967).
Individualised instruction would enable the instruction to cater to the individual

and emphasised the mastery of the subject matter and achievement of the
objectives set before progressing to the next level.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
What are the contributions of behavioural theories to learning? Share

your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.

ACTIVITY 3.1
Give examples of appropriate activities/ statements for the cognitive

levels in the BloomÊs Taxanomy.
Levels Descriptions
Knowledge Observe and recall information such as date, location
and basic lesson contents.
Example:
State the capital of Malaysia
Understanding Understand information, translate it into new context,
compare and make predictions.
Example:
Application Make use of the information, method and concept given

in a new situation.
Example:
Analysis Observe patterns, arrange, identify components.

Example:
Synthesis Use existing idea to generate new idea, make

generalisation, summarise.
Example
Evaluation Compare ideas, evaluate, make selections, confirm

evidence.
Example:

3.3 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Behavioural theories measure the outcomes based on behaviour. Cognitive
learning theories, on the other hand, is based on the thinking behind the
behaviour. The change in behaviour is used as an indicator of the thinking process
which occurs internally in the studentsÊ mind (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007).
Edward TolmanÊs observations on the behaviour of mice in a maze triggered the

beginnings of cognitivism. He found that mice which came to a dead end would
not pass through the path again but instead try to find other ways out of the maze.
This led to the discovery that there were some cognitive processes behind these
behaviours.
Bandura and Walters found that children did not imitate behaviours that had been
reinforced. The operand conditioning theory stated that all humans must
demonstrate behaviour and accept reinforcement before they could learn on their
own. Sometimes, they used new behaviour models without any need for reward
or enrichment. This observation is not consistent with behaviourism, and this is
one of the reasons Bandura discarded the operant conditioning theory. Bandura
suggested the Social Cognitive Learning Theory for Social Learning and
Personality Development (1963).
In cognitive learning theories, feedback provides learners knowledge about the

correctness of the response and adequacy of the performance, and to provide
corrective information for improvement (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007). With
cognitive learning theories, the prior knowledge and connections are required for
learning, and this is discussed in some of the theories in the following subtopics.
3.3.1 Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Piaget was an influential theorist in human knowledge development in the 20th
century. His studies had a great impact on the fields of psychology and education.
His studies focused on the origin and development of human knowledge.
In childrenÊs mental development, Piaget identified four stages ă sensory-motor

(age 0 to 2), pre-operation (age 2 to 7), concrete operation (age 7-12) and formal
operation (age 12 to 15) as in Table 3.10.

Table 3.10: Piaget 's Four Stages of Development
Stage Age Characteristics

Sensory-motor 0-2  Master concrete objects.
 Able to control motor movements and learn
about physical objects.
Pre-operation 2-7  Master symbols.
 Acquire verbal abilities. Able to name
objects and explain about them intuitively.
Concrete operation 7 - 12  Master classes, relationship, numbers and
how-to to explain an event.
 Develop abstract concept.
Formal operation 12 - 15  Able to think.
 Able to explain in a logical and systematic
manner.
According to Piaget, childrenÊs intellectual development undergoes the following

phases (see Table 3.11):
Table 3.11: Piaget's Four Intellectual Development Phases
Phases Description Teaching Principles

Assimilation The relationship of new  Activities must focus on the
learning with background problem.
knowledge and pre-  Students must accept that all
conception. Involves teaching activities given are
association of new learning important to solve the
with background knowledge problem.
and pre-conception.
 Support must be given to
students to solve the
problem.
 Acquire studentÊs difficulties
and use them as stimulation.
Accommodation The change in existing mental  Create activities and
structure to develop new surroundings which support
structure. Involves changes in and challenge studentsÊ
mental structures to thinking.
incorporate new information.  Encourage testing of idea on
Assimilation-accommodation different views and contexts.
results in formation of
schemata.

Equilibrium The balance between  Create an authentic task

assimilation and  Authentic surroundings
accommodation. Involves means cognitive demands
deliberation between balance the demands of
assimilation and surroundings
accommodation.
 Provide opportunity and
reflective support for
learning content and
process
Disequilibrium No balance between  Provide opportunity and
assimilation and room for changes.
accommodation. Will occur if
new information received
contradicts information
stored in mental structure.
3.3.2 Implications of Cognitive Theory in Learning

The development of the cognitive theory led to many studies on learning process,
types of knowledge (conceptual and procedural) and expert behaviour. Among
some of the implications of the theory of learning are as follows:
(a) Knowledge Structure and Organisation

Cognitive theorists found that the knowledge structure and organisation
between experts and novice are extremely different. Experts are inclined to
build knowledge by chunking and proceeding to the development of
schema. The organisation of knowledge in novices, on the other hand, is
separated and incomplete. Novices often have misconceptions.
(b) Procedural Knowledge and Skills That Can Be Used

For example, through problem-solving, students use their procedural
knowledge (operational knowledge).
(c) Knowledge-gathering Skill

This skill requires acquiring knowledge through exploration, inductive
learning and discovery learning.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
What are the contributions of cognitive theory to learning? Discuss your

answer in the myINSPIRE forum.

3.3.3 Main Concepts of Cognitive Theory

This subtopic discusses the eleven main concepts of cognitive theory as given in
the following:
(a) Schema
The concept of schema was proposed by Bartlett (1932, 1958) during his
studies on memory. Schema is an intrinsic knowledge structure. A schema is
formed when new information is compared with the existing cognitive
structure. Schema can be combined, developed or changed to accommodate
new knowledge.
This concept was expanded by Mandler (1984) and Rumelhart (1980).

Brandsford and Frank (1971) studied how each individual interpreted
something based on how it was perceived. Other theories related to schema
were schema, plans and scripts (Shank and Ableson, 1977; Rumelhart and
Norman. 1983).
(b) Three Stages in Information Processing Model

Input enters the sensory register, is processed in short-term memory and
then transferred to long-term memory for storage.
(i) Sensory register ă Receives input from sensory organs. The information
stays about one to four seconds before being deleted or changed to
newer and latest information. Most of the information do not reach
short-term memory, but all information can be traced and performed
actions with it, if necessary.
(ii) Short-term memory (STM) ă Important sensory input is transferred

from the sensory register to the STM. Memory can be kept in the STM
for 20 seconds. They can be kept longer if they are repeated over and
over again. The STM can carry up to seven items. If they are bundled
up or chunked together (chunking) into meaningful parts, they can be
kept longer.
(iii) Long-term memory (LTM) and storage ă This stage holds items that are
to be used for a longer time. Information is sometimes forced into the
LTM by rote learning and past learning. Deep processing such as
connecting new information with the information already stored is
better for memory retention and access.

(c) Meaningful Effect

Meaningful information is much easier to learn and remember (Cofer, 1971,
in Good and Brophy, 1990). For example, in learning about acids, relating
acids to everyday use, such as in drinks and preservatives, will make
learning more meaningful.
(d) Serial Order Effect

It is easier to remember items that are at the beginning or end of a list,
compared to items in the middle (unless the information in the middle is
extremely different). For example, it is much easier to remember the first and
last name in a list of studentsÊ names.
(e) Practice Effect

Practice improves memory retention especially distributed practice, where
students relate the information with different contexts.
(f) Transfer Effect

One of the basic concepts in learning is transfer. This refers to the ability to
apply what students have learned to different situations. Almost all learning
theories emphasise the concept of transfer.
Behaviourists state that transfer is the generalisation of R-S or interference

(Thorndike and Hull).
Cognitivists see transfer as the restructuring of knowledge and mental model

concept or schema (Ausubel, Brunner, Rumelhart and Norman).
The adult learning theory perceives transfer as a sharing of experiences

(Knowles and Rogers).
What is important in the transfer is the ability to apply what we have learned
to different situations or contexts.
(g) Information processing effect

Words are processed at low sensory analysis stage or high-level semantic
analysis to figure out the meanings (Craik and Lockhart, 1972 in Good and
Brophy, 1990). Words or information that undergo deep processing is much
easier to remember compared to those which undergo surface processing.
(h) Effect of Condition/Situation

Learning is much easier if it happens in an existing context compared to a
new context.

(i) Mnemonic Effect

Mnemonic is a strategy used by students to arrange meaningless information
into meaningful ones. For example, the colours of a rainbow are much easier
to remember as VIBGYOR (violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and
red).
(j) Effect of Schema

Schema is the mental structure of each student. If the schema contradicts new
information, students will find it difficult to remember the information. What
students remember or interpret depends largely on earlier existing schemas.
(k) Advanced Organisers

Ausubel, in his subsumption theory, suggests the use of advanced organisers
when faced with learning large amounts of material and information in text
format. Advanced organisers serve not only as a guideline to the item but
can trigger meanings to them. Advanced organisers also act as a connecting
bridge between learning material and previous knowledge.
They act as a meaningful concept which features information in a language

and visual form to students. Their purpose is to activate the existing
cognitive structure in students with limited information presented.
3.4 CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is an epistemology, or a collection of views on learning which
differs from assumptions in cognitive theories (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007). As an
example, in information processing theory, learning is from the surrounding
environment to be structured within, meaning the learner obtains information
from the environment and acquires knowledge, which is stored in his memory. In
constructivist environments, learning is from the inside out whereby the learner
imposes organisation and meaning on the surrounding environment and
constructs knowledge in the process (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007). There are many
different views of what constructivism really is. However, in general,
constructivism is based on the following principles:
(a) Each individual constructs his own knowledge representation from his
experiences ă therefore, there is no single correct knowledge representation
(Kant, adapted from Von Glaserfeld, 1984; Hawkins, 1994). Constructivists
believe that students construct their own reality or perceived reality based
on their perception of their own experience.

(b) In the radical constructivist view, knowledge constructions do not need to

correspond with reality to be meaningful, but not all knowledge construction
can be used as when the learners test their understandings with their peers
and teachers, some of these constructions are not viable (Reiser & Dempsey,
2007).
(c) Learning occurs when there is disequilibrium between the current

framework and new experience or information ă Piaget (1929) named this
imbalance as disequilibrium or dissonance. The process of changing the
knowledge representation to occupy new experiences is known as
accommodation. Brunner further expands this concept to his discovery
learning theory.
(d) Learning takes place in a social context ă interactions between peers are
important in the learning process (Vygosky, 1978).
Constructivism is based on the idea that we construct our own perspective

(worldview) from our own experience and schema. The focus of constructivists is
to solve problems that are vague and indistinct.
Merill (1991; in Smorgansbord, 1997) suggested a few assumptions to this theory

as follows:
(a) Knowledge is constructed through experience;
(b) Learning is translating the world into personal views;
(c) Learning is an active process where meanings are constructed through

experience;
(d) Conceptual growth is the product of negotiation of meaning, sharing of a

variety of perspectives and changes of internal representation through
collaborative learning; and
(e) Learning must take place in an authentic situation; evaluation should be

integrated into tasks, not as separate units.

3.4.1 Learning and Constructivism

Constructivism came from the word „construct‰ which means to build.
Constructivism is a view of learning which states that knowledge cannot exist
outside of childrenÊs minds, but must be constructed in their minds based on their
real-life experience.
For that, constructivism stresses on the importance of actively constructing

knowledge based on new and previous learning. This is to eliminate any
disagreement of ideas to acquire new understanding.
Knowledge as a constructing process also takes place in a social context when a

student exchanges ideas with his peers. This process takes place either in a small
group or a large class.
Besides that, metacognitive development is also taken into consideration. From

these cognitive processes, students have to learn to plan, evaluate and reflect on
their learning. Students must also realise their own learning strategies and find
ways to improve their learning process.
As we know, children gain experience about their surroundings from birth. These
informal ideas are then brought into the classroom. The purpose of education is to
provide further explanation of these ideas so that they will become more
meaningful. Therefore, it is important for teachers to consider the initial informal
ideas when introducing new concepts. This is to ensure that any changes or
development of ideas by the students are correct.
Constructivism is psychologists, philosophers and researchersÊ synthesis.

Important contributions include ideas on schema development and cognitive
learning process by Piaget; hands-on and minds-on discovery learning by
Brunner; mental structure construction by Ausubel; and the five domains of
learning outcome discovery by Gagne (Poh Swee Hang, 1997).

3.4.2 Implication of Constructivism on Teaching

In constructivism, the learning goals are high-level and complex goals, such as
solving a problem (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007). An example is the characteristic of
ice. If ice is solid, it should sink when put in a liquid, such as water. Ice, on the
other hand, floats as a solid. What can be the reason? Solving a high-level and
complex goal such as this can be done using constructivism. To engage learners in
constructivism, complex learning environments should be created to engage
learners in knowledge construction and reflection and can be done in the following
ways:
(a) Engage learners in authentic activities;
(b) Provide for collaboration and exploring multiple perspectives on what is

being learnt;
(c) Support learners in setting their own goals and regulating their learning; and
(d) Encourage learners to reflect on what they have learnt and how they are
learning (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007).
SELF-CHECK 3.5
(a) What is constructivist learning?
(b) How can this form of learning be conducted in class?

3.4.3 Needham’s Five-phase Processing Model

Needham identifies five phases in the learning process based on the fundamentals
of constructivism. These phases are summarised in Table 3.12:
Table 3.12: An Overview of the NeedhamÊs Five-phase Processing Model
Phase Purpose Examples of activities

1. Orientation  Gain studentsÊ  Provide events that contradict
interest and each other.
attention.  Give problems for students to
 Provide motivation. think about.
2. Elicitation of idea  Identified studentsÊ  Concept mapping.
previous ideas.  Q&A sessions that lead to
thinking.
3. Restructuring of  Expand or modified  Hands-on and minds-on
idea previous ideas activities.
based on scientific  Activities that use science-
ideas. process skills.
 Investigate using  Group communication.
scientific skills.
4. Application of  Apply the idea to  Solve new problems.
idea new situation.  Designing.
 Projects.
5. Reflection  Value how far the  Reflective questioning.
ideas have  Help students to self-evaluate
transformed. their changes of ideas and the
processing skill they have
achieved.
3.4.4 Constructivism and Instructional Design

Behaviourism and cognitivism are both objective theories and can be used to
analyse a task or work, splitting them into easier-to-handle chunks, stating the
objectives and measuring performance based on the objectives. Constructivism, on
the other hand, stresses on creating a more open learning experience. Methods and
learning outcomes are much harder to measure and evaluate as they are different
for each individual.

However, there are still some guidelines that can be followed in constructivism. In
order to construct knowledge, instructional designers need to structure the
surroundings by doing the following:
(a) Provide Multiple Reality Representations

Avoid teaching that is too simplified. Provide students with the natural
complexity of the world. Instruction must be from multiple perspectives. For
example, use histograms and charts to teach statistics instead of tables. Look
at a task from different perspectives. For example, in discussing global
warming, discuss from other viewpoints such as financial, environmental,
political and social.
(b) Provide Authentic Tasks

Provide an explanation within context. For example, a science teacher should
teach scientific discovery by illustrating how scientists work in reality by
providing real scientific problems in the community that need to be solved.
Students can discuss with experts by using discussion groups, forums or
other communication tools such as Skype on the Internet. Also, students
could collect data and explore using scientific tools which scientists use in
real experiments.
(c) Establish Reflective Practice

This can be done by providing discrepant events so that students can reflect
on their own learning. Ask questions such as: Does the movement of snooker
balls represent the motion of particles?
(d) Allow the Construction of Knowledge Based on Content and Context

For example, a teacher must teach topics suitable for the studentsÊ level. For
example, the teaching of covalent bonding for Form 4 students should be
different than for students in their first-year university level.
(e) Support the Collaborative Construction of Knowledge

Provide opportunities for the learner to share and collaborate either through
social media or other forms of media.
(f) Provide Active Learning Environments

Simulation, discovery or games can be used and can be supplemented with
interactive learning software. Use problem-based, project-based or
constructivist strategies.
(g) Enable Student-centred and Self-regulated Learning

Students are free to choose topics they wish to learn, generate their own
inquiries and plan their own learning.

(h) Encourage Discovery

Students should be provided with activities that allow them to discover new
knowledge in learning.
(i) Provide Activities That Exceed StudentsÊ Ability

With the use of computers and teacherÊs assistance, students will be able to
solve problems and develop their zone of proximal development.
(j) Include Intrinsic Motivation

The satisfaction of solving problems provides intrinsic motivation when
doing their tasks.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Start with a specific learning goal. For example finding the

characteristics of solids, liquids and gases. In the myINSPIRE forum,
discuss how you would approach the topic using the different theories:
(a) Behaviourist theory;
(b) Schema theory;
(c) Information processing theory;
(d) Subsumption theory; and
(e) Constructivist theory.
3.4.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Behaviourist,

Cognitive and Constructivist Theories
Behaviourism becomes weak if there are no more stimuli suitable for the learner.
Its strength lies in the fact that it is goal-driven and the learner becomes focused
on a task. However, according to the cognitive theory, a learner learns a specified
way of solving a task which is a weakness. However, its strength is that the learner
can do the task perfectly.
The weakness of constructivist theory can be seen if conformity is needed.

Problems will occur if each individual possessed his or her own views. However,
the advantage of constructivism is that it allows students to translate a variety of
reality. Therefore, this theory can solve real problems which usually appear in
various forms (Schuman, 1996).

3.5 SUMMARY OF LEARNING THEORIES

A few questions appear as we analyse the three learning theories closely. Which
theory should be used? What approach should be utilised in instructional design?
The systems approach need not be based only on behaviourist theory as it can also
accommodate constructivist learning principles as well. An example is given by
Dick, Carey & Carey (2014) where a systems model is used to design a
constructivist learning environment. A suitable learning situation is crucial in
deciding which approach is most suitable. One must remember that there are
learning situations that require different prescriptive solutions. As an example:
(a) The behaviourist approach may guide learners towards mastery of content
(knowing what). Meanwhile, cognitive strategies are useful for problem-
solving (why) and constructivist strategy is suitable for ill-defined domains
via reflection. (Ertmer P. and Newby, T., 1993);
(b) Tasks that require low-level processing (example remembering equations,

differentiation and rote memory) suit strategies related to behaviourism;
(c) Tasks that require high-level processing (example: classification, rules or

procedural instructions) are usually related to strategies with cognitive
characteristics (example organisation of schemas, hypothesising and solving
algorithms); and
(d) Tasks that require higher order thinking are usually related to strategies
connected to constructivism.
SELF-CHECK 3.6
In the myINSPIRE forum, answer the following questions.
(a) Explain the differences between behaviourist, cognitive and

constructivist theories.
(b) Scaffolding and authentic tasks are important principles in the

constructivist theory. Discuss with examples on how you could
implement these principles in your courseware design.

Ć There are three learning theories discussed about instructional design ă

behaviourism, constructivist and cognitive.
Ć Behaviourism was said to influence educational technology in the 1960s. The

demonstrated evidence of behaviourism can be seen in the existence of
behavioural objectives and BloomÊs Taxonomy.
Ć Changes in instructional design from behaviourism to cognitivism are not as

apparent as changes towards constructivism.
Behaviourism Instructional design

Cognitive PiagetÊs theory
Constructivist Skinner Box
Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models' reinforcement contingencies on the

acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 1(6), 589.
Bartlett, F. C. (1958). Thinking: An experimental and social study. London, United

Kingdom: George Allen & Unwin.
Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1971). The abstraction of linguistic ideas. Cognitive
Psychology, 2, 331ă350.
Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (1990). Educational psychology: A realistic

approach (4th ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Hawkins, John A. 1994. A performance theory of order and constituency.

(Cambridge Studies in Linguistics, 73.) Cambridge, United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press.
Mager, R. F. (1984). Preparing instructional objectives. Belmont, CA: David S. Lake

Publishers.

Mandler, G. (1984). Mind and body: Psychology of emotion and stress. New York,
NY: Norton.
Merrill, M. D. (1991). Constructivism and instructional design. Educational

Technology, May, 45-53
Poh Swee Hiang (1997). Pedagogi Sains 2: Strategi pengajaran pembelajaran

Sains. Selangor : Kumpulan Budiman.
and technology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Rumelhart, D. E., & Norman, D. A. (1983, June). Representation in memory (Report

No. CHIP 116). San Diego: University of California, San Diego, Institute of
Cognitive Science.
Rumelhart, D. E. (1980) Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In: R.J. Spiro
et al. (eds) Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension, Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology. Englewood,

CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc.
Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals and understanding.
Hillsdale , NJ: Earlbaum Assoc.
von Glasersfeld, E. (1984) An introduction to radical constructivism. In

Watzlawick, P. (ed.) (1984) The invented reality. (pp. 17ă40) New York, NY:
Norton.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. In Gauvain

&. Cole (Eds) Readings on the development of children. 34-40.

Systems
4 Design Models
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain eight main instructional systems design (ISD) models;
2. Describe the ADDIE model; and
3. Describe the elements in each instructional systems design (ISD)
models.
 INTRODUCTION
A model may be useful as it can be used to show how something exists in nature.
However, in instructional design, the purpose of having a model is to describe how
something could exist, as they describe the process by which something can be
created, but not the thing which is created (Gibbons, Boling & Smith, 2014).
Instructional design is a system of procedures for developing education and

training materials in a consistent and reliable using an iterative process of planning
outcomes, selecting effective strategies for teaching and learning, choosing
relevant technologies, identifying educational media, and measuring performance
(Branch & Kopcha, 2014). Instructional design (ID) is influenced by different and
complex educational contexts, and hence, ID models need to be sensitive to these
different contexts (Branch & Kopcha, 2014).

54  TOPIC 4 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN MODELS
There are prescriptive and descriptive instructional design models (DeWitt, Alias
& Siraj, 2015). Seels (1997) identified three different types of instructional design
models: theoretical/conceptual models, organisation models, and planning-and-
prognosis models. These models are the prescriptive instructional design models
as organisation models to prescribe instructional planning (Branch & Kopcha,
2014). These models are mainly instructional systems design (ISD) models. ISD is
defined as the systematic and iterative method for creating a learning experience
that develops and enhance skills and knowledge. ISD helps to organise learning
and take into account the different systems in instruction such as the context, the
learner, the environment, and the resources as well as the interactions between the
systems, which can be divided into five phases as shown in Figure 4.1:
Figure 4.1: ISD framework
Newer instructional design models which are constructivist in nature may differ
and only provide guiding principles for analysing, producing, and revising
learning environments. Hence, the instructional design models which will be
applied, either old or new, need to take into consideration new and emerging
theories on learning in the variety of contexts in which instructional design is being
applied (Branch & Kopcha, 2014).
In this topic only instructional systems design (ISD) models are discussed. An
overview of the eight ISD models and principles described are depicted in
Figure 4.2:

TOPIC 4 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN MODELS  55
Figure 4.2: Eight main ISD models and principles
4.1 DICK AND CAREY’S MODEL

The Dick and CareyÊs model has been used extensively and is a macro-level model
which is useful for structuring the design task (İşman, Çağlar, Dabaj, & Ersözlü,
2005). This model has an iterative process, which consists of nine stages. The Dick
and CareyÊs model is a procedural, step-by-step model that is used to design
learning environments from the analysis of "instructional goals." (See Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: Dick and CareyÊs model

Its analysis of needs, the content and skills required, as well as the context and the
learners, refine these goals. The output of one component will be the input to the
next. However, this model provides for revision of instruction as one component
may influence another in the model. This model uses a systems approach for
designing instruction, where instructional goals are identified at the beginning and
end with summative evaluation. This model has also be used for constructivist
learning environments (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014).
SELF-CHECK 4.1
What are the important elements in Dick and CareyÊs model? In the
myINSPIRE forum, describe them in your own words.
4.2 HANNAFIN AND PECK’S MODEL

The Hannafin and PeckÊs model comprises of three phases (see Figure 4.4). The
first phase is a needs assessment phase, followed by a design phase, and finally, in
the third phase, the instruction is developed and implemented. Evaluation and
revision are maintained in all the phases (İşman, Çağlar, Dabaj & Ersözlü, 2005).
This model is effective for designing learning environments.
Figure 4.4: Hannafin and PeckÊs model
SELF-CHECK 4.2
How does Hannafin and PeckÊs model differ from Dick and CareyÊs
model? Discuss this with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE forum.

4.3 ASSURE MODEL

The ASSURE model addresses the development of instructional media. It focuses
on the selection and implementation of media within learning activities. It assumes
that instructional issues inherent in the use of media materials, such as needs
assessment, task analysis and assessment of learning, have been addressed.
The ASSURE acronym in ASSURE model stands for the following important
components (see Figure 4.5):
Figure 4.5: The ASSURE model

Source: https://idtassuremodel.wordpress.com/2014/09/11/23/

This model stages denote a linear, input-output nature, with decisions made in the
first stage contributing to decisions in succeeding stages, as shown in the
following:
(a) State general characteristics of learners and the specific competencies they
need such as knowledge, skills and attitudes;
(b) State the learning objectives regarding what learners will know or be able to
do as a result of the instruction;
(c) Bridge learners and objectives by selecting existing materials, modifying

materials or designing new materials;
(d) Plan how the materials will be used, gathering the necessary materials
together and using them in instruction;
(e) Provide activities and time for adequate practice and reinforcement of
performance; and
(f) Specify the evaluation regarding learner achievement, evaluation of media

material and methods, and evaluation of the entire instructional process
before, during and after instruction.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
How is the ASSURE model different from Dick and CareyÊs model?
Compare both models in the myINSPIRE forum.
4.4 KNIRK AND GUSTAFSON’S DESIGN

MODEL
The Knirk and GustafsonÊs design model is a three-stage process which includes
problem determination, design and development. The problem determination
stage involves identifying the problem and setting instructional goals while the
design stage includes developing objectives and specifying strategies, and finally,
in the development stage, materials are developed (İşman et al., 2005). Figure 4.6
depicts the process flow of the Knirk and GustafsonÊs design model.

Figure 4.6: Knirk and GustafsonÊs design model
This model is simple in design but inclusive of details. It tries to convey this
inclusiveness through circles and arrows. It is a small-scale model, which means
that it can be used for individual lessons or units. One weakness of this model is
that the focus on evaluation and development seems to appear very late in the
process.
4.5 MORRISON, ROSS, KALMAN AND

KEMP’S MODEL
This model has four main components as the framework for systematic
instructional planning: learners, objectives, methods, and evaluation (Morrison,
Ross, Kalman & Kemp, 2011). The components are interrelated and when
integrated with the context and the environment, form an instructional design
model with the nine elements as follows: instructional problems, learner and
context, task analysis, instructional objectives, content sequencing, instructional
strategies, designing the message, development of instruction, and evaluation
instruments (Morrison et al., 2011). As depicted in Figure 4.7, the oval shape
indicates that there is no specific sequence to order the steps. The processes of
planning and project management, support services, formative evaluation and

revision, implementation, summative evaluation and confirmative evaluation are

ongoing throughout the design process (Morrison et al., 2011).
Figure 4.7: Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs model
SELF-CHECK 4.4
In the myINSPIRE forum, compare the Morrison, Ross, Kalman &

KempÊs model to Dick and CareyÊs model.

4.6 GERLACH-ELY’S MODEL

The Gerlach-ElyÊs model is a prescriptive model which can be used in higher
education (Ismanet et al., 2005). As shown in Figure 4.8, this model is written for
the teacher who is a novice designer but possesses content expertise and can
specify objectives or specific outcomes of instruction.
Figure 4.8: Gerlach-ElyÊs model
It prompts teachers to specify entering behaviours or to what extent students

should achieve these objectives. Designing with this model includes determining
an instructional strategy, organising students into groups, determining how much
time and space to allocate for activities, and selecting instructional materials to
achieve the objectives. It specifies designing tasks to evaluate the performance,
both for teacher and student, as well as an analysis of feedback on whether the
objectives were achieved.

4.7 RAPID PROTOTYPING MODEL

This model is based on studies of designers in action and the notion that the design
process is complex and unpredictable. It was first used in software development,
in which feasibility and current situation are studied, followed by a continual
design and testing of the prototype so that construction and testing are parallel
processes. Figure 4.9 depicts an overview of the Rapid Prototyping model.
Figure 4.9: Rapid prototyping model
The designer must address learner needs, content and context throughout the
design, while other models view these issues as inputs to the system. The
involvement of intended users in the prototyping is one of the strengths of this
model. The intentions of this model are complex instructional situations where no
one right way exists to design a response to an instructional problem, and where
flexibility is necessary to respond to unique situations. It has the appeal of having
extended involvement with the intended user. This is missing in many models.
SELF-CHECK 4.5
Compare Rapid Prototyping model to Dick and CareyÊs model.

4.8 GAGNE AND BRIGGS SYSTEM MODEL

This model addresses more factors and stages than the previous model. It uses
analysis to determine what the goals should be and designs prescriptive features
to accomplish these goals. This model is also iterative despite its linear look ă
design phases must be revisited once new features are designed, or new
information is uncovered (see Figure 4.10).
Table 4.10: Gagne and Briggs system model

It classifies lesson objectives by learning type, allowing the designer to address a

wide range of knowledge. At the lesson level, it addresses the interactions and
tasks involving teachers and students in each activity. Nine instructional events
are tailored to the kind of outcome to be achieved, and the model can be adapted
to web-based instruction.
4.9 ADDIE MODEL

ADDIE is a generic instructional design paradigm which can generally be applied
to many instructional design models (Branch & Kopcha, 2014). The acronym,
ADDIE, refers to the phases as shown in Figure 4.11.
Figure 4.11: A version of the ADDIE paradigm

Source: Branch & Kopcha (2014)
In ADDIE model (see Figure 4.12), the analysis stage discovers who are the
learners or audience (audience analysis) and what is the goal or intended outcome
(goal analysis). In the design stage, it lists the contents of the course (subject matter
analysis); steps of instruction (lesson planning-writing objectives); and also the
type of media or presentation mode (media selection).
Figure 4.12: ADDIE model

The development of instruction generate lesson plans (different from lesson

planning) and lesson material; complete with media and materials for instruction,
and supporting documents; and the result is a course ready for delivery. The
implementation stage is the delivery of the instruction. Two related evaluations
are:
(a) Formative Evaluation: Occurs during and between ID steps to improve

instruction before the completed instruction is delivered; and
(b) Summative Evaluation: Usually occurs after instruction was completed and
implemented.
Why do we need instructional theories and models when we design an

instructional material or process? According to Thompson (2001), instructional
theories and models will guide us as the following:
(a) Speed up the process ă Focusing the team and serve as foundation for project
development;
(b) Assist in communication ă Team members need to share expertise, intent,

calendars and so forth. By using ID models, each team member will know
when and what to give or share with the other team member; and
(c) Cover all phases of good instructional design ă Make sure that all elements
of instruction are included, relate to and support each other.
SELF-CHECK 4.6
(a) What is ADDIE?
(b) Select an instructional goal you would like to achieve. Which

model would you use to achieve this goal? Justifiy the choice of
your model.

4.10 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INSTRUCTIONAL

DESIGN MODELS
Instructional design is used in many different context and settings, which has
given rise to many different ID models to cater to these settings. However, there
are several differences which can be noted in the instructional design models.
The Dick and CareyÊs model is a macro-level model which is useful for structuring
the design task in the learning environment. It consists of nine stages which are
iterative. The model starts with analysing the instructional goals, and all the stages
work towards achieving the instructional goals. These goals can be refined if
required, depending on the other analysis done.
In Hannafin and PeckÊs model, there are only three phases of needs assessment,
design and development/implementation for the development of the learning
environment. Evaluation and revision occurs in all phases.
The ASSURE model focuses on the implementation phase. However, similar to the
previous two models, it comprises a needs analysis phase to analyse learnersÊ
needs. Also, objectives are identified before methods, media and materials are
selected. It differs from the others as learner participation is required for
engagement in discussion, small group activities and formative assessment.
Knirk and GustafsonÊs model focuses on the instructional problem and designing
to solve the problem. Evaluation only comes at a later stage.
On the other hand in some models, evaluation is continuously done. Morrison,

Ross, Kalman and KempÊs model (2011) also identifies the instructional problem
as the starting point of the model. The model has four components: learners,
objectives, methods and evaluation which are integrated with the context and the
environment. From the four components, nine elements are identified including
the instructional problems, learner and context analysis, and task analysis. Other
processes also occur at the same time to manage and support the process and allow
for evaluation and revision.
The Gerlach-ElyÊs model is used when one has content expertise in the subject area.
The design process is iterative, and the analysis of evaluation of performance and
of feedback determines whether the objectives are suitable. Another model which
focuses on evaluation is the Rapid Prototyping model. It is a model for continuous
testing and evaluation of a prototype to ensure feasibility and suitability for the
current situation.

Gagne and Briggs system model analyses the system, course and lesson level in
detail. In this way, it incorporates the analysis, implementation as well as
evaluation of the processes. In this model, the lesson objectives are classified by
learning type to ensure the designer addresses the different types of learning
domains.
Finally, there is the ADDIE model. ADDIE is not considered as an instructional

model by some academics. Moreover, when the definition of ISD models is
examined, it can be noted that it is similar to the phases in ADDIE. However,
ADDIE is a useful framework which can be used to guide ISD and applies to the
ISD models.
Table 4.1 summarises each of the models that were discussed.
Table 4.1: A Summary of the Models Discussed
ISD Model Phases/ Stages Purpose Output

Dick and 1. Identify instructional A macro-level model Task to
CareyÊs goals which is useful for achieve the
model 2. Conduct instructional structuring the design instructional
analysis task in the learning goal
environment.
3. Identify entry behaviours
Iterative to revise
4. Write performance
instruction to achieve
objectives
instructional goals
5. Develop criterion-
referenced tests
6. Develop instruction
strategy
7. Develop and select
instructional materials
8. Develop and conduct
formative assessment
9. Develop and conduct
summative assessment
Hannafin 1. Needs assessment phase Evaluation and revision Learning
and PeckÊs 2. Design phase are maintained in all environment
model the phases
3. Development/implement
ation phases of the model

ASSURE A: Analyse learners Linear input and Development

model S: State objectives output model. of
Learner participation instructional
S: Select methods, media and
required. media
materials
U: Utilise media
R: Require learner participation
E: Evaluate and revise
Knirk and 1. Problem determination The focus is on Development
GustafsonÊs stage determining the of
design  Identifying the problem problem. Evaluation instructional
model does not come until materials
 Setting instructional much later.
goal
2. Design stage
 Developing objectives
 Specifying strategies
3. Development
 Materials are
developed
Morrison, The four components in the The components are The task /
Ross, model are: interrelated and the
Kalman and  Learners when integrated with instructional
KempÊs the context and the environment
model  Objectives environment to form
 Methods an instructional
 Evaluation design model with
nine elements. The
From these components, the processes of planning
following elements are and project
addressed: management,
 The instructional problems support services,
 Learner and context formative evaluation
analysis and revision,
implementation,
 Task analysis summative
 Instructional objectives evaluation and
 Content sequencing confirmative
evaluation are
 Instructional strategies ongoing throughout
 Designing the message the design process.
 Development of instruction,
and
 Evaluation instruments

Gerlach- To specify entering behaviours The model is suitable The task /

ElyÊs model or to what extent students for novice designers the
should achieve these objectives. who have content instructional
Designing includes: expertise. The model environment
1. Determining an is iterative and
instructional strategy includes evaluation
of performance as
2. Accomplishing the
well as analysis of
objectives
feedback to
3. Organising students into determine whether
groups the specifications of
4. Determining how much objectives needs to be
time and space to allocate changed.
to activities
5. Selecting instructional
materials
6. Performance evaluation,
both for teacher and
student
7. Analysis of feedback on
whether the objectives were
met
Rapid 1. Assess needs, analyse A continual design Software and
Prototyping content and testing of the materials
model 2. Set objectives prototype, so that development
construction and
3. Construct prototype
testing are parallel
(design)
processes. Feasibility
4. Utilise prototype (research) and current situation
5. Install and maintain system are studied during
development.
Gagne and 1. Analysis of needs, goals An iterative model as Lesson plans
Briggs and priorities the design phases are
system 2. Analysis of resources, revisited when new
model constraints, and alternative information and new
delivery systems features are
uncovered.
3. Scope and sequence of
curriculum and courses, Lesson objectives are
delivery system classified by learning
type and hence
4. Course structure and
allows the designer to
sequence
address a wide range
5. Analysis of course of knowledge.
objectives
6. Performance objectives

7. Lesson plan modules

8. Selecting materials and
media
9. Assessment
10. Teacher preparation
11. Formative evaluation
12. Field testing and revision
13. Summative evaluation
14. Installation and diffusion
ADDIE A: Analyse A generic Lesson plans,
model D: Design instructional design instructional
paradigm which can materials,
D; Develop
generally be applied learning
I: Implement to many instructional environment
E: Evaluate design models
The ID models can be classified into three types: classroom, product and system
(Gustafson & Branch, 2002). The types of ID models would depend on differences
in the function and content. Which of the ID models are system models? Which are
for classroom use? Moreover, what can be used for developing a product? Some
of the models may be suitable for more than one type of model.
ACTIVITY 4.1
In the myINSPIRE forum, discuss the similarities and differences

between the ISD models.
There is awareness among instructors from both academic institutions and

corporate industries on designing their own teaching and training for students and
workers. They are now more conscious of the importance of instructional design
that guarantees effective teaching and learning, efficiency and productivity. That
is why an instructional designer must really understand the concepts and models
involved in instructional designs before developing them.

4.11 COMPONENTS IN INSTRUCTIONAL

DESIGN MODEL
Although there may be many differences between the models discussed, all of
them are instructional systems design (ISD) models. According to Branch &
Kopcha (2014), there may be differences in terms and procedures, but all of them
share the five phases of instructional design, which are as follows:
(a) Analysis of the setting and the learnersÊ needs;
(b) Design of the materials for an effective, efficient and relevant learner
environment;
(c) Development of materials;
(d) Implementation of instruction; and
(e) Evaluation of the implementation.
4.11.1 Analysis
The first phase is the analysis phase. Some of the components that need to be
analysed and an example of the results and decision that could be made based on
the results is shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Components in the Analysis Phase
Components in Analysis Results/Discussions Decisions

Determination of pre-  Learner possesses the  Material designed
requisite knowledge pre-requisite should not repeat the
(obtained from surveys of knowledge in science, pre-requisite
previous curriculum, mathematics and knowledge.
interviews and basic computer skills.  Use basic software for
questionnaires) delivery such as MS
PowerPoint.
Determination of entry  Learners are between  Graphics, fonts, icons
behaviour via 15 and 17 years old used must be suitable
questionnaires, surveys with different levels of for this age group.
on performance, achievement.  Since their levels of
interviews with teachers achievement are
and students. different, the materials
must use strategies that
suit the levels.

Determination of learning  Their learning styles  Strategies that

styles of learners via are mostly visual and incorporate visual and
interviews by teachers. interpersonal. interpersonal learning
styles are considered.
Delivery devices  Schools are equipped  Minimum specifications
with the necessary of computers in schools
devices for delivery are used as a
such as OHP, benchmark for
computers and LCD. instruction delivery.
Cost  High cost required for  A financial account is
hardware, software needed.
and expertise.  Possible grants from
various sources.
Time and duration  Time management  Prepare a Gantt chart to
according to phases of guide time
development. management.
Expertise  Experts include  Create a group
project manager, comprising these
instructional designer, experts.
graphics designer,
evaluator and
software developer.
Work culture  Software will be used  Instructional strategy
by students. appropriate for
 Students may use the individual instruction.
software in labs or at
home.
Content  Must abide by the  Refer to Chemistry
curriculum set by the Curriculum.
Ministry of Education.

4.11.2 Design
The next phase is the design phase. Some of the components that need to be
addressed in the design phase, as well as examples of the results/ discussion, and
decisions that could be made based on the results are shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Components in the Design Phase
Design Components Results/Discussions Decisions

Objectives  Use information from  Objectives must be in
analysis phase to write ABCD format.
objectives.
Test questions  Conduct analysis of  Determine the type of
examinations. questions: objective,
 Test items must be able subjective.
to measure achievement  List the questions
of objectives. according to objectives
to be measured.
Selection of strategies  Based on information  Select a teaching
obtained from analysis strategy that could fulfil
and the appropriate the objectives.
strategy selected.
4.11.3 Development
The next phase is the development phase. Some of the components related to
development that need to be addressed in this phase, as well as examples of the
results/discussion, and decisions that could be made based on the results are
shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4: Components in the Development Phase
Components Results/ Discussions Decisions

Flowchart  All the activities  Specific symbols must be
intended to be used for the flowchart.
implemented in
software should be
reflected in the
flowchart.
Creating the storyboard  Storyboard created for  Storyboard maybe on
software development. paper or mock-up on a
computer screen.
Development of  Prototype created for  Each part should be
prototype each part of the evaluated and modified
software. until the objectives are
achieved.
Production of software  After completion of  Software is packaged in
prototyping, software CD ROMs.
and manual will be
produced.
4.11.4 Implementation
The fourth phase is the implementation phase. The use of software as the
components that need to be addressed in the implementation phase, as well as an
example of the results/discussion on how it could be used, and decisions that
could be made based on the results are shown in Table 4.5.
Table 4. 5: Component in the Implementation Phase
Component Results/Discussions Decisions

Use of software for  Used by students for  Individualised learning
teaching and learning individualised learning. placed in library and
lab.

4.11.5 Evaluation
Finally, in the evaluation phase. Some of the components related to evaluation, as
well as examples of the results/discussion, and decisions that could be made based
on the results are shown in Table 4.6.
Table 4. 6: Components in the Evaluation Phase
Components Results/Discussions Decisions

Formative evaluation  Data collected at each  A formative evaluation
(via interview, stage to improve conducted at each phase
observation and experts) software. to save cost and time.
Summative evaluation  Conducted at the end  Modifications for future
(via questionnaires and of instructional design. versions.
expert)
SELF-CHECK 4.7
What are the main components in all of the instructional design models?
Discuss your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
In conclusion, ISD models can essentially be divided into five phases as discussed
earlier. Each of these phases has particular elements which can be used to identify
the phase. However, newer instructional design models may differ in comparison.
Some of these models may only provide guiding principles, and the instructional
designer will need to determine the processes involved. In this topic on
instructional systems design, the ISD models are discussed.
Ć ISD is defined as the systematic and iterative method for creating a learning
experience that develops and enhances skills and knowledge.
Ć ISD models help to organise learning and can be divided into five phases:
analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation.
Ć The topic discusses nine different models of instructional designs with

different features and characteristics.

Ć The models are needed when designing instructional materials because it will
serve as a guideline in speeding up the process, assisting in communication
and covering all phases of good instructional design.
Ć The instructional models can be classified into three types based on the
function of the content: classroom, product and system.
Ć There are three types of instructional design form: vertical, circular and
horizontal.
ADDIE model Hannafin and PeckÊs model

ASSURE model Knirk and GustafsonÊs model
Dick and CareyÊs model Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs
model
Gagne and Briggs systems model
Rapid Prototyping model
Gerlach-ElyÊs model
Branch, R. M., & Kopcha, T. J. (2014). Instructional Design Models. In J.M. Spector
et al. (eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and
Technology, (pp. 77ă86). DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_48, © Springer
Science+Business Media New York 2014.
Gibbons, A. S., Boling, E., & Smith, K. M. (2014). Instructional Design Models. In
J.M. Spector et al. (eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational
Communications and Technology, (pp. 607ă615). DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-
3185-5_48, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014.
İşman, A., Çağlar, M., Dabaj, F., & Ersözlü, H. (2005). A new model for the world
of instructional design: A new model. The Turkish Online Journal of
Educational Technology, 4(3), 6.

Topic  Putting ID
Theories into
5 Practice
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Apply three main instructional system design models in designing
instruction; and
2. Apply appropriate strategies to design instruction.
 INTRODUCTION
In topic 4, we looked at some ISD models. If you recall, instructional design models
describe the process by which a product or a learning environment can be created
(Gibbons, Boling & Smith, 2014). ID procedures can be used for developing
education and training materials in a consistent, reliable and iterative process. ISD
models are systematic and iterative methods for creating a learning experience that
develops and enhance skills and knowledge through the phases of analyse, design,
develop, implement and evaluate.
If so, do we apply the basics of instructional systems design (ISD) and use the
framework of the ADDIE model (analyse, design, develop, implement and
evaluate) while designing teaching and learning materials for our instruction?
Although most instructors/teachers/educators are probably aware of learning

theories, instructional design (ID) theories and ID models, it was not known if they
actually practised ID. In a survey of 23 instructors who practised ID in designing
instruction for institutes of higher learning, the results indicated that more than 50
per cent of the instructors were uncertain about ID practice. Meanwhile 30.43 per
cent agreed that they practised ID, while 10.13 per cent agreed that they did not
78  TOPIC 5 PUTTING ID THEORIES INTO PRACTICE
know about ID. The majority (65.2 per cent) did not quite understand ID models
and theories, while only 13 per cent had some idea of the ID concept. Most of the
instructors evaluated their instruction, but all were unsure about its design (see
Table 5.1).
Table 5.1: ID Practice among Instructors in Institutes of Higher Learning
Disagree Not Certain Agree

Per Per Per
Frequency Frequency Frequency
cent cent cent
ID Concept
5 21.7 15 65.2 3 13.0
Understanding
Analyse 1 4.3 10 43.5 12 52.2
Design 0 0 23 100.0 0 0
Develop 0 0 20 87.0 3 13.0
Implement 6 26.1 9 39.1 8 34.8
Evaluate 2 8.7 5 21.7 16 69.6
Total
- 10.13 - 59.42 - 30.43
Percentage
We may categorise three types of ID practice among instructors and educators.

Firstly, instruction occurs with no knowledge of theory (based on intuition,
experience or observation). Secondly, the instructors are equipped with the
necessary theory but do not put the theory into practice (the theories are at the
back of their minds during instruction). Thirdly, instructors put theory into
practice, and these are instructors who understand the learning theory as well as
studentsÊ needs and practise them very well.
5.1 DICK AND CAREY’S MODEL

Let us attempt to put the theories we have learnt into practice in designing
instruction using the Dick and CareyÊs model. We will design instruction using the
nine stages of the model (Refer to the previous topic 4 subtopic 4.1).
We will be considering all the stages in the model, and an example in designing a
lesson using this model is shown in Table 5.2. This model is a systems approach
for designing instruction, where instructional goals are identified at the beginning,
and it ends with a summative evaluation. This model has also been used for
constructivist learning environments (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014).

TOPIC 5 PUTTING ID THEORIES INTO PRACTICE  79
Subject: Culinary Arts (Technical Vocational Education)

Area: Baking
Goal: To make a butter cake
Table 5.2: ISD using Dick and CareyÊs model
Table 5.2: ISD Using Dick and CareyÊs Model
Stage Description Details in Design
Identify  Based on data from Goal: To make a butter cake

instructional performance analysis
goal of learners, and on
the curriculum
standards, the goal is
determined based on
the need.
 An initial goal is
stated. The goal may
be a fuzzy goal and
can be further
refined.
 The instructional goal
is refined according
to criteria such as
congruent with
organisation needs,
feasibility and clarity.
Conduct  Goal analysis. Goal analysis to break the goal into tasks
instructional and subordinate skills (see Figure 5.1).
analysis  Identifying domain of
learning.  Domain of learning
 Performing a task − Verbal information: Identify
analysis. ingredients.
 Identification of − Intellectual skills: Identifying

subordinate skills. texture of the cream, mixtures;
accuracy in measuring and
 Determining entry reading scale.
skills.
− Psychomotor: To weigh and use
equipment, to know the procedure
of creaming, breaking and adding
eggs, sifting and folding flour, etc.

− Attitude: To show interest and

achievement in baking
− Cognitive Strategies: To
troubleshoot during the process of
weighing ingredients, sifting and
folding flour if problems arise, etc.
 Entry skills
− Able to identify and work with
ingredients, able to use the
equipment.
Identify  Learner analysis  Target learners

entry Learners will be boys and girls in
behaviour  Context analysis
Form 2 who have had some experience
in baking cookies.
 Context
They will be baking in the „kitchen‰
meant for Living Skills in school, after
school hours. Blended learning can be
done as videos and tasks can be
assigned online.
Write  Writing terminal  Terminal objective

performance objective Student will be able to bake a butter
objectives cake following the procedure outlined
 Writing performance
in the recipe.
objective
 Example of performance objective:
− The students will be able to
accurately weigh 250 grams of
butter on the weighing scale (see
Figure 5.2).
− Student will be able to cream
butter and sugar using a mixer to
obtain a mixture of light and fluffy
texture.
− Students will be able to take
corrective action to ensure safety
measures in using electrical
equipment are being followed.

Develop  Based on the  Test item

criterion objectives stated A checklist for Terminal objective: To
reference above, the test items view and taste the better cake.
tests are created.
− Look and feel (nice colour, not
 As most are burnt, fluffy).
psychomotor skills,
− Taste suitable and appropriate.
observation checklists
are used.  Checklist for Performance Objective 1:
To view studentÊs procedure of
 Verbal information,
measurement:
intellectual skills and
cognitive strategies − Able to put butter on weighing
can be tested using machine without mess.
other test items:
− Able to measure accurately.
multiple choice, fill in
the blanks (see Figure − Able to remove or add until the
5.2 for a sample). suitable weight is obtained.
 Checklist for Performance Objective 2:
Fluffy texture of buttercream mixture.
 Checklist for Performance Objective 3:
− Observation of students'
procedure in switching off
equipment when not in use, in
handling with care during use.
Develop Instructional strategy:  Delivery system

instructional
 Delivery system − Before instruction: view videos
strategy
and answer questions online.
 Clustering and
sequencing of content − During class, demonstration and
hands-on activity.
 Instructional
components (GagneÊs  Sequencing of content: according to
Nine Events of sequence of baking.
Instruction)
 Components of instruction (see Figure
 Student groupings 5. 3).
 Grouping: pair-work in hands-on
baking task.

Develop Instructional strategy:  Delivery system and media selection

and select
 Delivery system and − There are existing videos
instructional
media selection: available, which will be employed
material
before class, such as:
− Existing materials
http://tasteasianfood.com/butter-
available.
cake/
− Production and
− Demonstration of measurement,
implementation
creaming and folding techniques.
constraints.
− Facilitation during hands-on.
− Facilitation
provided.  Instructional package
 Components of − Video and quiz before class.
instructional package
− Recipe list.
determined.
− Formative assessment checklist.
 Consider existing
instructional − Summative assessment.
materials.
 Develop instructional
materials.
Develop Formative evaluation  Formative evaluation design of the

and conduct designs: instructional package will be with
formative subject matter experts.
 Subject matter expert
assessment
to evaluate materials.  To evaluate design, content,
instructional strategy.
 One to one evaluation
with learners.
 Small group
evaluation.
 Field trial.
Develop Summative assessment The outcome is to determine whether

and conduct students were able to produce a
 Expert judgement on
summative reasonably delicious cake.
the suitability of
assessment
instruction, clarity,
feasible.
 Outcomes of learning
were achieved.

Figure 5.1: Goal analysis of the procedures in baking a cake
Figure 5.2: Sample of a test item to test intellectual skill

The Dick and CareyÊs model involves refining the goal from a fuzzy goal to ensure
a better-refined goal can be produced. The domains of learning can be determined,
and an instructional analysis can be conducted. After conducting the learning
analysis, the instructor will be able to determine the entry level skills of the
students. Knowing the context of the instruction will also enable planning for the
instruction. Based on the goal analysis, a terminal objective can be stated, and from
the task analysis, the performance objectives can be determined. In the Dick and
CareyÊs model, the criterion-referenced test items are designed after writing the
objectives, to ensure the objectives are tested. An example of a test item to test
learned skill is shown in Figure 5.2.
Next, the instructional strategy which comprises the delivery system, how the
content will be clustered and sequenced, and what are the components of
instruction, as well as student groupings. The components of instruction are
elaborated in Figure 5.3. The instructional package consists of a set of quiz
questions and a link to a video to show the process of baking a butter cake. A recipe
sheet will be provided and checklists to assist students in self-evaluation of the
procedures. During implementation, these checklists and recipe list will be
referred to. At the end of the lesson, a summative assessment with test items on
intellectual skills and cognitive strategies (example as per Figure 5.2) will be given
to students. To transfer learning, discussions can be made on how to bake a
different cake, such as chocolate and fruit cake, and an assignment can be given to
continue baking at home, and viewing the video again to recall.

Figure 5.3: Components of instruction following GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction

The implementation tool in place uses an instructional package comprising the

checklists for formative assessment, and the recipe list. A summative assessment
would be conducted at the end. There is an option to revise the instruction and to
change the goal based on the summative evaluation and the learner analysis.
In this classroom, students had a hands-on experience to discover the effectiveness

of the process in producing a well-baked cake. As there was pair-work, there could
be discussions to construct their learning experiences, and scaffold by the
instructor and the video that they had viewed. Learning was based on a social
constructivist framework.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
(a) What is the focus of the Dick and CareyÊs model?
(b) What is the instructional strategy used in achieving this objective?
5.2 ASSURE MODEL

The ASSURE model is suitable for the development of instructional media and the
selection of media within learning activities. The focus is on the implementation
phase. However, there is also a needs analysis phase to analyse learnersÊ needs. It
differs from the others as learner participation is required for engagement in
discussion, small group activities and formative assessment. Based on the
following task, Table 5.3 shows how ASSURE model is applied.
Problem Task for Science Form 2: You are given a tooth. From the tooth, make
appropriate analysis to identify what animal it is, and what diet the animal
probably had.

Table 5.3: The Application of ASSURE Model in a Classroom
Step Description Details

A: Analyse The class is a Form 2 class A more engaging pedagogy is
learners consisting of multiracial required. Problem-based learning and
students, but a majority of inquiry are selected.
them are Malays, who are
averagely-skilled in Science
subject. They have little
experience in problem
solving, have visual and
kinaesthetic learning styles.
S: State The objectives for  The objectives are for the students
objectives instruction are: Student will to investigate the type of diet an
be able to infer from the animal had. Learning outcome
tooth of an animal whether will be assessed from the process
the animal is a herbivore, of scientific inquiry and problem-
carnivore or omnivore and solving.
its diet, based on theory  Assessment rubric will measure:
and comparisons with
models of named animals. − Science inquiry skills:
hypothesis, experimentation,
conclusions to solve a
problem on the animalsÊ diet.
 Condition: Based on one tooth,
able to make reference from the
Internet.
S: Select  The method is problem-  Real items used (realia).
methods, based learning  Graphics/photo if insufficient
media and approach with inquiry number: For example:
materials and investigation. https://goo.gl/images/zTbTUF
 Instructional materials: Online materials and photos to
A tooth/ photo of tooth explore:
viewed from two sides.
https://goo.gl/images/MMXyqC
 Skulls of herbivores
 Allow students to search.
(sheep), carnivore
(cat/wolf), omnivore
(rat).
 Access to online search.

U: Utilise Plan in using materials:  Real objects, models and

media Prepare the environment, graphics/ photos of samples.
providing models and  Worksheets for the following
pictures and online access. elements:
Prepare the learners to view a − Making observation;
video on carnivores and − Hypothesis;
herbivores. They will have to
do the following: − Experiment design to test
hypothesis;
 Observation of the tooth
given. − Analogies; and
− Giving justifications.
 Make hypothesis on
animal, whether
herbivore, carnivore or
omnivore and its diet.
 Investigate by comparing
with the tooth of similar
animals in the laboratory
and online search.
 Reason, whether the
conclusions made, is
accurate.
R: Require  The learner has to discuss  The learner needs to actively
learner with group members make observation, hypothesis,
participation based on the observation. analogies, and justifications.
 The learner makes a  The learner needs to
hypothesis whether the communicate findings and
animal is an herbivore, present and defend his views.
carnivore or omnivore
and its diet.
 Learner access the
Internet to
search/observe models
and discuss to confirm.
 Present findings with
justification to class.
E: Evaluate  Evaluation of objectives  Were scientific skills achieved?
and revise to see if they were  The problem was too easy,
achieved. make it harder?
 Revise if required.  Were materials sufficient?

The ASSURE model starts with learner analysis, followed by the objectives. In
formulating the objectives, the rubric for assessment would be designed. The
condition of the learning would be specified in the objective.
Based on the objective, the methods, media and materials would be selected. For
this purpose, a problem-based learning approach with inquiry and investigation
is used to achieve the objective. Hence, instructional material included real or
models of tooth and skulls of named animals, as well as online photos of the same.
Next, the instructional strategy for using the media employed a problem-based
learning approach with inquiry and investigation which comprises of the scientific
approach. Worksheets would be used to support the process. The instructional
strategy would also ensure learnerÊs participation in the scientific investigation. In
the R, or require learner participation phase, the form of participation is specified.
Finally, the evaluation is done to see if the objectives were met during the
instruction. At this phase, any revision would be suggested to implement in the
next cycle of development.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
(a) What is the focus of the ASSURE model?
(b) What is the instructional strategy used in achieving this objective?
5.3 MORRISON, ROSS, KALMAN AND

KEMP’S MODEL
The Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs model has four main components as the
framework for systematic instructional planning: learners, objectives, methods
and evaluation. The process will be described according to the nine elements as
follows: instructional problems, learner and context, task analysis, instructional
objectives, content sequencing, instructional strategies, designing the message,
development of instruction and evaluation instruments (see Table 5.4).

Table 5.4: Elements of the Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs Model
Elements Description Details

Instructional Identifying the problem to (a) Aim: To answer customers
problems ensure if the instruction can queries regarding the purchase
solve the problem. of a smartphone.
(a) Needs assessment; (i) The needs assessment
(b) Goal analysis; and show that there is data
indicating sales personnel
(c) Performance
have problems
assessment.
communicating with
clients.
(b) Goal analysis from the aim:
(i) Able to greet customers
(ii) Identify customers
reaction and respond
appropriately according
to different categories,
which are as follows:
 Tech-savvy
customers;
 Impatient customers;
 Low technology skills
which require a lot of
information; and
 Low technology skills
who do not want
information.
(c) Able to convey information on
the functions of the smartphone.
(d) Able to highlight features
depending on the needs of
customers.
(e) Able to convince the customers
based on the needs of the
suitability of a smartphone.
(f) After refining and ranking the
goals, the goal prioritised is:
(i) Able to convince the
customers based on the
needs and suitability of a
smartphone.

(d) This was verified through

performance assessment of the
staff, which indicated that they
had difficulty in convincing
customers, and conveying
information.
Learner and (a) Learner characteristics: (a) Learner characteristics
Context gender, age, personal The learners are trainees,
and social school-leavers aged 20 to 25
characteristics. years from different cultural
(b) Context analysis: background. Some with
orienteering context working experience. Many do
(what the learner is not speak English well.
familiar with), (b) Context
instructional context
(i) Orienteering context:
(physical environment
Many are not technically
and schedule of
inclined but all of them
training).
have owned and bought a
(c) Transfer context: mobile phone.
opportunities for
(ii) Instructional context: A
transferring to new
one whole day training
situations.
will be done in a classroom
situation.
(iii) Transfer context:
Opportunities to practice
with colleagues.
Task Analysis (a) Topic analysis is done (a) Goal
according to the type of Able to convince the customers
learning domains: facts, based on the needs of the
concepts, principles and suitability of a mobile phone.
rules, procedures, (b) As the goal is an interpersonal
interpersonal skills, task, the critical incident
attitudes. method is selected. See Figure
(b) Procedural analysis 5.4 for the analysis.
according to the steps (c) The tasks would involve three
to complete them. successful incidents and three
(c) Critical incident non-successful incidents.
method: to analyse a
process and resolve
interpersonal conflict.

Instructional Objectives for the cognitive, The trainee will be able to:
Objectives psychomotor and affective (a) Greet a potential customer.
domain.
(b) Answer customersÊ queries on
five different models of phones.
(c) Respond to the need of the
customer to convince suitability
of a phone model.
Content Instruction sequenced Sequencing of content
Sequencing according to the learner,
(a) Greeting potential customer.
which is familiarity and
according to difficulty. (b) Answering queries.
(c) Responding to a customer who
needs the following:
(i) A basic communication
device;
(ii) Communication and
camera/video; and/or
(iii) Others.
(d) Responding to a customer who
are:
(i) Uncertain of his needs;
and/or
(ii) Upset.
Instructional (a) Procedure for teaching The instructional strategy used
Strategies cognitive procedures: (a) Watching videos of the process
(i) Demonstration; (demonstration and modelling
(ii) Organisation; of behaviour);
(iii) Elaboration; and (b) Take notes and pointing out key
behaviours (Organisation);
(iv) Practice.
(c) Mental image on process
(b) For teaching (Elaboration); and
interpersonal skills:
(d) Problem situations to practice
(i) Model; with their colleagues.
(ii) Verbal and
imaginal models
(Organisation);
(iii) Mental rehearsal
(Elaboration); and
(iv) Overt practice.

Designing the (a) Pre-instructional (a) In this lesson, advance

Message strategies: organisers would be used to
(i) Pre-tests; present ideas that would be
included in the training. An
(ii) Behavioural
overview as an overall
objectives;
summary of the expectations
(iii) Advanced and relevance to the goals.
organisers; and
(b) Message Design will comprise
(iv) Overviews.
of the following:
(b) Message Design (i) Information and lists of
(i) Pictures and features of five models of
Graphics in phones;
instruction. (ii) Compare the benefits of
phones; and
(iii) Cause (when respond to a
customer is slow, unsure)
and effect (on the
customer) when attending
to customers' needs.
Development Development of instruction Instructional materials such as
of to take into consideration videos viewed, and lists of
Instructional the following: information given should be suitable
Material (a) Objectives for the trainees and fit the objectives.
(b) Learner analysis Videos on interaction for three
(c) Concrete successful customers-sales incidents
and three non-successful customers î
(d) Pacing
sales incidents are developed.
(e) Consistent
(f) Cues
Evaluation (a) Formative evaluation (a) Formative evaluation
Instruments checklist (i) Examine the interactions
(b) Summative evaluation during all the tasks to
checklist. determine if objectives were
(c) Confirmative met.
evaluation checklist (to (b) Summative evaluation:
be done 1 month after
(i) The degree to which the
training).
objectives are met at the end
of the course in the final
problem task.
(c) Confirmative Evaluation
(i) The degree to which the
objectives are met in real
life scenario.

Figure 5.4: A task analysis of the goal
In Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs model, it starts with an instructional

problem and the need for the problem. There may be many goals to solve the
problem, but during the goal analysis, the goals are ranked and prioritised. Hence,
training can be made more manageable to achieve the goal. The learner analysis
and the context are important for the design. Meanwhile, the task analysis will be
done to ensure that the learner is able to achieve the goal.
All the components of the model are interrelated and can be changed and
sequenced at any time. For example, formative evaluation can occur during
instruction, and if required, the tasks may be redesigned so as to enable it to fit the
objective required. Content sequencing is important so that what is familiar to the
learner is given first, and more difficult situations are given at a later stage.
Instructional strategies provide an opportunity for practice and problem-solving.

During the instruction, the instruction may be delivered using different media,
and message design is the process of delivering the instruction. In this case, it
includes pre-instructional activities where advance organisers and overviews are
used to describe what the training entails. The message is also in the development
of the instruction and instructional material.
Although evaluation takes place at different parts of the instruction, the design of
instruments, and for this purpose the checklist is done to determine if the
objectives can be achieved.

As in this model, the processes of planning and project management, support

services, formative evaluation and revision, implementation, summative
evaluation and confirmative evaluation are ongoing throughout the design
process (Morrison et al., 2011). Designing your instruction according to an ID
model ensures a systematic and iterative method for creating a learning experience
that develops and enhances skills and knowledge. The ID procedures ensure
education and training materials are developed consistently and reliably. During
this process, the phases of analyse, design, develop, implement and evaluate
ensure a systematic process.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
(a) What is the focus of the Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs
model?
(b) What is the instructional strategy used in achieving this goal?
ACTIVITY 5.1
Instructional design models assist IDs in the planning of instruction.

How would you use an instructional design model to guide your
planning of instruction? Select an instructional goal suitable for your
content area, and select ONE model that you think is appropriate to
design an instruction. Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
Ć The Dick and Carey Model comprises of nine stages: identify instructional
goal, conduct goal analysis, identify entry behaviour, write performance
objectives, develop criterion reference test, develop instructional strategies,
develop and select instructional materials, develop and conduct formative
assessment, and develop and conduct a summative assessment.
Ć The ASSURE model has six phases: analyse learners; state objectives; select
methods, media and materials; utilise media; require learner participation; and
evaluate and revise.

Ć The Morrison, Ross, Kalman & Kemp model has four main components as the
framework for systematic instructional planning: learners, objectives,
methods, and evaluation. There are nine elements within the process:
instructional problems, learner and context, task analysis, instructional
objectives, content sequencing, instructional strategies, designing the message,
development of instruction, and evaluation instruments.
Ć The learning environments and materials are designed based on the

instructional models.
ĉ
ASSURE model GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction

Dick and CareyÊs model Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs
model
Gibbons, A. S., Boling, E., & Smith, K. M. (2014). Instructional Design Models. In
J.M. Spector et al. (eds.), Handbook of research on educational
communications and technology, (pp. 607-615). DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-
3185-5_48, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014.
Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kalman, H. K., & Kemp, J. E. (2011). Designing
effective instruction (6th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.

Topic  Teaching and
Learning
6 Strategies
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define teaching strategies;
2. Explain the behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist teaching
strategies;
3. Apply behaviourist, social learning, information processing and
constructivist theories in a variety of teaching strategies;
4. Discuss the concept of thinking skills;
5. Identify the importance of thinking skills;
6. Describe the types of thinking skills;
7. Discuss how learning problems could be overcome by understanding
thinking skills;
8. Explain the use of thinking tools;
9. Discuss three types of thinking tools; and
10. Examine how thinking skills could be improved by using thinking
tools.

98  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES
 INTRODUCTION
The instructional designer will design appropriate teaching strategies to present
the information and to engage the learners (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014). Teaching
or instruction is done by the teacher through a variety of activities such as group
discussion, role play, projects and problem solving tasks. These strategies are a
micro strategy which is used for instruction. However, the teacher needs to plan
for the macro strategy of instruction to include the micro strategies, determining
the objectives, motivating the learners, present the content and engage the
learners.
In this topic, some strategies which can be used for instruction are suggested.
These strategies may be based on different learning theories. However, as a 21st
century learner, creative and critical thinking is important and needs to be
emphasised upon. Hence, strategies for teaching and learning thinking skills will
be discussed in this topic.
6.1 TEACHING STRATEGIES

Teaching strategies may refer to methods used in order to garner the learnersÊ
learning. Its objective is to ensure that learners learn and grasp the desired content.
According to Armstrong (2012), teaching strategies identify the different available
learning methods to enable them to develop the right strategy to deal with the
target group identified. Therefore, in this subtopic, we will look into the various
teaching strategies that can help us achieve our objective.
6.1.1 Definition of Teaching Strategies

A teaching strategy is a method or technique of instruction to enhance learning
performance. Teaching strategies are referred to as instructional strategies in the
field of ID as instruction is not only provided by the teacher. According to Dick,
Carey & Carey (2014), an instructional strategy covers the following aspects:
selecting the delivery system, whether online, blended or face to face; sequencing
and grouping the content into clusters suitable for learning; describing the learning
components in the instruction; determining student groupings during the
instruction; structuring the lesson and selecting the media for delivering
instruction. On the other hand, Spector (2012) states that an instructional strategy
is a description of the approach to a particular instructional or learning activity.
Hence, teaching strategies are activities of an instruction which can improve
performance and enable learning.

TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES  99
6.1.2 Development of Teaching Strategies

Initial work in instructional strategies were influenced by behaviourist theories of
learning and was later modified and improved upon using cognitive aspects of
learning in the instructional design process (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014). Recently,
constructivist elements in instructional design have been used to improve on the
cognitive aspects of instruction (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014).
Which theory should be applied during instruction? According to Spector (2012),

it is more important to determine what needs to be learnt first, whether factual
knowledge, procedural skills, cognitive skills or intellectual skills or attitude.
Hence, whether we used expository techniques to help the learner focus on the
instruction by stating the purpose, providing a demonstration of the knowledge;
or inquisitory techniques to ask the learner what useful areas might be learnt
within the subject; or a combination of both, would be determined by the subject
matter.
Expository techniques are related to behaviourist and cognitivist theories. Direct

instruction could be used for drill and practice for memorising verbal information,
as well as for lectures on introducing new topics to provide a foundation for the
topic and motivating the learners in the topic (Spector, 2012). Inquisitory
techniques on the other hand, such as exploratory instruction for promoting
understanding of new phenomena, interactive simulation for promoting critical
thinking in dynamic systems, and Socratic questioning for learners to link
something new and unfamiliar to something they have already understood, have
a basis on constructivism (Spector, 2012). Dick, Carey and Carey definition of a
constructivist learning environment is when „learners in collaborative groups
with peers and teachers are consulting resources to solve problems‰. The indirect
instruction models expose the learners to inquisitory learning techniques.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
What is the difference between behaviourist and constructivist

instructional strategies? Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.

6.1.3 Direct Instruction (DI)

Direct instruction (DI) seems to be a popular behaviourist instructional strategy
for classroom teaching. It was initially developed in the 1960s by Siegfried
Engelmann. It grew out of the work of Siegfried Englemann and Carl Bereiter with
disadvantaged children (Bereiter & Engelmann, 1966). This model of instruction is
more suitable for teaching with an academic focus as it emphasises the cognitive
domain of learning, and may be less suitable for psychomotor or affective
domains. As a major goal is the maximisation of student learning time, content is
delivered at a fast pace, with the task to engage students actively, emphasising on
academic excellence. However, this may have a negative effect on students who
are unable to keep up with the pace.
Direct instruction consists of a teacher explaining a new concept or skill, then

allowing controlled practice under teacherÊs direction to test their understanding,
and continuing to practice under teacherÊs guidance or guided practice. The lesson
should comprise the following:
Figure 6.1: Phases of direct instruction (DI)
(a) Pre-instructional Phase

The pre-instructional phase of direct instruction may consist of orienteering
comments before presenting the new material to help students identify the
purpose of the learning. These can be introductory comments or activities to
catch the students' attention, to elicit prior knowledge or refer to the previous
day's lesson, to clarify the objectives or the outcomes of the lesson, to provide
the explicit directions which will be used and to give an overview of the
lesson (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2000).
(b) Presentation Phase

With the context for learning clear, instruction begins with a presentation of
the concept or skill. Presentation can be effective for learning when it is done
in small steps, and by providing many examples, and avoiding distractions
away from what is to be learnt. Skills to be taught can be modelled; difficult
points are to be re-explained. Providing a visual representation of the topic
presented may also assist learning.
The next phase is discussion where the teacher checks for students'
understanding and whether the learning outcome can be achieved. Effective
teachers ask more questions which are convergent and practice effective
questioning techniques.
As students answer the questions, feedback is provided. Feedback helps

students to find out how well they understand the new material and what
their errors are (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2000). Corrective feedback is
provided to guide students on what is the learning outcome required. When
feedback is combined with praise, it provides reinforcement in the learning
process for the student.
(c) Practice Phase

Practice is an important aspect of direct instruction. As the goal of practice is
mastery, the ability of the student to perform a skill without error is
important (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2000). The teacher provides different
levels of assistance either high structured, guided or independent until the
student can be independent. The length of practice is important as it is
believed that short, intense and highly motivated practice periods are more
effective than longer periods (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2000). Monitoring the
practice and ensuring high accuracy levels at the initial stage is also
important to be effective. Practice needs to be distributed and having
periodic practice at different stages with optimal time between practice
sessions ensures success (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2000).
Koslov et al. (1999) identify the following typical steps of a lesson. See if you can
identify these steps with the phases of direct instruction as elaborated by Joyce,
Weil and Calhoun (2000). They include the following:
(a) Attention and focus: Short wake-up.
(b) Orientation or preparation: Teacher presents the goal of the lesson and
demonstrates how the lesson builds on prior work.

(c) Model: Teacher demonstrates concepts, propositions, strategies and/or

operations. This can include repetitions, variations with different examples
in order to help generalisation. The teacher also can ask short questions and
accept focused questions from learners.
(d) Lead: Teacher organises some guided practice. Firstly, all together (choral
responding) and then more individually. If necessary, he goes back to the
model.
(e) Test: Students have to practise individually (written).
(f) Feedback: Students are corrected (using positive rewards).
(g) Error correction: Persistent errors are identified, and if necessary, the teacher
has to start over with model/lead/ test.
(h) Additional material: Learners are engaged with different materials where the
same strategies have to be applied to a common feature (more
generalisations).
(i) Problem-solving and strategy discrimination skills: These skills are

introduced in future lessons (once students master a certain vocabulary of
basic strategies).
The behaviourist theories have produced instructional strategies which focus on

reinforcement. In training, modelling of behaviour is used where modelling is
followed by practice, and both verbal reinforcement and self-reinforcement when
the learner is satisfied with his results. These theories are related to mastery
learning, where instructional sequences are planned to ensure learning of small
concepts or units is achieved at a satisfactory level of performance (measured by
diagnostic tests), and feedback is used to provide additional instruction.
Direct instruction has been used for programmed instruction so that instructional
material can be produced to ensure students achieve the learning outcomes of
small units of lessons which may be measured by diagnostic and entry-level tests.
Additional practice can be provided for the students as they attempt question on
interactive multimedia courseware when reinforcement and feedback can be
provided for students' response.

SELF-CHECK 6.2
(a) What are the main features of direct instruction (DI)?
(b) Suggest some instructional materials to be used for this model of

instruction and elaborate how you can apply the materials.
6.1.4 Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is a specific type of group activity that attempts to promote
learning and social skills by incorporating three concepts: group rewards,
individual accountability and opportunity for success (Slavin, 1995). This form of
learning is based on social learning theories, where social interaction in the school
environment enhances academic learning. Social interaction using these models
do not mimic the direct questioning interaction of teacher and student in
behaviourist models. Instead, learners cooperate, argue and interact as they learn.
Cooperative learning should be structured well and planned systematically for

implementation in order to be successful. Morrison et al. (2011) identify two major
forms of cooperative learning for students working in groups. They are as follows:
(a) Help one another to master the materials; and
(b) Complete a project which may be a written report, presentation, experiment

or artwork.
Look at the cooperative activities as shown in the following Table 6.1: think-pair-
share, jigsaw, numbered heads together and group investigation. Refer to the two
major forms of cooperative learning identified by Morrison et al. (2011):
(a) Help one another master materials; and
(b) Completing a project which may be a written report, presentation,

experiment or artwork.
Now, decide which form each activity takes.

Activities Used in Cooperative Learning

Table 6.1 suggests some activities for cooperative learning.
Table 6.1: Suggested Activities for Cooperative Learning
Activity Description Modification

Think-Pair- Think (a) Modification: Timed Pair
Share  Assign a topic. Share
If you want to prevent one
 Students think. person from monopolising
Pair the conversation, set a time
 Students move to assigned limit and students will take
partners: turns talking.
„Please move to your (b) Modification: Rally Robin
partner that we assigned If the discussion is supposed
earlier.‰ to generate a list from the pair
 Students discuss with of students, the students can
partners. take turns writing.
Share (c) Modification: Think-Write-
 Teacher calls on students to Pair-Share
share with class: Slows pace of discussion. All
students write their ideas so
„Student number 4, Rajesh,
the teacher can monitor the
what did you and your
participation.
partner say about how to
best solve word problem?‰ (d) Managing student behaviour
(i) Assign partners to avoid
issues of popularity.
(ii) Change partners to
allow students to
experience each otherÊs
communication styles.
(iii) Require quiet think time.
(iv) Monitor discussions.
(v) Ask students to share
what their partner said
to emphasise that
listening skills are
important.

Numbered  Place students in groups of Modification: Involving the Class

Heads four. (a) After students present their
Together  Number students in each answers, you can call on the
group 1 to 4. entire class to show
agreement or disagreement.
 Present information to
Every student must answer.
students.
„Who agrees with this
 Require students to think
answer? Show me a
about the answer in groups
thumbs-up sign if you
and develop a consensus.
agree or thumbs down if
 Call on number 1, 2, 3 or 4, you think another answer is
and ask any student with correct.‰
that number to raise his or
(b) If you want justification,
her hand.
ask „Why?‰
 Call on one student or
several students for answers.
Jigsaw  Students are part of a Modification: Individual Experts
learning group and research Instead of joining a research team,
team. students work independently and
 Students meet in their become an „expert‰ before
learning group and define sharing with the learning group.
goals. „Each of you will now become an
 Each student from the group expert on your topic. Here are the
joins a separate research resources you can use⁄‰
team to research their part of
the goal.
 Students return to the
learning group to share
results and teach group
members.
 The learning group shares
with the entire class.
Group  Teacher introduces a unit.

Investigation  Students list topics to be
investigated.
 The learning group chooses
a topic.
 The learning group
determines subtopics for
members to investigate.

 Members prepare a report

on subtopic for learning
group.
 Subtopics combined into
information on a topic.
 The learning group presents
their topic to the class.
Cooperative learning has been very successful and has shown to be useful in
developing communication and interpersonal skills. However, consideration must
be made to ensure groups are not too big or too small (three to five students seem
to be ideal). Groups should be as heterogeneous as possible to ensure effective
learning, and activities need to be well planned and designed to ensure everyone
has specific tasks in which the learner can succeed in.
Groups need to be monitored, assisted and supported in the process. In planning

for cooperative activities, sometimes the task cannot be equally distributed to the
members of the group equally. Instead, members of the group need to work
towards a shared goal to achieve the same purpose. This is collaborative learning.
Find out more about collaborative learning and how is it different from
cooperative learning. See the following links:
(a) https://www.teacherswithapps.com/the-differences-in-cooperative-
learning-collaborative-learning/
(b) http://cei.ust.hk/files/public/ccl_related_stories.pdf
(c) https://resourced.prometheanworld.com/collaborative-cooperative-
learning/
(d) https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/collaboration-vs-cooperative-
learning-nea
SELF-CHECK 6.3
(a) What are the main features of cooperative learning?
(b) Suggest how you can design activities using cooperative or

collaborative learning in instruction.

6.1.5 Learning Styles

Another approach to teaching looks at how information processing relates to
personality development as each individual reacts differently to the environment.
Thus, as the learner adapts to the differences in the environment, instruction
should be tailored to the learner. This is because learners develop at different
stages and respond to different stimuli. Thus, teaching strategies may need to
adapt to match the learnerÊs level of development.
While some supporters of learning style argue that pedagogical designs (in
particular for electronic learning environments) should accommodate different
learning paths, Felder (in the context of class teaching) argues that it is sufficient
to incorporate a variety of teaching modes.
The Felder-Silverman model of learning styles produced a model of learning that

has five dimensions which are as follows (see Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2: Five dimensions of Felder-SilvermanÊs model
Based on these dimensions, the following learning styles can be determined

(Felder, 1996, 1993):
(a) What type of information does the student preferentially perceive?
(i) Sensing learners (concrete, practical, oriented towards facts and

procedures); or
(ii) Intuitive learners (conceptual, innovative, oriented towards theories

and meanings).

(b) Through which modality is sensory information most effectively perceived?
(i) Visual learners (prefer visual representations of presented material--

pictures, diagrams, flowcharts); or
(ii) Verbal learners (prefer written and spoken explanations).
(c) With which organisation of information is the student most comfortable?
(i) Inductive learners (prefer presentations that proceed from the specific
to the general); or
(ii) Deductive learners (prefer presentations that go from the general to the
specific).
(d) How does the student prefer to process information?
(i) Active learners (learn by trying things out, working with others); or
(ii) Reflective learners (learn by thinking things through and working

alone).
(e) How does the student progress towards understanding?
(i) Sequential learners (linear, orderly, learn in small incremental steps);

or
(ii) Global learners (holistic, systems thinkers, learn in large leaps).
The index of learning styles was developed to measure the learnersÊ individual
learning styles (Alias, DeWitt & Siraj, 2013). Once, the individualÊs learning style
has been identified, different pedagogical strategies, activities and technology
tools can be used. In Alias, DeWitt & Siraj (2013), several models proposed for
each dimension of learning style.
SELF-CHECK 6.4
(a) Identify the main learning styles and briefly describe each of them.
(b) Suggest how you can design an instructional strategy to

incorporate learning styles.

6.1.6 Indirect Instruction

Indirect instruction is a more student-centred approach of teaching. It involves
student involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or
forming a hypothesis. Laurillard's Conversational framework is a form of
constructivist model.
LaurillardÊs Conversational Framework

LaurillardÊs conversational framework takes on a constructivist approach to
discovery learning principles for designing educational environments. Guided
discovery learning is employed to design an information-rich environment in
which the student has control in discovering knowledge and is scaffolded through
guidance functions for feedback. In her framework, strategies for teaching include
different forms of communication and associated mental activities such as
discussion, adaptation, interaction and reflection.
As depicted in Figure 6.3, Laurillard's framework includes four important

components: teacherÊs concepts, teacherÊs constructed learning environment,
studentÊs concept and students specific actions (related to learning). Having a
conversation between the teacher and the learner enables learners to bridge the
gap between his view and the abstract views of the concepts he has to acquire. This
conversation can take different forms of communication: discussion, adaptation,
interaction and reflection.

Figure 6.3: Laurillard's conversational framework

Source: www.psy.gla.ac.uk
The teacher has his own personal concept on a topic. He then designs activities for
learners to construct their own theories and ideas on the topic. Through
conversation and students specific actions, the teacher is able to determine and
support the student to achieve a specific concept.

Hence, pedagogy in instruction should include the four forms of communication

to encourage the flow in the framework, which are depicted in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4: Four forms of communication in Laurillard's framework
The conversational framework for learning is enabled by technology tools such as

discussion forums, wikis and other Web 2.0 tools. As such, this framework enables
collaboration in the networked environment suitable for online and blended
learning environments.
SELF-CHECK 6.5
(a) What are the main features of LaurillardÊs conversational

framework?
(b) Suggest how you can design activities using LaurillardÊs

conversational framework in instruction.
6.1.7 Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is the process of acquiring new knowledge based
on the recognition of a need to learn. In problem-based learning, small groups of
students are presented with contextual situations and asked to define the problem,
decide what skills and resources are necessary to investigate the problem and then
provide possible solutions (Duch, Groh & Allen, 2001).

Problem-based learning using ill-structured problems provides students with

opportunities to learn in authentic situations similar to what they may encounter
in the real world. Students work together in small groups guided by tutors who
are responsible for ensuring that the learning objectives for each case are
identified.
Savery and Duffy's (1994) model of PBL takes on a constructivist approach where
a cognitive conflict may occur. On reflection of a specific approach to address the
conflict, the learner is able to reorganise his knowledge structures and
accommodate the new knowledge. The following are some of the guidelines that
facilitators of PBL could use:
(a) Facilitator identifies or designs an ill-structured problem or task relevant to

the learner.
(b) Facilitator presents the problem to the learners.
(c) Learners, in their own groups, collaboratively:
(i) Generate working ideas or possible ideas;
(ii) Identify available information related to the problem;
(iii) Identify learning issues;
(iv) Identify resources to look up or consult;
(v) Assign tasks to the various group members;
(vi) Gather information; and
(vii) Propose solution(s).
Steps two through five may be repeated and reviewed as new information
becomes available and redefines the problem.
In employing PBL, the teacher's role changes to being a facilitator of learning. Also,
the learner has the responsibility to be self-directed and self-regulate his own
learning. The essential elements in the design of the problem task drive the inquiry
process in PBL.

SELF-CHECK 6.6
(a) What are the main features of problem-based learning?
(b) Suggest how you can design activities using PBL in instruction.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Teaching/learning strategies may be selected in the design phase when

designing instructional materials. The strategies chosen may be based on
behaviourist, cognitive or constructivist perspective depending on the
learning outcomes. Select one of the instructional startegies to develop a
lesson plan for your class. You may share your answer in the
myINSPIRE forum.
6.2 THINKING SKILLS

In this subtopic, we will look into what thinking skills is and the importance of it
in the education field. We will also examine the different types of thinking skill
that could be applied in the world of education.
6.2.1 What are Thinking Skills?

The statement by Rene Descartes (1596-1650), „I think, therefore I am,‰ expresses
the meaning of thinking for us as human beings. Our brain is the most important
thing we have, but people usually do not bother to think about thinking.
According to De Bono, thinking skills are not about intelligence or high IQ.
„Intelligence is like the horsepower of a car, while thinking is the driving skills
with which an individual drives his or her intelligence‰ (De Bono, 1995).

So, what are thinking skills? Alvinoo, in his 1990 "Glossary of Thinking-Skills
Terms," offers a set of definitions commonly related to thinking skills. These
definitions are not universally accepted but are used by theorists and programme
developers. These include (Cotton, 1991):
(a) Bloom's Taxonomy

This is a popular instructional model developed by prominent educator
Benjamin Bloom. It categorises thinking skills from the concrete to the
abstract ă knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. The last three are considered higher-order thinking skills.
(b) Cognition
This focuses on mental operations involved in thinking; the biological/
neurological processes of the brain that facilitate thought.
(c) Creative Thinking

This is a novel way of seeing or doing things that is characterised by four
components ă fluency (generating many ideas), flexibility (shifting
perspectives easily), originality (conceiving something new) and elaboration
(building on other ideas).
(d) Critical Thinking

The process of determining the authenticity, accuracy or value of something;
characterised by the ability to seek reasons and alternatives, perceive the
total situation and change one's view based on evidence. It is also called
logical thinking and analytical thinking.
(e) Infusion
Integrating thinking skills instruction into the regular curriculum; infused
programmes are commonly contrasted with separate programmes, which
teach thinking skills as a curriculum in itself.
(f) Metacognition
This is the process of planning, assessing and monitoring one's own thinking;
the pinnacle of mental functioning.
(g) Thinking Skills

This is a set of basic and advanced skills and subskills that govern a person's
mental processes. These skills consist of knowledge, dispositions, and
cognitive and metacognitive operations.
(h) Transfer
This is the ability to apply the thinking skills taught separately to any subject.

However, most definitions of thinking skills include four identified components

have been identified, which are creative thinking, decision making, critical
thinking and problem solving (Burke & Williams, 2012).
SELF-CHECK 6.7
What are thinking skills? What are the components of thinking skills?
Post your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
6.2.2 Importance of Thinking Skills

Why do we need thinking skills? In the 21st century, the amount of knowledge is
increasing at an exponential rate. There is so much information available
everywhere in the world. TodayÊs 21st century learner is not concerned with
remembering all the information, as he can access the information anytime. More
importantly, it is to have the ability to build new knowledge. In order to do that,
he needs to be a thinking citizen who is able to create new knowledge. Also, due
to the vast amount of knowledge available, the citizen of today needs to be critical
and able to think and discern whether information that he reads is trustworthy or
not. In order to be a creator of knowledge and a critical user of knowledge, the
learner needs to have thinking skills.
The National Education Blueprint 2013-2025 (Ministry of Education Malaysia,

2013) states that the objective of any education system is to ensure its students are
equipped with the knowledge and skills required for success in life. However, in
this day and age, it is not enough to only focus on acquiring content knowledge,
but also on developing higher-order thinking skills.
Also, every child should learn how to continue acquiring knowledge throughout
their lives by ensuring that love for inquiry and lifelong learning is instilled. The
child should be able to connect different pieces of knowledge and to create new
knowledge. Every child will master a range of important cognitive skills, including
critical thinking, reasoning, creative thinking and innovation. This aspiration of
having students with thinking skills is to produce Malaysian citizens who can
think skilfully in order to achieve the goals of Vision 2020 (The Curriculum
Development Division, Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2008).

SELF-CHECK 6.8
Why is it important to have thinking skills? Have your answer posted in

the myINSPIRE forum.
6.2.3 Categories of Thinking Skills

Although various definitions and types of thinking skills have been proposed in
the world of education, most of them are similar as they encompass these
following concepts (Kizlik, 2008):
(a) Thinking
Thinking refers to the process of creating a structured series of connective
transactions between items of perceived information.
(b) Metacognition
Metacognition refers to awareness and control of one's thinking, including
commitment, attitudes and attention.
(c) Critical Thinking

Critical thinking refers to reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on
deciding what to believe or do. Critical thinkers try to be aware of their own
biases as well as be objective and logical.
(d) Creative Thinking

Refers to the ability to form new combinations of ideas to fulfil a need, or to
get original or otherwise appropriate results by the criteria of the domain in
question.
Kizlik (2008) listed categories of thinking skills based on the functions of

instruction. He stated that instruction is a conglomeration of decisions and
activities that are made and carried out in order to acquire the desired outcomes
for learners. Some of these decisions and activities involve the following:
(a) Activating prior knowledge;
(b) Analysing skills;
(c) Attention;
(d) Attitudes;
(e) Classifying;
(f) Commitment;
(g) Comparing;
(h) Composing;
(i) Comprehending;
(j) Concept formation;
(k) Conditional information;
(l) Core thinking skills;
(m) Creative thinking;
(n) Critical thinking;
(o) Curriculum;
(p) Decision making;
(q) Declarative information; and
(r) Defining problems.
However, the Ministry of Education emphasises higher-order thinking skills

(HOTS) when defining thinking skills. HOTS is defined as the capacity to apply
knowledge, skills and values for reasoning and reflection, solving problems,
decision making, innovation and creativity (MOE, 2014).
In this topic, we will only discuss three of the most important and common
thinking skills ă critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decision
making.

6.2.4 Critical and Creative Thinking

The Curriculum Development Centre of Malaysia (PPK, 2008) noted that critical
thinking skills are required to skilfully assess and analyse data and information.
Making an analysis means breaking up data and information into parts and
studying each part in more detail.
The skilful analysis involves the skills of comparing and contrasting, classifying,
arranging and sequencing, identifying facts and opinions, identifying biased
statements, giving causes, predicting, making inferences and generalisations,
interpreting and summarising.
Creative thinking skills are the skills of generating many, varied and new ideas.
The skills involved in making inventions and innovations may be classified under
creative thinking skills. PPK suggested a model for critical and creative thinking
skills as shown in Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5: Model of critical and creative thinking skills

Based on the model of critical and creative thinking skills as shown in Figure 6.5,
PPK (2008) created two types of thinking skills as depicted in Figure 6.6:
Figure 6.6: Types of thinking skills
6.2.5 Problem Solving

Foshay and Kirkley (2003) stated that for much of the 20th century, educators had
devoted their attention to defining and teaching problem-solving skills. In the
early 1900s, problem-solving was viewed as a mechanical, systematic and often
abstract (decontextualised) set of skills, such as those used to solve riddles or
mathematical equations. These problems often have correct answers based on
logical solutions with a single correct answer (convergent reasoning).
However, under the influence of cognitive learning theories, problem solving

shifted to represent a complex mental activity consisting of a variety of cognitive
skills and actions. Garofalo and Lester (1985) stated that problem solving included
higher-order thinking skills such as "visualisation, association, abstraction,
comprehension, manipulation, reasoning, analysis, synthesis, generalisation ă
each needing to be managed and coordinated."

Cognitive research in the last 20 years has led to a different model of problem
solving. Today, we know problem solving includes a complex set of cognitive,
behavioural and attitudinal components (Foshay and Kirkley, 2003). In 1983,
Mayer defined problem solving as a multiple-step process where the problem
solver must find relationships between past experiences (schema) and the problem
at hand and then act upon a solution. Mayer suggested three characteristics of
problem solving which are as follows:
(a) Problem solving is cognitive but is inferred from behaviour;
(b) Problem solving results in behaviour that leads to a solution; and
(c) Problem solving is a process that involves manipulation of or operations on

previous knowledge (Funkhouser and Dennis, 1992).
Figure 6.7 shows a problem-solving model which is frequently used, according to

Foshay and Kirkley (2003):
Figure 6.7: Problem-solving model
6.2.6 Decision Making

According to the Oxford Dictionary (2004), decision is „a choice or judgement that
a person makes after thinking and talking about what is the best thing to do; and
decision-making is the process of deciding about something important especially
in a group of people or in an organisation.‰
So, when do we need to make a decision? Some conditions must exist before we
could claim that a decision is required. First, there must be two or more possible
consequences of a taken action. Secondly, there are values added as the result of
the taken action. Thirdly, there are variations in the effectiveness of the taken
action.

How to make a good decision? Decision-making consists of complicated stages

owing to its characteristic as a process leading to an event. Since decision-making
is a process, we must be clear on what is the problem. Then, we need to list all
possible alternatives and ask ourselves what we are going to do. Then, we must
state the factors that we have to weigh in making the decision. There are many
types of frameworks or processes to simplify the process of making decisions. The
most common decision-making process consists of five stages, as presented in
Figure 6.8:
Figure 6.8: Decision-making process
SELF-CHECK 6.9
Describe the components of thinking skills. Post your answer in the

myINSPIRE forum.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Discuss what are thinking skills. How can you cultivate higher-order
thinking among your students? Share your answer with your
coursemate in the next tutorial session.

6.3 THINKING TOOLS

Thinking tools are used to assist learners in organising their thinking. There is a
significant relationship between the type of tool and the way that a skill, concept,
process or disposition is best learned. In this module, we will discuss three types
of thinking tools ă mind map, graphic organiser and CoRT I.
6.3.1 Mind Map

A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks or other items
linked to and arranged radially around a central key word or idea. It is used to
generate, visualise, structure and classify ideas, and as an aid in studying,
organisation, problem-solving, decision making and writing (Wikipedia, 2008).
Basically, a mind map is an image-centred diagram that represents semantic or

other connections between portions of information. According to Buzan (2002), a
mind map is the ultimate organisational thinking tool. Figure 6.9 shows the uses
and users of a mind map. It is usually applied for learning, brainstorming,
memory, visual thinking and problem solving. The target group of mind map
users includes educators, engineers, psychologists and people in general.
Figure 6.9: Uses and users of mind map
According to Wikipedia (2008), some of the earliest mind maps were developed
by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker in the third century. He graphically
visualised the concept categories of Aristotle. Ramon Llull a well-known Spanish
philosopher also used structures of the mind map form in his works. However, it
was Tony Buzan a famous British author in psychology who popularised the use
of mind maps.

The characteristics of a mind map are as shown in Figure 6.10.
Figure 6.10: Characteristics of a mind map
SELF-CHECK 6.10
In the myINSPIRE forum, explain how can mind maps be used for
improving thinking skills.
Roles of Mind Map

According to Buzan (2002), a mind map will:
(a) Give an overview of a large subject or area;
(b) Enable you to plan routes or to make choices and will let you know where
you are going and where you have been;
(c) Gather large amounts of data in one place;
(d) Encourage problem solving by allowing you to see new creative pathways;
and
(e) Be enjoyable to look at, read, muse over and remember.

According to Buzan (2002), those who use mind maps will be more creative and
be able to save time, solve problems, concentrate, organise and clarify their
thinking. They will remember better, study faster and more efficiently, thereby
passing exams with good grades. In short, mind maps make studying a breeze.
Mind maps also enable people to see the whole picture, plan, communicate,
survive and save trees (by reducing the use of paper). Simply, a mind map is used
as a (see Figure 6.11):
Figure 6.11: Functions of a mind map

How to Create Your Own Mind Map

According to Buzan (2002), there are four important elements to creating a mind
map. They are as depicted in Figure 6.12:
Figure 6.12: Four elements to create a mind map
Buzan (2002) suggests using the following foundation structures for mind
mapping:
(a) Start in the centre with an image of the topic, using at least three colours;
(b) Use images, symbols, codes and dimensions throughout the mind map;
(c) Select keywords and print using upper or lower case letters;
(d) Each word/ image must be alone and sit in its line;
(e) The lines must be connected, starting from the central image. The central
lines should be thicker, organic and flowing, becoming thinner as they
radiate out from the centre;
(f) Make the lines the same length as the word/ image;
(g) Use colours ă your own code ă throughout the mind map;
(h) Develop your own personal style of mind mapping;
(i) Use emphasis and show associations in your mind map; and
(j) Keep the mind map clear by using radial hierarchy, numerical order or
outlines to embrace your branches.

The following is a simple way to do a mind map:
(a) Write the title in the centre of the paper. Form a unique shape;
(b) Draw a few lines that match the title and write the important subtitle on the
drawing lines; and
(c) Create a few characters in categories at the end of each line.
Figure 6.13 is an example of mind maps on types of television programmes:
Figure 6.13: Mind map on types of television programmes
Currently, there are technology tools which can be used for creating your own
mind maps such as Mindmister (https://www.mindmeister.com), Mind Mup2
(https://www.mindmup.com/) and Coggle (https://coggle.it/).

6.3.2 Graphic Organiser

Graphic tools and organisers help students to organise their ideas and present
information. They also help students to clarify their thinking and to process,
organise and prioritise information. Visual organisation of information supports
students by revealing patterns and relationships. Consequently, they can
understand concepts by describing and remembering the relationships between
different ideas and concepts (LTAG, 2006).
Graphic organisers can help to motivate, increase recall, assist understanding,

create interest, combat boredom and organise thoughts. So, what is a graphic
organiser? According to Gotoscience.com (2008), a graphic organiser is a:
(a) Visual representation of knowledge;
(b) Semantic map;
(c) Structured overview;
(d) Concept map;
(e) Semantic organiser;
(f) Story map;
(g) Scaffolding;
(h) Way of structuring information into organisational patterns;
(i) Way to facilitate pre-reading, post-reading, pre-writing, revising, discussing

and reasoning;
(j) Way to promote active learning;
(k) Highly effective tool for improving social interaction and collaboration;
(l) Framework for what is to be learned; and
(m) Way to access studentsÊ previous experience and knowledge.
SELF-CHECK 6.11
How are graphic organisers different from mind maps? How can
graphic organisers be used for improving thinking skills? Discuss this
with your coursemate in the myINSPIRE forum.

Guidelines to Help Students in Creating Graphic Organisers

Gotoscience.com (2008) provides some guidelines to help students in creating
graphic organisers. These guidelines are as follows:
(a) Discuss with students what graphic organisers are and how to use them;
(b) Show students examples and non-examples of graphic organisers;
(c) Use a completed graphic organiser to teach a lesson or fill in graphic

organisers while teaching a lesson;
(d) Let students help the teacher fill in the blank on the overhead projector;
(e) Give students a partially completed graphic organiser. The teacher has the
same graphic organiser on the overhead. Teacher and students fill in together
or students may fill in by working in small groups or individually;
(f) Students are given a blank graphic organiser to fill in by working in small
groups or individually;
(g) Give students opportunities to create their own graphic organiser. Let them
design their own format. They may work individually or in small groups;
and
(h) Let students present their graphic organiser to the class to teach a mini-lesson
or to explain why they chose a particular format.

Types of Graphic Organisers

There are many types of graphic organisers used to illustrate a studentÊs or class'
prior knowledge about a topic or section of text, such as a star, a tree, a Venn
diagram or a flowchart. The process of converting a mass of data, information or
ideas into a graphic map gives the student an increased understanding and insight
into a topic. Thus, in choosing a graphic organiser, we must know the functions of
each type of organiser. Table 6.3 shows some examples of graphic organisers and
their functions.
Table 6.3: Examples of Graphic Organisers
Comparing Decision
Describing Classifying Sequencing Causal
Contrasting Making
Brainstormin Double Cell Hierarchy Squirrels
g Web Diagram Diagram Web
Money Web Research
Webbing Cycle
Cluster
Diagram
Desktop
Folder
System
Concept Map Simile ă
School is ⁄
Concept
Mapping
Venn KWHL Thinking
Venn grids
Matrix
Expanded
Comparison
Matrix
Desktop Linear
Folder String
Flow Chart System Expanded
Linear
String
Domino
Effect
Source: http://www.graphic.org/goindex.html

Besides knowing the functions of each type of graphic organiser, we need to

identify our purpose or the skills we want our students to develop. Generally,
graphic organisers could be used to develop the following skills (see Figure 6.14):
Figure 6.14: Skills developed through graphic organisers
The daily practice of the majority of teachers during the teaching and learning
process is to use a verbal organiser. A verbal organiser involves putting key
information in text form on a piece of paper. The difference between a verbal
organiser and a graphic organiser is that a verbal organiser will state the
information in text form or sentences, while a graphic organiser presents
information in terms of figures with some keywords. Figure 6.15 shows how to
apply a verbal organiser and a graphic organiser for comparisons.

Figure 6.15: Graphic and verbal organisers for comparisons
Figure 6.16 shows how a verbal organiser and a graphic organiser have been
applied for categorisation.
Figure 6.16: Graphics and verbal organisers for categorisation

The Ministry of Education has implemented the i-Think programme for all
schools. In this programme, specific i-Think mind maps have been employed to
encourage higher-order thinking. The i-Think mind maps include the following
(see Figure 6.17).
Figure 6.17: i-Think mind maps

ACTIVITY 6.3
Compare the i-Think maps with the different types of graphic organisers
and their functions. Do you find any maps which has similar functions?
How are graphic organisers similiar or different to the i-Think mind

maps? Post your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
6.3.3 Socratic Questioning

Effective questioning is considered a vital component of adult education and an
integral part of teaching in the medical profession. According to UAB (2008)
questioning is used for the following purposes (see Figure 6.18):
Figure 6.18: The purpose of questioning

Source: www.uab.edu

Figure 6.19 depicts the process of skilful questioning includes (UAB, 2008):
Figure 6.19: The process of skilful questioning

Source: www.uab.edu
Socratic questioning has been used to develop critical thinking. By asking the right
questions, learners are encouraged to reflect, assess their understanding and make
a judgement. As depicted in Figure 6.20, there are six types of Socratic questions
as follows:
Figure 6.20: Six types of Socratic questions

Source: http://www.umich.edu/~elements/fogler&gurmen/html/probsolv/strategy/
cthinking.htm
Asking the right question can ensure that one probes deeper into one's
understanding and critical thinking.
SELF-CHECK 6.12
How can questioning be used for improving higher-order thinking

skills?
ACTIVITY 6.4
Mind maps, graphic organisers and lateral thinking are powerful

thinking tools. Select one of these tools for the following:
(a) Discuss how this thinking tool can help in the thinking process.
(b) Apply this thinking tools to discuss how thinking skills can be
improved using tools such as a mind map.
Ć Some teaching strategies are based on behaviourist while others may be based
on constructivist principles.
Ć The direct instruction model is based on behaviourist principles while

cooperative learning is based on social learning model.
Ć LaurillardÊs conversational framework and problem-based learning are

constructivist teaching strategies.
Ć The learning styles approach is a combination of information processing and

social learning theories.
Ć This topic discusses the various definition, importance and categories of

thinking skills.
Ć There are three most important thinking skills discussed in this topic ă critical
and creative thinking, problem-solving and decision making.
Ć The most common decision-making methods consist of five stages ă define,

analyse, identify alternatives, choose and implement.
Ć There are three types of thinking tools discussed in the topic ă mind map,
graphic organiser and Socratic questioning.
Cooperative learning LaurillardÊs conversational framework

Critical and creative thinking Mind map
Decision-making Problem-based learning
Direct instruction Problem-solving
Felder-Silverman Learning Styles Socratic questioning techniques
Graphic organiser Verbal organiser
Higher-order thinking
Armstrong, S. (2013). The 10 most important teaching strategies. Retrieved from

www.innovatemyschool.com/ideas/the-10-most-powerful-teaching-strategies
Bereiter, C., & Engelmann S. (1966). Teaching disadvantaged children in the

preschool. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Burke, L. A., &. Williams, J. M. (2012). Two thinking skills assessment approaches:
„Assessment of PupilsÊ Thinking Skills‰ and „Individual Thinking Skills
Assessments‰. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 7, 62ă68.
Buzan, T. (2002). How to mind map: The ultimate thinking tool that will change
your life. London, United Kingdom: Thorson.
Duch B. J., Groh S. E., & Allen, D. E. (2001). Why problem-based learning? A case
study of institutional change in undergraduate education. In B. Duch, S.
Groh, & D. Allen (Eds.). The power of problem-based learning. Sterling, VA:
Stylus.
Foshay, R., & Kirkley, J. (2003). Principles for teaching problem solving. Technical
Paper 4, PLATO Learning, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.
plato.com/downloads/ papers/paper_04.pdf.

Funkhouser, C., & Dennis, J. (1992). The effects of problem-solving software on

problem-solving ability. Journal of Research on Computing in
Education, 24 (3), 338-347.
Garofalo, J., & Lester, F. K. (1985). Metacognition, cognitive monitoring, and

mathematical performance. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education,
16, 163ă176.
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2000). Model of teaching (6th ed.) Needham
Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE) (2013). Malaysia education blueprint 2013-

2025. Putrajaya, Malaysia: MOE
Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE) (2014). Elemen KBAT dalam kurikulum.

Putrajaya, Malaysia: MOE.
Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative Learning: Theory, research and practice.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Topic  Components of
Instruction
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify various definitions of learning outcomes;
2. Identify the characteristics and alternative names of learning
outcomes;
3. Discuss the functions of learning outcomes;
4. Identify the domains of learning outcomes; and
5. Develop effective learning outcomes.
 INTRODUCTION
Why do we need to state learning outcomes before implementing a lesson? In any
instruction that is implemented, whether online or face to face, there can be many
learning outcomes. Some of these learning outcomes are required and necessary
for learning a topic, while others include learning of unintended content or skills.
For example, when an instructor asks the class to work in groups to develop a new
design for a three-legged table, learners have to work together and use their
knowledge of balance, stability and concepts such as centre of gravity to work on
the design.
At the same time, the learners would acquire communication, decision-making

and problem-solving skills as well as ability to work as a team, which may be the
unintended learning outcome of the instructor. So why is there a need to state the
learning outcomes? Learning outcomes enable the required competencies to be
achieved to be stated in a clear manner.

TOPIC 7 COMPONENTS OF INSTRUCTION  139
There seems to be a relationship between having good learning outcomes and

better quality instruction. Learning outcomes enable the instructor to define the
scope of the lesson and also to plan the strategies, resources and activities better,
to suit these learning outcomes. In addition, the assessment will also be based on
the learning outcomes of the lesson, to measure how it can be achieved. Hence,
having good learning outcomes will lead to better quality learning and instruction.
It is a necessity for every teacher to have clearly defined learning outcomes for
each lesson.
In this topic, we will discuss one of the important components of instruction which
is the learning outcome. This topic will identify the various definitions of learning
outcomes and their characteristics. The different names related to learning
outcomes are also discussed. The functions and the domains of learning outcomes
will also be highlighted in this topic. Finally, we will look at ways to develop
effective learning outcomes based on a real classroom situation.
7.1 DEFINITIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Learning outcomes have been defined in different ways. Prominent figures in this
field of study have defined learning outcomes as follows (see Table 7.1):
Table 7.1: Definitions of Learning Outcomes
Figures Definition
Popham, et al. (1969) Intended change brought about in a learner.
Goodlad, in Popham et al. A statement of what students ought to be able to do
(1969) as a consequence of instruction.
Bloom (1956) Explicit formulations of ways in which students are
expected to be changed by the education process.
Mager (1962) What the students should be able to do at the end
of a learning period that they could not do
beforehand.
Mager (1975) An objective is a description of a performance you
want learners to be able to exhibit before you
consider them competent. An objective describes an
intended result of instruction, rather than the
process of instruction itself.
Gallagher and Smith (1989) Properly constructed education outcomes represent
relatively specific statements about what students
should be able to do following instruction.

140  TOPIC 7 COMPONENTS OF INSTRUCTION
Hartel & Foegeding (2004) A very specific statement that describes exactly
what a student will be able to do in some
measurable way. A competency may have several
specific learning outcomes so a course typically
contains more outcomes than competencies.
Neary (2002) When discussing the area of teaching for
competence the challenge for the teacher is to
„select appropriate learning outcomes which will
lead to achieving the competencies, specify
evaluation indicators and develop a functional
delivery system‰.
The characteristics of effective outcomes as described by Westberg and Jason

(1993) in Collaborative Clinical Education are as depicted in Figure 7.1:
Figure 7.1: Characteristics of effective outcomes

Source: Westberg and Jason (1993)

7.1.1 Alternative Names of Learning Outcomes

In educational psychology, learning is defined as a "change in behaviour." This
change in behaviour is what a student is able to do or to demonstrate as the
outcome of the process. Hence, learning is best measured when the learning
outcomes are explicitly expressed.
Most commonly, learning outcomes have been used with learning objectives. The
Eberly Center: Teaching Excellence & Educational Innovation in Carnegie Mellon
University (2016) uses learning outcomes and learning objectives interchangeably.
On the other hand, Hartel and Foegeding (2004) differentiate these terms and
specify that objectives are related to the goals of a course and a programme, and
not the competency as the outcome of the course. They define objective as „A very
general statement about the larger goals of the course or programme.‰ Hartel and
Foegeding (2004) also believe that outcomes differ from objectives as outcomes
make the learning measurable. In the University of Toronto (2018), the learning
outcomes focus on what the student should know and should realistically be able
to do at the end of the course.
However, many instructional design models use objectives to specify the learning
to be achieved (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2015; Morrison, Ross, Kalman & Kemp, 2011).
In terms of objective itself the models have many variations: terminal objective,
performance objective and behavioural objective. In some cases, terminal objective
may reflect the goal in learning (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2015), and hence, it also
refers to the goal or aim of the learning. Other terms which have been used in a
similar way to mean learning outcomes, include the following (see Figure 7.2):

Figure 7.2: Alternative terms of learning outcomes

Source: Florida State University (2008)
SELF-CHECK 7.1
What is a learning outcome? How many alternative names have you

seen being used for learning outcome? Discuss your answer in the
myINSPIRE forum.

7.2 PURPOSES AND FUNCTIONS OF

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Learning outcomes attempt to make the expectations of learning visible to the
learners, instructors and administrators. In instructional design, the final outcome
of learning is determined by the learning outcomes specified, and the whole design
of the course or unit will be based on the required outcome.
The Eberly Center: Teaching Excellence & Educational Innovation in Carnegie

Mellon University (2016) attempts to promote the value of having learning
outcomes for the courses. As shown in Figure 7.3, there are five broad functions of
having learning outcomes that focus on studentsÊ learning.
Figure 7.3: Five broad functions of having learning outcomes
Now, let us look at each of the five functions.
(a) Enable Students to Determine the Type of Knowledge Required

Firstly, stating the learning outcomes enable students to determine the type
of knowledge required. Stating the list of topics to be covered does not make
the outcomes obvious. Without stating the learning outcomes, students may
be interpreting that lower levels of knowledge than what the instructor
requires is needed.

(b) Enable Students to Practise the „Right‰ Skills

Secondly, in Carnegie Mellon University (2016), when the learning outcomes
are stated, this ensures that students are practising the „right‰ skills. Based
on research, learning and performance are best fostered when studentsÊ
learning outcomes which target an appropriate level relative to studentsÊ
current performance are specified. In order to be beneficial, skills specific to
the practice rather than generic practices, should be done.
(c) Enable Students to Gauge How Much Independent Work is Required

Thirdly, when the learning outcomes are specified, the students are able to
gauge how much independent work is required in a course and how much
guidance will be provided in the courses in Carnegie Mellon University
(2016). While education aims to produce independent, self-directed learners,
this process is a developmental process. It begins with acquiring basic
content knowledge and disciplinary skills through direct instruction, and
evolve to the level which requires greater creativity, risk-taking and
autonomy. Hence, learning outcomes for novice learners will differ from
advanced learners, who may benefit when given more autonomy and
opportunities for exploration.
Similarly, in Carnegie Mellon University (2016), learning outcomes can help

to foster creativity. Artistic excellence involves both technical proficiency and
creative expression. Technical proficiency is necessary for creative
expression, yet expression is not reducible to technique. Therefore,
instructors need to have a long-term goal of developing creative expression
to define outcomes for novice and intermediate students that focus on
building technical skills and knowledge, while defining objectives for
advanced students that emphasise creativity and innovation. High-level
objectives set a high and consistent standard without limiting the creativity
with which students go about meeting it. So, for example, while novice dance
students might be expected to „recognise and reproduce particular dance
styles,‰ more advanced students could reasonably be expected to „interpret
and embody those styles according to their own vision‰.
(d) Enable Students to Transfer Learning to Different Situations

Fourthly, in Carnegie Mellon University, (2016) having learning outcomes
will enable students to transfer learning to different situations. Transfer is a
significant challenge for students to achieve. However, most research have
found that transfer does not occur often nor automatically, and the more
dissimilar the learning and transfer contexts, the less likely successful
transfer will occur. Hence, learning outcomes in a similar context can assist
learning.

(e) Assist in Building StudentsÊ Metacognitive Skills

Finally, having learning outcomes assist students in building their
metacognitive skills. In Carnegie Mellon University (2016), metacognition
refers to the process of reflecting on oneÊs thinking. To become self-directed
learners, students must learn to assess the requirements of the task (the
learning outcomes), be able to evaluate their own knowledge and skills, plan
their approach, monitor their progress and adjust their strategies as needed.
Unfortunately, Carnegie Mellon University (2016) states that students are

remarkably poor at assessing their own skills and knowledge and one of the
major intellectual challenges students face upon entering college is managing
their own learning. Self-monitoring is an important skill and students who
naturally monitor their own progress and try to explain to themselves what
they are learning along the way generally show greater learning gains as
compared to students who engage less often in self-monitoring and self-
explanation activities.
Carnegie Mellon University (2016) states that studies show that experts have
greater domain knowledge and solid representations of that knowledge.
However, instructional strategies enable novicesÊ to overcome the difficulty
in self-monitoring, giving students clear goals to which they can compare
their current performance. Knowing the goals or outcomes of a course helps
students monitor their own progress in relation to it, there is a strong case to
be made for the importance of learning objectives in helping students gain
metacognitive ability.
According to Florida State University, the purposes and functions of learning

outcomes are to:
(a) Guide teachers in designing instruction;
(b) Guide teachers in evaluation/test design (e.g. written tests, OSCE);
(c) Guide learners in learning focus;
(d) Guide learner in self-assessment;
(e) Inform others about what we value;
(f) Cause careful thinking on what is to be accomplished through instruction;
(g) Help relationships between teachers and learners because with explicit
outcomes, the instructor is viewed in a less adversarial role because students
are not forced to guess what is to be learned.
(h) Enhance possibility of creating focused independent learning material;

(i) Make teaching more directed and organised;
(j) Communicate to colleagues what you are teaching, thus enhancing

collaboration and teamwork with colleagues.
(k) Help facilitate situations in which we want students to demonstrate

competency (The outcomes can be specified in such a way as to specify
competency);
(l) Aid in programme evaluation;
(m) Encourage teachers to think carefully about what is important;
(n) Avoid unnecessary repetitions in teaching;
(o) Bridge the gap between vague but relevant and important institutional goals
and actual instruction;
(p) Provide visibility and accountability of decisions made by teachers and

learners;
(q) Provide models for the creation of outcomes by students;
(r) Help students to make decisions regarding prioritising; and
(s) Provide feedback to learners as outcomes are accomplished.
The University of Toronto (2018) specifies the purpose and function of learning
outcomes for students, instructors, institutions and administrators. According to
University of Toronto (2018), students are able to use learning outcomes to focus
on application of knowledge and skills learned in a course and on the integration
of these knowledge and skills with other areas of their lives so as to be more
connected to their learning. In addition, this emphasis on integration and
generalisable skills enables students to draw connections between courses, and
between coursework and other kinds of knowledge, hence, enhancing student
engagement. Finally, it enables the student to understand the conditions and goals
of their assessment.
For instructors, the University of Toronto (2018) states that the process of
developing learning outcomes allows the instructors to reflect on the content of
the course in the context of its potential applications. In this way, the context of
learning will always be emphasised. In addition, learning outcomes enable
evaluation to be determined as methods of assessment and the standards for the
success of the course will be evaluated can be set.

As for institutions and administrators, the University of Toronto (2018) states that
it is important to set learning outcomes to determine what is important for
students to know and the relation of the course to others in the context of future
coursework and the curriculum as a whole. This enables a coherent curriculum to
be set and helps to ensure that students are prepared for future work and learning.
This can also enhance student engagement and uncovering opportunities for
interdisciplinary work. Further, the learning outcomes provide structures from
which courses and programmes can be evaluated and this can be used to identify
gaps or overlap in programme offerings, and clarify instructional, programmatic
and institutional priorities.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
What is the purpose of stating learning outcomes? Discuss.
7.3 ELEMENTS OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

A learning outcome is a statement describing a competency or performance
capability to be acquired by the learner (Arreola, 1998). It states exactly what the
student will be able to do in a measurable way (Hartel & Foegeding, 2004).
Hence, a learning outcome will have the following characteristics. It will have a
verb, or the behaviour that identifies the action the student should be able to
perform, the conditions under which the student should demonstrate mastery, and
a measurable criteria to show the degree the learning outcome should be achieved.
Finally, it should also mention who the learners are.
There are four elements essential to ensuring writing of effective learning

outcomes have been referred to the ABCD of writing learning outcomes and
objectives (see Table 7.1). The following example will showcase how the elements
are applied:
Example:
„At the end of this lesson, Form 1 Science students will be able to measure the
length of an object with the aid of a ruler correctly.‰

Table 7.1: The ABCD of Writing Learning Outcomes and Objectives
Element Description
Audience: Form 1 An outcome must mention the target group of learners.
Science students
Behaviour: An outcome must describe the competency to be learned in
Measure the length performance terms. The choice of a verb is all important here.
of an object Frequently used terms such as „know,‰ „understand,‰ „grasp‰
and „appreciate‰ do not meet this requirement. If the verb used
in stating an outcome identifies observable student behaviour,
then the basis for a clear statement is established. In addition, the
type or level of learning must be identified for a description of the
types of learning and their levels.
Condition: With An outcome should describe the conditions under which the
ruler learner will be expected to perform in the evaluation situation.
What tools, references, or other aids will be provided or denied
should be made clear.
Degree/ Criterion An outcome should make clear how well a learner must perform
(implied): Measure in order to be judged adequate. This can be done with a statement
the length of an indicating a degree of accuracy, a quantity or proportion of
object correctly correct responses or the like.
Source: Arreola (1998)
ACTIVITY 7.1
Select a topic in your subject area. Write three learning outcomes using
the ABCD format. See the example earlier. Were you able to write the
learning outcomes easily? Discuss your findings with your coursemates
on myINSPIRE.
7.4 THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING

OUTCOMES
Learning outcomes can be classified into three domains which are cognitive,
affective and psychomotor (Gagne, 1985). When you are planning to write learning
outcomes, you need to do an instructional analysis to identify the skills and
knowledge that should be included in the instruction (Dick et al., 2015). In
systematic instructional design, the analysis of the tasks to achieve the
instructional outcomes is done, rather than determining the topic (Dick et al.,
2015). An analysis of what needed to be included for instruction to achieve the
learning outcomes include, determining the domain of learning whether cognitive,
psychomotor or affective, and subsequently, determining the level of instruction

required for the domain. For this purpose, BloomÊs taxonomy of learning and other
relevant authorsÊ work are used to determine the levels of learning. They are as
shown in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: BloomÊs Taxonomy of Learning and Other Relevant AuthorsÊ Work
Domain Description Example

Cognitive: Mental  Refers to intellectual learning and The student will be able
skills (Knowledge) problem solving. to explain the
 Cognitive levels of learning characteristics and
include: knowledge, various other names of
comprehension, application, learning outcome.
analysis, synthesis and
evaluation.
Affective: Growth  Refers to emotions and value The student will
in feelings or system of a person. demonstrate
emotional areas  Affective levels of learning commitment to a group
(Attitude) include: receiving, responding, project through
valuing, organising and cooperation among the
characterising by a value. group members by
submitting the project
report on time.
Psychomotor:  Refers to physical movement The student will be able
Manual or physical characteristics and motor skill to use a scientific
skills (Skills) capabilities that involve calculator to solve
behaviours requiring certain trigonometric
levels of physical dexterity and problems.
coordination.
 These skills are developed
through repetitive practice and
measured in terms of speed,
precision, distance, procedures or
execution techniques.
Psychomotor levels include:
perception, set, guided response,
mechanism, complex overt
response, adaptation and
origination.

7.4.1 Cognitive Domain

Bloom's taxonomy cognitive domain consists of six learning levels (see Figure 7.4).
The cognitive domain is focused on intellect and knowledge development by
enhancing studentsÊ thinking.
Figure 7.4: Six learning levels in Bloom's taxonomy cognitive domain

Source: Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwol (1956)
Now, let us look into each of the six learning levels in cognitive domain.
(a) Knowledge represents the lowest level of cognitive learning. This level
involves the recall of data and information. Examples of behaviour to denote
this level are: to define, to list, to state and to identify. According to Bloom
et al. (1956), this level is for recalling facts or statistics; recalling a process,
rule or definition; and quoting a law or procedure.
(b) Comprehension is the next level of cognitive learning. It involves

understanding the meaning, translating and interpreting the instructions
and problems, and to restate a problem in oneÊs own words. Examples of
behaviour at this level are to comprehend, convert, distinguish, explain,
interpret, summarise and translate. According to Bloom et al. (1956),
examples of activities for training to achieve this level are ă explain or

interpret the meaning of a given scenario or statement; suggest a treatment,
reaction or solution to a given problem; and give examples or metaphors.
(c) Application is the level of cognitive learning which refers to the application
of concepts that have been learnt in a new situation. This may involve
applying what has been learnt in the classroom to new situations. Examples
of behaviour for this level are: to calculate, to compute, to apply, to
manipulate, to modify, and to operate. According to Bloom et al. (1956),
examples of activities for training to achieve this level are ă put a theory into
practice; demonstrate a situation; solve a problem; and manage an activity.
(d) Analysis is the level of cognitive learning with the ability to differentiate
between materials and concepts into component parts so that the
relationships between the parts can be understood. Examples of behaviour
for this level are: to compare, to categorise, to analyse, to distinguish, and to
illustrate. According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of activities for training
to achieve this level are ă identify constituent parts and functions of a process
or concept; de-construct a methodology or process; make qualitative
assessment of elements, relationships, values and effects; and measure
requirements or needs.
(e) Synthesis is the level of cognitive learning to build a structure or pattern of

diverse elements, which is the ability to integrate new and bigger parts from
small parts. This ability needs students to analyse the elements of a piece of
information and identify the relationship between each element. From here,
the students will be able to detect the explicit and implicit structures that
form the relationship between each element, put the parts together to form a
whole, and create a new meaning or structure. Examples of behaviour for
this level are: to create, to design, to develop and to relate. According to
Bloom et al. (1956), examples of activities for training to achieve this level are
ă develop plans or procedures; design solutions; integrate methods,
resources, ideas or parts; create teams or new approaches; and write
protocols or contingencies.
(f) Evaluation is the highest level in the cognitive domain. In this level, one
needs to have the ability to make judgement based on rational criteria.
Examples of behaviour for this level are: to compare, to conclude, to contrast,
to explain, to interpret, to summarise and to justify. According to Bloom et
al. (1956), examples of activities to be trained to achieve this level are ă review
strategic options or plans in terms of efficacy, return on investment or cost-
effectiveness, and practicability; assess sustainability; perform SWOT
analysis in relation to alternatives; produce financial justification for a
proposition or venture; calculate the effects of a plan or strategy; and perform
a detailed cost risk analysis with recommendations and justifications.
7.4.2 Affective Domain

The second domain in Bloom's Taxonomy is the affective domain. The affective
domain is focused on feelings and emotions to shape the studentsÊ attitudes. This
domain comprises five levels (see Figure 7.5).
Figure 7.5: Five levels of affective domain

Source: Clark (2015); Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia (1973)
Now, let us look into each of the five levels of affective domain.
(a) Receiving the phenomena is a level where students are given the awareness
and are willing to hear and accept the new experience. Examples of
behaviour for this level are: to ask, to follow, to pay attention, to listen and
to acknowledge. Examples of activities for training at this level are ă listen
to teacher or trainer with respect; take interest in session or learning
experience; take notes; make time for learning experience; and participate
passively.
(b) Responding to the phenomena means students actively participate, as well

as attend and react to a phenomenon. Learning outcomes would be related
to willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding. Examples of
behaviour for this level are: to answer, to assist, to conform, to clarify and to
present. Examples of activities for training at this level are ă participate
actively in group discussion; active participation in activity; interest in
outcomes; enthusiasm for action; question and probe ideas; and suggest
interpretation.

(c) Valuing is the next level where students attach a value or a worth to an object,
phenomena or behaviour which may range from simple acceptance to more
complex commitment. Valuing is the internalisation of a set of values, which
are expressed in the learnersÊ behaviour. Examples of behaviour for this level
are: to justify, to appreciate, to demonstrate, to invite, to propose, to respect
and to share. Examples of activities for training at this level are ă
demonstrating belief in the democratic process, is sensitive towards cultural
differences, able to propose a plan to solve a problem and carry through with
commitment; and accept or commit to a particular stance or action.
(d) Organisation is the level where students are able to organise and prioritise
values, hence developing their own value system. Examples of the behaviour
for this level are: to develop, to formulate, to relate, and to compare.
Examples of activities for training at this level are to qualify and quantify
personal views, accept professional ethical standards, creates a plan in
harmony with abilities, interest and beliefs as well as prioritises time
effectively to meet needs of the organisation, family and self.
(e) Internalises values or characterisation means the student has a value system
that controls his behaviour, and the behaviour is pervasive, consistent,
predictable and characteristic of the learner as he adopts a belief system and
philosophy in his behaviour. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to act,
to discriminate, to solve, to display and to perform. Examples of activities
for training at this level are ă showing self-reliance when working
independently; cooperates in group activities, displays professional
commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis, and behave consistently with
the personal values set.
7.4.3 Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain emphasises on skills development relating to physical
movement, coordination and use of motor skills. It may cover skills on the use of
technology such as operating high-technology equipment, or social tasks such as
dancing (Clark, 2015). There are several ways for categorising the skills in this
domain. One of the well-used categories are DaveÊs psychomotor domain model
(Clark, 2015). As depicted in Figure 7.6, this domain consists of five levels.

Figure 7.6: Psychomotor domain model

Source: Dave (1970)
Now, let us look at each of the five levels of the psychomotor domain.
(a) Imitation is the level where students are able to observe, pattern, and
replicate the action of another. Examples of the behaviour for this level are:
to follow, to repeat, to mimic, and to reproduce. Examples of activities for
training to achieve this level are ă copying a work of art, performing a skill
while observing a demonstration.
(b) Manipulation means being able to reproduce actions by memory or

following instruction. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to build, to
execute, to implement and to perform. Examples of activities for training to
achieve this level are ă carry out a task after written or verbal instruction is
given.
(c) Precision is the ability to execute a skill with a high degree of precision to
solve problems. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to calibrate, to
master, to complete and to demonstrate. Examples of activities for training
are working and reworking for something to achieve precision, performing
a task or activity with expertise and high quality without assistance or
instruction; and ability to demonstrate an activity to other novice learners.
(d) Articulation means to coordinate and adapt a series of action to achieve

harmony and internal consistency. Examples of behaviour for this level are
to adapt, to construct, to customise, to combine and to modify. Examples of
activities for training at this level are ă combining a series of skills to produce
a video, combining a series of skills or activities to develop methods to meet

a new requirement.
(e) Naturalisation means to master a high level performance activity until it

becomes natural, or unconscious mastery, without requiring any thinking of
the activity, as well as related skills. Examples of behaviour for this level are:
to create, to invent, to design and to manage. Examples of activities to be
trained to achieve this level are to cycle a bicycle, to play a violin and to hit a
golf ball; all of which have a definite aim, approach and strategy to meet the
strategic needs.
In instructional design, there are five categories of learning as determined by

Gagne (1985) (Dick et al., 2015). The five categories of learning are as shown in
Figure 7.7, all of which fall under the three domains.
Figure 7.7: The five categories of learning in ID

Source: Gagne (1985)
The intellectual skills, cognitive strategy and verbal information are in the
cognitive domain, while motor skills are in the psychomotor domain, and attitude
is the affective domain. How different would the learning outcomes be if this
definition for domain of learning was used?
Determining the types of learning outcomes enables the instructor to plan the tasks
and the resources and media required to achieve the learning outcome. In
addition, the student is able to see the expectations of learning he is required to
achieve.

SELF-CHECK 7.3
(a) Discuss what is learning outcome.
(b) Discuss the different learning outcomes which can be written for
each domain of learning.
Ć Learning outcomes are important as they will lead to better learning and help
students to develop their critical and creative thinking.
Ć Good learning outcomes have their own characteristics and serve many
purposes such as a useful guide for both teachers and learners alike as well as
making teaching more directed and organised.
Ć There are four elements to make sure clear statements of outcomes ă audience,
behaviour, conditions and degree/criterion (ABCD).
Ć There are three domains of learning ă cognitive (knowledge), affective

(attitude) and psychomotor (skills).
Affective domain Psychomotor domain

Cognitive domain

Arreola, R. A. (1998). Writing learning objectives a teaching resource document

from the office of the Vice Chancellor for planning and academic support,
the University of Tennessee, Memphis. Retrieved from
https://www.uwo.ca/tsc/graduate_student_programs/pdf/LearningObje
ctivesArreola.pdf
Carnegie Mellon University. (n.d.). Learning objectives - Eberly Center - Carnegie

Mellon University. Retrieved from https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/
designteach/design/learningobjectives.html
Clark, D. R. (2015). Bloom's taxonomy: The psychomotor domain. Retrieved from

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/Bloom/psychomotor_domain.
html
Dave, R. H. (1970). Psychomotor levels in developing and writing behavioral

objectives. R. J. Armstrong, ed. Tucson, Arizona: Educational Innovators
Press, 20-21.
Boston, M: Pearson.
Gagne, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction (4th ed.).
New York, NY: CBS College Publishing.
Hartel, R. W., & E. A. Foegeding (2004). Learning: Objectives, competencies, or

outcomes. Journal of Food Science Education, 3, 69-70.
Neary, M. (2002): Curriculum studies in post-compulsory and adult education.

Cheltenham, United Kingdom: Nelson Thornes.
University of Toronto (2018). What are learning outcomes? Centre for Teaching
Support & Innovation. Retrieved from http://teaching.utoronto.ca/
teaching-support/course-design/developing-learning-outcomes/what-are-
learning-outcomes/

8 Media
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify categories of instructional media;
2. Describe the purpose of using instructional media; and
3. Identify factors in selecting instructional media.
 INTRODUCTION
After determining the learning outcomes which are required for instruction, the
process of teaching and learning takes place. In ensuring accurate information and
instructions for learning knowledge and skills, instructional media is employed.
Instructional media is a channel of communication between the sender, who is the
instructor, and the receiver, the student. Hence, delivering instruction is not
simply writing the knowledge and skills required.
Effective instruction means that the materials have to be carefully structured and
presented to engage the learner and highlight important content (Morrison, et al.,
2011). According to Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russell (2000), media that carry
messages with an instructional purpose are considered instructional media.
Hence, in this topic the use of instructional media to deliver the instructional
message is discussed.

TOPIC 8 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA  159
8.1 CATEGORIES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

Instructional media range from traditional media such as chalkboards, textbooks,
and overhead projectors, mass media used for education such as newspapers,
movies, radio, and television, and the electronic instructional media such as
interactive video and interactive media, as well as social media (Education
Encylopedia: State University 2018). In delivering instruction, one or more
alternative media and mixtures of media may be used to achieve the learning
outcomes.
8.1.1 Categories of Media

Media can be classified in different ways. Most commonly, it is classified according
to the physical characteristics and the sensory channels they employ as shown in
Table 8.1:
Table 8.1: Categories of Media
Classification by Examples
Physical characteristics  Print ă text
 Still visual ă photos, drawings
 Motion visual ă film, video (including digital
video)
 Audio ă tapes, recordings (including digital
audio)
 Real object ă display, demonstration
Sensory channels  Audio ă teacherÊs voice
 Visual ă chalkboard, drawings
 Audio/visual ă videotape
 Tactile, kinaesthetic ă working models
Source: http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/edit573/modules/module13.html
Figure 8.1 shows Edgar DaleÊs „Cone of Experience‰ (1969). It organised learning
experiences according to the degree of concreteness that each possesses.
According to Dale, teachers could create an effective learning process for abstract
concepts if they have concrete information to interpret those concepts. Thus, this
cone is a practical model that could be used for media analysis in the process of
selecting instructional material.

160  TOPIC 8 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
Figure 8.1: DaleÊs cone of experience
(a) Physical Characteristics of the Media

The categories of instructional media as shown in Table 8.2 are based on the
physical characteristics of the media:
Table 8.2: Categories of Instructional Media (Based on the Physical Characteristics

of the Media)
Type of Media Example

Still visual Transparency, slides, microfilm
Motion visual Film, video
Graphic media Drawing, poster, cartoon, graph
Still graphic Photograph, postcard
3D media Model, puppet, diorama
Notice boards Blackboard, white board, flannel board, bulletin board
Audio media Cassette, CD-ROM, computer, web
Printed media Module, textbook, newspaper, magazine, pamphlet, brochure

(b) Sensory Channels of the Media

There are three main sensory channels: visual, audio and tactile or
kinaesthetic. Learners learn through different sensory channels. Young
children may learn best from visual stimulus like coloured pictures and
drawings. However, children may use their tactile channel to taste and feel
things as well. Audio from music or the teacherÊs voice may help in learning.
The more sensory channels are used, the better the learning. Hence, Dale
suggests that instructors should design instructional activities that build
upon more real-life experiences and use the sensory channels effectively.
8.1.2 Types of Technology-based Instructional Media

Instructional material, when used properly, facilitates instruction and stimulates
the senses to make it more enjoyable and motivating (Mazgon & Stefanc, 2012).
Technology-based instruction has changed the delivery mode of instruction. The
start of individualised computer-based instruction and web-based instruction
means that there can be individual interaction with the media, and hence a self-
paced and self-directed instruction should be provided (Morrison et al., 2011).
Software which enabled tutorials for drill and practice, simulations of
representations in the real world, games and other hypermedia meant that
different design considerations need to be provided for these media (Morrison et
al., 2011). The following are two types of technology-based instructional media:
(a) Multimedia Learning

This is where a combination of pictures, words in the form of written text or
narration can be presented for instruction (Mayer, 2009). Robyler and
Doering (2013) define it as literarily being „multiple media‰ which may be a
combination of still graphics, photographs, sound, motion, video animation
and text, for the purpose of communicating information in multiple ways.
(b) Hypermedia
It refers to linked media and interactive media, used in most technology-
based software (Robyler & Doering, 2013). In web-based instruction, the
materials are often networked within the Internet and within the software.
Webpages may be linked to other webpages or other resources and within a
software package, there may be links to other media elements. In these days,
hypermedia is also a form of multimedia as the links are to media such as
text, audio and video. Hence, multimedia is used to refer to most Internet-
based media, whether interactive or static (Robyler & Doering, 2013).

Mayer (2009) notes that there are two approaches in the use of multimedia for
learning: firstly, the technology approach which focuses on technology, and
secondly, the learner-centred approach, which focuses on how technology can be
used to enhance learning (Morrison et al., 2011). Hence, in the next subtopic, the
purpose of using technology for learning has been outlined as this is more relevant
for education.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Consider the different types of media in Table 8.2. What are the sensory
channels which these media addresses? Share your answer in the
myINSPIRE forum.
8.2 PURPOSE OF USING INSTRUCTIONAL

MEDIA
Media has been used to effectively design and deliver the message during the
process of instructional design (Morrison, et al., 2011). Why is this important? This
is important to ensure the effective delivery of instruction.
Gagne (1970) identified educational media as an important part of educational

technology design. His classification of educational media is according to the
functions, and hence, related to its purpose. The functions are related to the events
of instruction, namely for the following (see Figure 8.2):

Figure 8.2: Functions of educational media

Source: Gagne (1970)
This means that instructional media should be used to organise instruction

effectively for interaction, stimulate studentsÊ activity and enable the process of
learning to become easier as it enables the acquisition of knowledge as well as
encourages studentsÊ independence and critical thinking (Mazgon & Stefanc,
2012).

As suggested by Gagné, Briggs and Wager (1992), media can be used to support
one or more of the following instructional activities in GagneÊs nine events of
instruction (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4017416/):
(a) Gain Attention

A picture on the screen, a question on the board, or music playing as students
enter the room all serve to get studentsÊ attention.
(b) Recall Prerequisites

Use media to help students recall what they learned in the last class, so that
new material can be attached to and built upon it.
(c) Present Objectives to Learners

Hand out or project the dayÊs learning objectives.
(d) Present New Content

Not only can media help make new content more memorable, it can also help
deliver new content (through a text, movie or video).
(e) Support Learning Through Examples and Visual Elaboration

One of the biggest advantages of media is to bring the world into the
classroom when it is not possible to take the student out into the world.
(f) Elicit Student Response

Present information and pose questions to students, getting them involved
in answering the questions.
(g) Provide Feedback

Media can be used to provide feedback on a test or class exercise.
(h) Enhance Retention and Transfer

Pictures enhance retention. Media help students visualise a lesson and
transfer abstract concepts into concrete, easier to remember objects.
(i) Assess Performance

Media is an excellent way to pose assessment questions for the class to
answer. Students can also submit mediated presentations as classroom
projects.
In addition to these events of instruction, the use of media, especially when

suitably integrated in a lesson, has been shown to support learning, making it
easier for students to understand, build their own mental models in the process,
and enable the transfer of knowledge (Roblyer & Doering, 2013). At the same time,
learners are more motivated to learn, as it caters to the different intelligences

among the learners and it incorporates other skills such as collaboration, team
work and different literacies (Roblyer & Doering, 2013).
SELF-CHECK 8.1
In the myINSPIRE forum, discuss the purpose of using instructional

media.
8.3 FACTORS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

SELECTION
Different media have different affordances: there are different strengths and
weaknesses according to the context it is used in. Thus, when selecting media, one
has to take into consideration the context, so as to make the learning environment
suitable for creating a successful learning experience.
According to Mappin et al. (1998), the basis of media selection models are the
factors affecting the choice of media. These factors include the following:
(a) Instructional method or strategy;
(b) Type of learning task (subject matter);
(c) Learner characteristics;
(d) Practical constraints;
(e) Teacher preference;
(f) Physical attributes of media (sensory channels); and
(g) Physical environment.

Smith and Ragan (1999) suggested the following factors to consider when selecting
instructional media (see Figure 8.3):
Figure 8.3: Factors to consider when selecting instructional media

Source: Smith & Ragan (1999)
Gagné, Briggs and Wager (1992) provided the following practical factors to
consider in media selection:
(a) What size of group must be accommodated in one room on a single occasion?
(b) What is the range of viewing and hearing distance for the use of the media?
(c) How easily can the media be "interrupted" for pupilsÊ responses or other
activity and for providing feedback to learners?
(d) Is the presentation "adaptive" to the learners' responses?
(e) Does the desired instructional stimulus require motion, colour, still pictures,
spoken words or written words?
(f) Is sequence fixed or flexible in the medium? Is the instruction repeatable in

every detail?
(g) Which media are the best for incorporating most of the conditions of learning
appropriate for the objective?
(h) Which media provide more of the desired instructional events?
(i) Do the media under consideration vary in probable „affective‰ impact for the
learners?
(j) Are the necessary hardware and software items obtainable, accessible and
storable?
(k) How much disruption is caused by using the media?
(l) Is a backup easily available in case of equipment failure, power failure, film
breakage and so on?
(m) Will instructors need additional training?
(n) Is a budget provided for spare parts, repairs and replacement of items that
become damaged?
(o) How does cost compare with probable effectiveness?
In summary, the factors which should be considered in selecting instructional

media are as follows (see Figure 8.4). These four factors are to be discussed in detail
in the following subtopics.
Figure 8.4: Factors that should be considered in selecting instructional media

8.3.1 Instructional Outcomes

Table 8.3 shows the categories of learning for the instructional outcomes and the
instructional media.
Table 8.3: Categories of Learning for Instructional Outcome: Selection and

Exclusion of Media
Outcomes in
Selection of Media Exclusion of Media
Category of Learning
Intellectual Skills Select media that provide Exclude media with features
feedback to learner responses. that are not interactive.
Cognitive Strategies Select media that provide Exclude media with features
feedback to learner responses. that are not interactive.
Verbal Information Select media able to present Exclude only real equipment
verbal messages and or simulators with no verbal
elaboration. accompaniments.
Attitudes Select media that are able to Exclude only real equipment
present a realistic picture of a or simulators with no verbal
human model and the model's accompaniments.
message.
Motor Skills Select media which make it Exclude media with no
possible for students to provision for learner
directly practise a skill and responses and feedback.
provide informative feedback.
Source: Gagné, Briggs & Wager (1992)
8.3.2 Students
A learner analysis should be done in order to determine the background of the
learner, his aptitudes, needs and other important information. This is because the
selection of media for the specific group of learner should take into account the
learnersÊ needs. Knowing students is another aspect that we should focus on when
selecting instructional media. According to the ASSURE model, there are three
important aspects which must be included in studentsÊ analysis which are as stated
in Figure 8.5.

Figure 8.5: Three important aspects in studentsÊ analysis
8.3.3 Methods/Instructional Strategies

According to Elton (1977), teaching and learning could be divided into three
categories. Based on the categories of teaching and learning, Elton suggested the
media suitable for each category of teaching and learning as showed in the
Table 8.4:
Table 8.4: Media Suitable for Teaching and Learning
Category of
Examples TeachersÊ Role
Teaching and Learning
Group teaching Conservative lecturing, Traditional sender,
expository learning, TV, executive of instruction
radio and film. process
Individual teaching Long-distance learning, Publisher and manager of
computer-based learning, learning resources,
mediated self-instruction facilitator and tutor
Group learning Tutorial, seminar, group Manager and facilitator
assignment, projects, games
and simulation, self-help
groups

According to Dick et al. (2015) the instructional strategy that will be employed
would cover the following:
(a) The Choice of a Delivery System for the Instruction

Firstly, for delivery of instruction, one needs to consider the delivery system.
The delivery system can be through a traditional model where the instructor
is in a classroom with a group of learners, or a large group lecture, a video
broadcast such as interactive or videoconferencing, or other computer based
instruction (Dick et al., 2015). Based on the delivery system selected and also
based on the learnersÊ needs, the appropriate media can be selected. For
example, in a traditional model of instruction or a large group lecture, the
teacher may use print media and PowerPoint presentations which make use
of text and graphics as a media. When instruction is blended or takes place
at a distance, the print media can take the form of electronic books, and
videos or other multimedia may be more suitable in an online environment.
(b) The Sequencing and Grouping of Content

Secondly, for the instructional strategy to take into account the sequencing
and grouping of content, the media developed should be developed in a
proper sequence (Dick et al., 2015). The sequencing can be done according to
the complexity of content, or based on spatial, temporal or physical
characteristics (Morrisson et al., 2011).
(c) The Learning Components

Thirdly, instructional strategy is related to the learning components (Dick et
al., 2015). The choice of media should be considered related to the events of
instruction, whether it is for pre-instructional activities, for presentation of
content, for learner participation, assessment or follow-through activities
(Dick et al., 2015). The suitable choice of media would make instruction more
meaningful and relevant.
(d) Specifying How Students Will Be Grouped

Finally, instructional strategy should cover the studentsÊ groupings (Dick et
al., 2015). The delivery system may limit the groupings available, for example
in a distance learning environment, it may be more difficult to work in
groups as compared to a classroom environment. Student groupings may be
individual, pairs, small groups and large group, and the type of student
grouping required may depend on the interaction needed. Motivation, and
variety of learning experiences need to be considered when selecting media
for the different groupings.

ACTIVITY 8.2
What media and/or application do you think is suitable for group work
in a blended learning environment? Discuss your answer in the
myINSPIRE forum.
8.3.4 Practicality
Finally, the media used needs to be considered for practicality. The following
questions will guide us in selecting instructional media in terms of practicality (see
Figure 8.6):
Figure 8.6: The elements that needs to be considered when selecting instructional media
in terms of practicality
SELF-CHECK 8.2
In the myINSPIRE forum, discuss the factors involved in selecting

instructional media.

8.4 DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

The steps in designing instructional media are as follows (see Figure 8.7):
Figure 8.7: The process of designing instructional media
Now, let us discuss each of the process.
(a) Forming Ideas

Ideas could be formed through experience, reading, observation and others.
The ideas should emphasise on leading students to solve their learning
problems.
(b) State the Objectives Clearly

Write the learning outcomes clearly. We must be clear on what is the
knowledge or skill that our students will acquire at the end of a lesson.
(c) Student Analysis

Analyse students in terms of their background, prior knowledge, learning
capacity, basic skills, linguistic ability, attitude and learning style. This
analysis will help teachers in selecting the instruction explanation methods,
predicting the time frame of the instruction process, selecting the level of
vocabulary used, and identifying the methods and students involvement
level during the learning process.
(d) Collect and Arrange the Materials

Identify resources through research, conduct literature review on the content
aspect, arrange the flow of main ideas, and prepare a simple synopsis.

(e) Transform Ideas into Visual Aids

Transfer ideas in abstract form into visual aids in concrete form. Visual aids
in graphic style will enhance studentsÊ learning and help them to memorise
the learning content.
(f) Planning for Student Involvement

StudentsÊ active involvement in the learning process will enhance the
effectiveness of an instruction. There are various methods that could be used
during the learning process like asking simple questions, allowing them to
make conclusions or give opinions, and forming groups to have discussions
and make decisions.
(g) Revise the Planning

The planning should be revised to make sure it will assist the learning
process and lead the students towards better performance.
(h) Issuing the Media

After you are satisfied with the planning, the final step is issuing the media.
Ć Instructional media can be categorised by physical characteristics and sensory

channels.
Ć Physical characteristics of instructional media are print, still visual and motion
visual.
Ć Sensory channels of instructional media are audio, visual, audio-visual and

tactile/kinaesthetic.
 Factors which should be considered in selecting instructional media are
instructional outcomes, students, methods and instructional strategies used, as
well as practicality.
 Designing instructional media would require the following processes: forming
ideas, state the objectives clearly, student analysis, collect and arrange the
materials, transform ideas into visual aids, planning for student involvement,
revise the planning and issuing of the media.

Instructional media Physical characteristics

Instructional objectives Sensory channels
Education Encylopedia: State University (2018). Media and Learning - Definitions

and Summary of Research, Do Media Influence the Cost and Access to
Instruction? Retrieved from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/
2211/Media-Learning.html
Gagne, R. M. (1970). Die Bedingungen des menschlichen Lernens. Hannover:

Schroedel.
Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of instructional

design (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.) New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
Mazgon, J., & Stefanc, D. (2012). Importance of the various characteristics of

educational materials: Different opinions, different perspectives. TOJET: The
Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11(3), 174ă188.
Newby, T., Stepich, D., Lehman, J., & Russell, J. (2000). Instructional technology
for teaching and learning: Designing instruction, integrating computers, and
using media (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Prentice-Hall.
Robyler, M. D., & Doering, A. H. (2013). Integrating educational technology into

teaching (6th ed.). Upper Saddle, NJ: Pearson Education.


Topic  Educational
Technology in
9 Schools
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Compare the current trends in technology used in schools globally and
in Malaysia;
2. List the five objectives of the Malaysian smart school;
3. Justify your opinions on technology usage and its value in schools;
4. Determine the existing barriers in technology integration in teaching
and learning;
5. Plan the integration of technology in the school's curriculum;
6. Provide a conceptual framework for technology integration; and
7. Compare the technology implementation in different countries with
that of Malaysian schools.
 INTRODUCTION
Today's rapid advancement and technological development have opened up a
new and exciting world that, just a few years ago, seemed unimaginable. Once,
when studentsÊ learning was limited to the classroom, now they can virtually
explore and wander round the streets of a city in Europe, collect real-time data,
such as temperature, precipitation and wind speeds, on the environment, develop
model from data input into computer programs, and reporting the results in a
shared document or wiki to collaborate with other members in improving the
report, and publishing the report on a webpage, which has data linked and stored

176  TOPIC 9 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS
on a repository. Technology continues to change the way we live, learn, work and
interact with each other every day.
Today our young people are engaged on mobile devices as they communicate, get
information, navigate and play games. Technology has allowed for games to
evolve. Solid-state accelerometers that can sense tilting, rotation and acceleration
for a motion-sensitive controller to design Wii, a Nintendo game for playing
tennis, shooting targets with a rifle, and flying a plane (Brain, 2007).
With computer technology, a virtual environment where a simulated, three-

dimensional world where the user can manipulate and explore the surrounding as
if he is really in that world, can be created. Scientists, theorists and engineers have
designed dozens of devices and applications for this. Virtual reality (VR) uses
depth and breadth as data for the user to perceive the virtual environment based
on graphics and sound system (Strickland, 2007). This can be effective for learning
as you become unaware of your real surroundings as you are focused on your
existence in the virtual world.
Think how technology fits into the scheme of revolutionising education.

Questions about education and the role of technology are important not only to
the teachers but to every Malaysian. The education system has the potential to
achieve our goals and to ensure education as a lifelong process. Hence, this topic
will review how technologies are implemented in Malaysian schools as well as
comparing it to other countries around the world.
9.1 CURRENT TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL

TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS
So what are the technology trends in schools today? The NMC Horizon Report
series charts the five-year impact of innovative practices and technologies for
Kă12 education (primary and secondary education) across the globe. This report
has explored emerging technology trends and uptake in education for more than
15 years (Freeman, Adams-Becker, Cummins, Davis & Hall-Giesinger, 2017). They
have highlighted the themes for educational change in the world today as follows:
(a) Advancing progressive learning approaches requires cultural

transformation in the school, and this may have to start with the leadership;
(b) Learners are creators and require opportunities for creating and
experimenting in ways that can enable complex thinking and designing
solutions;

TOPIC 9 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS  177
(c) Learning should not be for individual subject areas but should be inter- and
multidisciplinary connections between subjects like science and humanities,
and engineering and art are made to ensure authentic learning experiences;
(d) Technology is an enabler and cannot ensure performance and engagement

in learning;
(e) Learning should be measured continuously to understand the learnersÊ

needs and can be done with analytics technologies;
(f) Learning is beyond acquiring technology skills in isolation, but in

understanding digital environments and enabling adaptation and for
co-creation of knowledge;
(g) Authentic hands-on experiences are necessary for learning;
(h) No matter how good the technology is, students always need good teachers
to guide, mentor and coach them in learning;
(i) Computational thinking develops skills for students to gather data, break
them into smaller parts and analyse patterns; and
(j) Active learning pedagogies require new learning environments which

enable a mix of different realties and the Internet of things to be done.
The learning spaces of todayÊs classrooms are no longer physically bound, and
learning is active and takes on different forms. What are the technologies which
are looking at these trends?
One of the short-term trends that has been predicted to drive technology in the
next one to two years is Coding as a Literacy. Coding is a list of rules, written in a
computer programming language which can be used to program a sequence of
instructions. It is believed that coding as a part of computational thinking enables
children to develop their logical thinking (Freeman et al., 2017).
Another short-term trend is STEAM Learning. There had been a growing emphasis
on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) curricula and
programmes as it is believed that these disciplines will boost innovation. However,
the arts and humanities are important for building interpretative and creative
skills, and this then brought about STEAM movement (Freeman et al., 2017). The
A stands for art. Cross-discipline projects and inter-disciplinary learning are
important.

ACTIVITY 9.1
To get a better understanding of the current trends of using technology

in the classroom, read the NMC Horizon Report for K12 which can be
downloaded from: https://www.nmc.org/publication/nmccosn-
horizon-report-2017-k-12-edition/
Look at the emerging technologies required for mediun and long-term

trends. Which of these trends do you see being adopted in Malaysia?
What are the challenges in adopting these trends in school. Please
discuss and fill in the following table. You may share your findings with
your coursemates on myINSPIRE forum.
Trends Challenges
1.
2.
3.
9.2 CURRENT TRENDS IN MALAYSIA

We have studied the current trends in schools from a global perspective. What are
the trends being adopted in Malaysia? To what extent is technology being used?
9.2.1 Smart Schools

The Smart School concept in education was introduced to produce knowledge-
workers to meet the demand for the nation's high-tech industries in the 21st
century. A highly competent workforce who were thinking students were required
to meet the industryÊs demand (see Figure 9.1).

Figure 9.1: The Malaysian smart school objectives

Source: The Smart School Blueprint
With the aid of multimedia technology, courseware which was self-accessed, self-
paced and self-directed for Malay language, English language, Science and
Mathematics were developed for the curriculum. The Malaysian Smart School: A
Conceptual Blueprint was published by the Ministry of Education in 1997 to
outline the concept and the pedagogies involved in the implementation. The
implementation of the smart school pilot project in 1999 until 2002 involved 88
schools which were provided with technology infrastructure, training and
resource materials (Alias, DeWitt & Siraj, 2013).
Currently, all schools are considered smart schools and the effort in making all
schools smart is referred to as „Pembestarian sekolah‰. This process of making
schools smart leverages on the existing infrastructure such as the Computer Lab
Project, the Memartabatkan Bahasa Melayu dan Memperkukuh Bahasa Inggeris
(MBMMBI), Web-based Educational television or EduWebTV) among others
(Alias, DeWitt & Siraj, 2013).

9.2.2 1BestariNet and FrogVLE

Currently initiatives being implemented in government schools are the
1BestariNet project to provide high speed end-to-end network service for internet
access in all primary and secondary schools (Fadzliaton Zainudin, u.d.). Under this
project, a virtual learning environment, Frog VLE is provided for teaching,
collaborative learning and administration (Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan (BTP),
2018).
The Frog VLE as a virtual learning environment is an online classroom and social
learning space for schools to integrate online learning experiences in the
classroom, which can be accessed anytime, anywhere (BTP, 2018). It also enables
parents to communicate with teacher and the school administration. Several
platforms have been integrated with Frog VLE such as Google Apps for education
and the Khan Academy for innovative teaching and learning (BTP, 2018). In
addition, the solution provider for the Asian region, FrogAsia, is constantly
looking at improving teaching techniques with the use of VLE (BTP, 2018).
The community of FrogVLE users can be commented through the Frog

Community site where there are blogs and other inspirational sites to encourage
and try innovative methods of teaching (BTP, 2018).
9.2.3 STEM
In ensuring that Malaysia is able to produce sufficient workforce in the science and
technology areas the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI)
states that there needs to be a ratio of 60:40 students pursuing science, technical
and engineering in schools and universities than in the field of arts (Rose Amnah
Rauf, u.d.). Hence, there is a need to formulate creative and effective strategies to
encourage Malaysians to take up studies in the field of science and technology to
ensure the sustainability of science and technology in Malaysia. Hence, the
Malaysian Educational Blueprint 2013-2025 aims to ensure students are equipped
with the necessary skills to meet the challenges of an increasingly industrialised
world by strengthening STEM initiatives (Rose Amnah Rauf, u.d.).
In Malaysia, STEM education covers STEM as a learning area, as a subject package

and STEM as an approach. As a learning area, STEM subjects offered in schools
are Mathematics, Science, Technical Graphic Communications, and Computer
Science (KPM, 2016). At the same time in the technical and vocational areas, STEM
is an important element identified (KPM, 2016). As a learning package, the
selection of the combination of subjects to be studied at the secondary level ensures
that students are exposed to STEM subjects (KPM, 2016). Finally, as a teaching and
learning approach, it incorporates the knowledge, skills and values of science in
life, the environment and society as a whole (KPM, 2016). Hence, teaching and
learning practices in STEM are to involve students in scientific inquiry, to solve
issues and real world problems, to involve students in productive team work and
to provide opportunities for students to apply process skills and for continuous
improvement (KPM, 2016).
9.2.4 Computational Thinking

Computational thinking or pemikiran komputasional was introduced in 2017 with
Computer science as a subject for secondary schools. There was a need to produce
students who could think critically and logically and hence, the subject of
Computer Science was introduced to encourage logical thinking to solve problems.
Individuals with computational thinking would understand digital technologies
and would be capable of solving the problems of the future (Bahagian
Pembangunan Kurikulum (BPK), 2016). Students could solve problems, design
systems and understand human behaviour as a form of basic computer science
principles (BPK, 2016). This is also in line with the STEM initiative as Computer
Science is a STEM subject.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Compare the current trends in the use of technology in the classroom in
Malaysia with the global trends outlined in the NMC New Horizon
Report 2017 in the previous activity. What do you think of the initiatives
carried out in Malaysia? How likely are these initiatives to succeed?
(a) Determine what are the barriers to technology integration in

teaching for these initiatives.
(b) What needs to be in place to support the implementation and

success of the initiatives?
Share your findings in the myINSPIRE forum.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
(a) What are the five objectives of the Malaysian Smart School?
(b) How far have these objectives been achieved?

9.3 THE USE OF TECHNOLOGIES IN

CLASSROOMS
The first question that usually comes to mind is „Why teach with technology?‰ But
isnÊt that the wrong question? The more important question is, „Why are we
teaching?‰
„If youÊre heading in the wrong direction, technology wonÊt help you get to
the right place.‰
Steve Ehrman (1995)
According to Ehrman, teaching and learning is our core business which is

changing studentsÊ knowledge, aptitudes, abilities and attitudes, and everything
else must add value to it. So how can technology add value? Do you think
technology increases efficiency, effectiveness, and reach?
Admittedly, we know there are barriers that schools face in seeking to integrate
technology into their curriculum. We also want to examine the barriers schools
face in implementing a successful technology-rich learning environment and what
needs to be done to help teachers and administrators overcome these obstacles.
Some of these barriers are explained in an article entitled Barriers to Technology
Integration for Teaching and Learning Barriers to Technology.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Select one of the initiatives being implemented in Malaysia for integrating

technology in learning. Based on the challenges that exist in adopting the
technology trends in Malaysia, which you have discussed, prepare a
systematic plan for integrating techology in the currciulum in a subject
area in your school or institution. Next, implement this as a case study
and report what you have done to overcome the challenges.

The stages of technology integration in schools are described in the Figure 9.2.
Study it carefully and relate it, if you can, to how technology has been integrated
in your own organisation.
Figure 9.2: A conceptual framework for integrating technologies

Source: http://www.icbl.hw.ac.uk/ltdi/implementing-it/frame.htm
9.4 BEST PRACTICES

The use of technology in education has been successfully implemented in many
countries. Malaysia and other countries have looked at the implementation in an
attempt to adopt the best practices to our context. In the following subtopics, the
implementation of technology in education of Korea, Australia, England and
Singapore are described.

9.4.1 Case Study in South Korea

South Korea established an Educational Information Sharing System or EDUNET
(see Figure 9.3) as a repository for compiling educational materials from 16
municipal and provincial offices of education (educational and science research
institutes) across the country and to facilitate the sharing of these educational
materials. The materials include teaching and learning materials, training
materials and education administration materials. Its purpose was to produce a
„one stop access centre by ensuring the systematic production of standardised
content for the communal usage system of educational content‰. Access to
educational contents is made easier through a comprehensive search system which
is made possible by sharing a standardised Metadata Database.
Figure 9.3: A diagram of KoreaÊs educational information sharing system

Source: http://www.logosnet.net/ilo/150_base/en/init/kor_12.htm
Having a system to share educational information and provide teacher and

student support services nationwide reduces cost and promotes efficiency. There
is less wastage as if there are already existing content materials. These can be
identified and need not be developed again (Bacsich, 2013). Materials for class
preparation and teaching resources in the form of multimedia content, lesson plans
and a reference site for teachers is shared. Students can also access a variety of
online textbooks, animations and digital books.

South Korea had progressed from a Web 1.0 in 1990 to Web 2.0 in 2004 where the
Cyber Home Learning System (CHLS) was introduced. CHLS, a nationwide online
learning initiative of the South Korean Ministry of Education, provided learners
with free online services offering learning content, with adaptive support to take
into account learners' capabilities, so that learners would be able to perform better
within the public school systems and to ensure equity of educational opportunities
in both the urban and rural schools in South Korea (Bacsich, 2013).
CHLS offers supplementary materials and activities related to school work for
students to access voluntarily through the Internet at home and be involved in
additional learning opportunities, with support and guidance from cyber teachers'
and tutors, in private learning spaces on cyberspace (Bacsich, 2013). The objectives
of the CHLS were as follows:
(a) To reduce the education divide;
(b) To reduce private tutoring expenses; and
(c) To enhance the quality of public education.
In 2005 to 2006, over 1.5 million students participated in the CHLS, which was
supported by over 6,000 cyber teachers (Bacsich, 2013).
On 29 June 2011, the Smart Education Initiative (SEI) was announced for
implementation in South Korea. SMART learning uses and open public platform
for sharing resources and is voluntary participation, utilising Web 3.0
technologies. SMART education puts voluntary participation and a sharing
culture as the centre of education (Chun & Lee, 2015). SMART learning is an
acronym which stands for:
(a) S: Self-directed learning, online lessons and evaluation.
(b) M: Motivated learning, strengthen teachersÊ competencies.
(c) A: Adapted objectives of learning: studentsÊ learning ability.
(d) R: Resource enriched for learning, enabling all students to learn with
enriched resources.
(e) T: Technology embedded, cloud computing infrastructure.

In SMART education initiative, textbooks are developed, online classes and

assessments are promoted, and a system for using educational content is built
(Chun & Lee, 2015). In addition, teacher competencies are strengthened and school
infrastructure is laid for a cloud-based system in a Web 3.0 framework (Chun &
Lee, 2015). Figure 9.4 summarises the SMART initiative.
Figure 9.4: The definition of SMART education and its objectives

9.4.2 Case Study in Australia

A key infrastructure priority in the Australian education system is a Learning
Architecture that supports teachers, students, and administrators to effectively
plan, design, deliver, assess and report (Ministerial Council for Education,
Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA), 2003 in Abas, Kaur &
Tengku Shariman, 2017) see Figure 9.5).
Figure 9.5: Australian Learning Architecture for Schools

Source: www.educationau.edu.au/CoSN/CoSN_icttskf.ppt and Abas, Kaur & Tengku
Shariman, (2017)

In Australia, formal learning from age-based and classroom-based cohorts in the

compulsory years schooling is becoming less important as lifelong learning is
emphasised and learning is distributed to the local and global communities. Links
between the schools, homes, communities, industry and the VET and tertiary
sectors are being emphasised with 21st century learning (Australian Institute for
Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL), 2017). The focus on parental support
and internship programmes has brought a shift from organisational processes to
learner-focused processes.
As learner and their teachers are connected with networked technologies and
devices such as Chromebooks and iPads, collaboration among learners, with their
teachers and other experts is easily done, both during school and out of school
(AITSL, 2017a). With access to studentsÊ administrative data and curriculum
resources, teachers are able to personalise instruction for their students based on
their student aptitude, achievement, curriculum choices and pathways, while
breaking geographical barriers.
The Learning Architecture is a planned enterprise ICT framework comprising

hardware, software and people (Ministerial Council for Education, Employment,
Training and Youth Affairs [MCEETYA], 2003). Schools can share information and
software applications internally, and with external organisations. When
information and communication technologies (ICT) is integrated with teaching
and learning, learning outcomes are improved while administrative and
management become more efficient. Learner-centric processes are now possible
across education systems through a Learning Architecture designed to interface
curriculum and administrative systems (see Figure 9.6).

Figure 9.6: Standards that support the learning architecture

Source: Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).
The Learning Architecture requires a set of standards to ensure content is

integrated and interoperable between systems, as well as being user-friendly and
relevant to 21st century pedagogy. Technology is an enabler, which enables
personalised learning to engage learners in creative (Australian Institute for
Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL), 2017a). At the same time, learning is
now beyond the school walls as internship becomes a fundamental part of the
learning process. To meet this need, a new online curriculum with digital resources
has been developed to meet studentsÊ and teachersÊ needs while teachers and
principal have a specific set of standards to ensure their relevance in the 21st
century (AITSL, 2017a; AITSL, 2011).
This is in line with the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young
Australians in 2008, when the Ministers of Education in Australia endorsed that
building innovation was linked with teaching and learning with technologies
(Moyle, 2010). For this purpose, Australian school education needed to provide
the capacity for a high quality of life to compete in the global economy on
knowledge and innovation of the 21st century, by providing students with

essential skills in literacy and numeracy, and be creative and productive users of
technology, especially ICT as well as being able to solve problems (Moyle, 2010).
Education is based on a social constructivist philosophy (Moyle, 2010).
According to Moyle (2010), the technological infrastructure supports the school

activities for the following purposes:
(a) Teaching and learning in classrooms, in computer laboratories and at home

(using the Internet, interactive whiteboards, learning and content
management systems with Web 2.0 applications for knowledge-building and
social learning and Web 3.0 for simulations in virtual learning environments
such as Second Life; and
(b) Administration and record-keeping (such as databases for studentsÊ

attendance, background and contact details, student achievement outcomes,
finance and asset management), as well as to disseminate information within
and outside the school (online daily bulletins, newsletters and media
releases) and for communication to teachers, students and parents (e-mail,
SMS messaging or the announcements functions of learning management
systems).
Teaching and learning employs synchronous and asynchronous software to

support face-to-face and online learning (Moyle, 2010). Synchronous software
includes group facilitation and team-building applications such as Zing; voting
using „clickers‰ to answer multiple-choice questions during lectures and gain
instant feedback on studentÊs response; and software systems that support both
real time and asynchronous learning such as Elluminate and Centra as well as
learning management systems such as Moodle, Blackboard and WebCT.
In line with the social constructivist philosophy, learning in collaborative learning

spaces where students give their ideas and decide on what they want to learn to
take ownership of their own learning is encouraged even from Year 1 (AITSL,
2017b). In an example of the use of collaborative learning spaces, the teacher plans
for the learning combining the use of iPads and interactive whiteboards, using
photos and animation software such as iStopMotion, for collaboration (AITSL,
2017b). Both individualised and group learning takes place to provide rich
experiences with a diverse range of resources in both the physical learning space
(the classroom, hardware and software) and the human interactions (teacher, aides
and other students).

In teacher training, the Australian Professional Standard for Teachers note the
crucial role of the teacher for nation in ensuring student achievement and hence
promotes high professional standards to guide teachers professional learning,
practice and engagement to ensure teacher quality (AITSL, 2011). For effective
professional practice in teaching and learning, teachers need to plan and
implement effective teaching and learning to develop studentsÊ literacy and
numeracy within their subject areas. This may be done using Information and
Communication Technology to contextualise and expand their studentsÊ modes
and breadth of learning (AITSL, 2011). In addition, the standards also encourage
professional engagement with colleagues, parents or carers and the community of
educators within collaborative professional learning communities to improve their
learning and to engage with a broader professional community (AITSL, 2011).
9.4.3 Case Study in England, United Kingdom

In England, ICT initiatives in schools have started since 1998. Technology enables
learning to be personalised to the student and learning can be done anywhere and
anytime. Students have access to online support when they need via a single point
of access to all their course materials ă a personal online learning space, and digital
libraries and online collaborative spaces as well as online tutorial support is
available outside the school. Parents and guardians are engaged with their
childrenÊs learning by opening school-based Internet systems, bridging the gap
between school and home, making available secure access to pupil information,
learning activities and e-mail-based communication.
The Department of Education works with agencies and private corporations to

provide innovative digital content for education. The National Foundation for
Education Research and FutureLab have combined forces and provide materials
for professional and skills development for educators and conducts educational
research for innovation (https://www.nfer.ac.uk). Subject areas for publications
include STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics), ICT, teaching
and pedagogy, and technology and innovation. The NAACE Educational
Technology Association, a community of educators, technologists and policy
makers in the UK who share a vision for the role of technology in advancing
education has also been at the forefront, disseminating resources, conducting
research and promoting reflection among the practitioners of educational
technology (https://www.naace.co.uk).

Currently, in the UK, Virtual Learning Environments (VLE) are being used in
schools. FrogEducation is a provider of VLEs which provides educational modules
and resources for 12,000 schools (https://www.frogeducation.com/). The BBC
also provides educational content under various subject areas under BBC-Bitsize
(https://www.bbc.com/education). These digital materials were formerly part of
the BBC Digital Curriculum and Learning Zone Class Clips. By providing access
to innovative technologies through VLE and interactive content and videos, it is
believe the unengaged students or those with special needs will be motivated to
learn.
The focus of education is on innovation as STEM is a priority in the UK. In

addition. Computational thinking has been advanced through a high-quality
computing education. Through a new subject, Computing, which is related to
computer science, students are taught the principles of information and
computation, how digital systems work, and how to put this knowledge to use
through programming. Computing, is an effort to ensure students are digitally
literate, and „able to use, and express themselves and develop their ideas through,
information and communication technology ă at a level suitable for the future
workplace and as active participants in a digital world‰ (Department of Education,
2013).
In recalling the UKÊs e-strategy to transform learning, the focus of learning had
been on productive learning activities (see Figure 9.7). The subjects in the
curriculum would need to develop learnersÊ skills, from basic to advanced and be
supported by e-learning. Technology the possibility of developing a highly
interactive environment for practising aspects of other generic skills, such as
observation, textual analysis, communication and data interpretation. E-learning
innovation focused on virtual learning environments for supporting learning
activities that support both skill learning and understanding.

Figure 9.7: UKÊs e-Strategy to transform learning

Source: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20060213221855/
http://www.dfes.gov.uk/publications/e-strategy/
An evidence-based approach was then employed based on a consultative paper,

Building towards a Learning Society: A National Digital Strategy for Schools
(2013). The views of experts and stakeholders, which included the voice of the
young people, were compiled to formulate this Strategy. The Digital Strategy for
Schools (2015 to 2020) provided a rationale and a Government action plan for
integrating ICT into teaching, learning and assessment practices in schools, and
focuses on actions designed to embed ICT across the school system (Strategy
Development Group,2015). The Strategy implies meaningful ICT integration as the
responsibility of students, teachers, administrators and policy makers. ICT should
be the core to teaching, learning and assessment and a key component of a high-
quality 21st century education system.

9.4.4 Case Study in Singapore

In Singapore, ICT initiatives began in 1991 with the launch of the IT2000
Masterplan which envisioned Singapore transformed into an intelligent island,
where ICT permeates every aspect of the society ă at home, work and play.
Accelerating the Use of ICT in Primary schools (AICTP) was the first pilot by the
Ministry of Education in using ICT for learning. The AITP project piloted in six
schools in mid-1995, introduced multi-media teaching in key subjects at the
primary school level. The evaluation yielded positive results as the more
academically-inclined students used ICT to go beyond curricula objectives and
became more independent learners, while the less academically-inclined ones
showed greater interest in their studies, encouraged by hands-on lessons, and
were able to attain the curricula objectives (Koh & Lee, 2008).
The Student's and Teacher's Workbench (STW) implemented in six pilot secondary
schools in Singapore in 1996, provided a central repository of educational
resources and lesson packages for teachers at the Secondary One level for a fully
ICT-based Science curriculum. The evaluation indicated that students were
motivated to learn Science. The JCNet was a research and development project on
the use of the Internet and was implemented in two Junior Colleges in 1997.
The ICT Masterplan II was launched in April 1997 and one of its agenda was the
integration and expansion of the scope of these three major pilot initiatives (AITP,
STW, and JCNet projects). It took into account the lessons learnt from these
initiatives. For example, several features of the STW had been incorporated in the
Masterplan, such as the development of Digital Media Repositories (DMRs) of
resources for use by teachers and the involvement of private sector content
providers in the project. In the course of implementing the ICT Masterplan in all
secondary schools, further lessons were drawn from the STW project to decide on
how such an initiative could be extended to other schools.
The Ministry of Education then launched eduMALL and Singapore ONE@

Schools, the two main developments in the Masterplan II for Information
Technology in Education, in 1998. The eduMALL is a one-stop web-based solution
which provides a focal point for ready access to online information services and
educational resources. The eduMALL contains three features ă eduLibrary,
eduPlex and TeachersÊ Network ă which provides a platform to teachers to
conduct professional dialogue, learning and collaboration. Its fourth feature,
Shops, is a service area for educators, as well as members of the public, to source
for educational software and to communicate their feedback on the various
products.

Schools are also connected to Singapore ONE, the worldÊs first nationwide
broadband network via the Singapore ONE@Schools. The project has provided
high-speed information access and facilitated the delivery of multimedia-intensive
and content-rich educational materials to teachers and students. They have faster
access to government services, news-on-demand, distance learning, video
conferencing capability and fast Internet.
With the eduMALL and Singapore ONE@Schools, a communication channel for

IT is well established among schools, the ministry and the software industry. Both
the eduMALL and Singapore ONE@Schools provide schools with better support
for the use of IT in teaching and learning, as well as improve connectivity between
the schools and the world.
In addition, the ICT CORE Training for all schools was completed by May 2001,
where the teachers were trained in basic ICT competencies in the use of the word
processor, spreadsheets and the Internet. (http://sam11.moe.gov.sg/tn/)
Besides training, Ministry of Education provides other types of support, such as

ICT competitions to motivate the schools. Some of the ICT competitions that have
been organised so far are the National Software Competition, ThinkQuest ă
Singapore, Singapore ThinkQuest Junior, I-Micro Award, Learn@ and Schools
Video Award. For example, Singapore ThinkQuest Junior is an educational
website design competition organised by the ministry and co-hosted by
MediaManager Pte Ltd. (http://www.moe.gov.sg/edumall/mpite/teacher
/itcomp.html)
It encourages students aged nine to eleven to take a meaningful interest in

computers and technology, and to take advantage of the Internet as a constantly
growing source of information and as a powerful collaborative tool by designing
and creating educational websites in teams of two to six members, guided by their
teacher coaches. Opportunities have also been provided for schools to be involved
in a collaborative effort with schools in other countries. Some of the international
collaborations were with schools in Japan, the United Kingdom and Chile.
All these initiatives are supposed to fulfil the six intended outcomes for ICT
integration in Singapore schools as stated in SingaporeÊs Masterplan II for IT in
Education which are as follows:
(a) Pupils use IT effectively for active learning;
(b) Connections between curriculum, instruction and assessment are enhanced

using IT;
(c) Teachers use IT effectively for professional and personal growth;

(d) Schools have the capacity and capability in using IT for school improvement;
(e) There is active research in IT in education; and
(f) There is an infrastructure that supports widespread and effective use of IT.
In order to achieve these intended outcomes, the Ministry of Education has

identified five key programmes, along with several projects within these
programmes.
According to Huat (n.d.), Singapore Masterplan 1 focused on building the

foundation while providing core ICT training for all teachers, ICT infrastructure
and support for all schools and educational software and resources for relevant
subjects. Figure 9.8 depicts its goals.
Figure 9.8: Masterplan 1Ês goals

Source: https://ictconnection.moe.edu.sg/masterplan-4/our-ict-journey/masterplan-1

Masterplan 2 focused on seeding innovation by generating innovative practices

through schemes and establishing baseline standards (Huat, n.d.). Figure 9.9
depicts its implementation milestone.
Figure 9.9: Masterplan 2Ês implementation milestone

Source: https://ictconnection.moe.edu.sg/masterplan-4/our-ict-journey/masterplan-2

Masterplan 3, from 2009 to 2014, ocused on strengthening and scaling, ensuring

that it is pedagogy-led with appropriate use of pedagogy. Its vision and goals are
as depicted in Figure 9.10.
Figure 9.10: Masterplan 3Ês vision and goals

Source: https://ictconnection.moe.edu.sg/masterplan-4/our-ict-journey/masterplan-
3/vision-and-goals

At present, Masterplan 4 is used. Figure 9.11 shows an overview of Masterplan 4.
Figure 9.11: Overview of Masterplan 4

Source: http://ictconnection.moe.edu.sg/masterplan-4/overview

Figure 9.12 shows the four main MOE support for schools in Singapore. The
Master Plan is monitored by the Educational Technology Division under the
Ministry of Education Singapore.
Figure 9.12: Support for school provided by Ministry of Education (MOE) Singapore
Source: Huat (n.d.)
ACTIVITY 9.4
After studying the best practices in other countries, reflect on each

countryÊs implementation of educational technologies in their respective
school curriculum. What do all these implementations mean for the
learners and teachers?
Will the learners have more opportunities to develop the skills they need
for participating fully in a technology-rich society? Will the learners
have more choices about where, when and how to study?
What about teachers? What type of benefits, if any, did teachers gain
from the implementation? Could teachers improve their teaching skills
with the integration of technology applications and processes?
Share your findings in the myINSPIRE forum.

SELF-CHECK 9.2
Consider the lessons learned from the technologies implemented in

different countries. Compare the implementation of technologies in
these countries and Malaysian schools.
Discuss the similarities and the differences in the myINSPIRE forum.
Education needs to prepare the learners to enter the workforce. What skills do the
learners in the 21st century require? New technologies provide the learners the
opportunity to explore new approaches to teaching and learning. However, are
teachers still teaching in the same way as well, or have their teaching methods
changed to reflect the changes in the world? The information-rich world means
that information is available anywhere anytime, and so the way we teach will need
to change.
Teachers use new technologies for the same reason they use books,
worksheets, and other teaching tools·to help their students learn.
When technology is integrated into the curriculum in a comprehensive way,

and when teachers feel comfortable and confident about using it, myriad
changes occur that may ultimately redefine the roles of teachers.
David Jonassen, 2000
 Short term trends which will drive educational technology in schools in the
next two years include Coding as literacy and STEAM (science, technology,
engineering, arts and mathematics) learning.
 The Smart School concept in education was introduced to produce knowledge-

workers to meet the demand for the nation's high-tech industries in the 21st
century.
 The current initiative in Malaysian schools is the 1BestariNet project to provide

high-speed end-to-end network service for internet access in all schools. A
virtual learning environment, Frog VLE is provided for teaching, collaborative
learning and administration.

 Other new initiatives in Malaysia are STEM, which is implemented in schools

as a learning package, and Computational thinking, a subject in computer
science for secondary schools.
 Best practices in Korea are the Cyber Home Learning System (CHLS), a
nationwide online learning initiative of the South Korean Ministry of
Education for learners to access free online services and learning content and
the Smart Education Initiative (SEI), for sharing resources and is voluntary
participation, utilising web 3.0 technologies.
 In Australia, technology as an enabler enables personalised learning to engage

learners in creative activities to meet a specific set of standards relevant to the
21st century.
 In England, Virtual Learning Environments (VLE) are being used in schools.

The focus of education is on innovation as STEM and. Computational thinking
is implemented. The Digital Strategy for Schools (2015 to 2020) provided an
action plan for integrating ICT into teaching, learning and assessment practices
in schools.
 In Singapore, ICT Masterplan 4 focuses on developing future-ready and

responsible digital learners.
1 BestariNet ICT Masterplan 4

Collaborative learning spaces Learning Architecture
Computational thinking Personalised learning
Cyber Home Learning System Smart Education Initiative
DfES e-strategy STEM
EDUNET The Malaysian Smart School concept
ICT Masterplan 2 The Malaysian Smart School objectives
ICT Masterplan 3

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pentaksiran: Tingkatan 2. Putrajaya, Malaysia: Bahagian Pembangunan
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http://btp.moe.gov.my/1bestarinet/article/165
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and trends. New York: Idea Group Incorporated. Chapter 3: Managing the
Virtual Schools ă The Canadian Experience
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and 4 National curriculum in England. https://www.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/239067/SECONDARY_na
tional_curriculum_-_Computing.pdf

Ehrmann, S. C. (1995). Asking the right questions: What does research tell us about
technology and higher learning? Change, 27(2), 20ă27.
Fadzliaton Zainudin (u.d.). Pembestarian sekolah. Retrieved from:

http://btp.moe.gov.my/media/BEST/PEMBESTARIAN%20SEKOLAH.pdf
Freeman, A., Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Davis, A., & Hall Giesinger, C.
(2017). NMC/CoSN Horizon Report: 2017 Kă12 Edition. Austin, Texas: The
New Media Consortium.
Huat, C. C. (n.d.). ICT Masterplans in the Singapore Education System. Retrieved

from http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ED/images/
singapore.pdf
Jonathan, S. (2018). How virtual reality works. HowStuffWorks.com. Retrieved

from https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/other-gadgets/
virtual-reality.htm> 18 January 2018
Koh, T. S., & Lee, S. C. (2008). Information communication technology in

education: Singapore's ICT masterplans, 1997-2008. Singapore: World
Scientific.
KPM (2016). Panduan pelaksanaan sains, teknologi, kejuruteraan dan matematik

(STEM). KPM 2016.
Lever-Duffy J., & McDonald, J. B., & Mizell, A. P. (2005). Teaching and learning
with technology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education.
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ppk.kpm.my/smartschool/
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<https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/wii.htm>
Ministerial Council for Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs

(Australia and New Zealand). (2003). Learning architecture framework:
Learning in an online world. Carlton South, Australia: MCEETYA. Retrieved
from http://www.educationcouncil.edu.au/site/DefaultSite/filesystem/
documents/Reports%20and%20publications/Archive%20Publications/ICT
/LOW-LearningArchitectureFWork.pdf

Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE). (1997). The Malaysian smart school: An

MSC flagship application. Conceptual Blueprint. Retrieved from
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nces/Smart_School_Blueprint.pdf
Moyle, K. (2010). Australian Education Review. Camberwell, Australia: ACER

Press Australian Council for Educational Research.
Pflaum, W. D. (2004). Technology fix: The promise and reality of computers in

schools. Vancouver: Association of Supervision and Curriculum
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Roblyer, M. D. (2003). Integrating educational technology into teaching (3rd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education
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enhancing teaching, learning and assessment. Irish Department of Education
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ology%20in%20Schools'


Topic  Technologies
of the Future
10
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the future technological trends in education;
2. Discuss the application of these technologies in education;
3. Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of these technologies; and
4. Identify the evolving roles of students, instructors and institutions
when adopting these technologies.
 INTRODUCTION
As computer and networking technologies become ubiquitous, we are surrounded
with devices networked with our everyday equipment in our homes. We are able
to control our TV, refrigerators and air conditioning at a distance through our
mobile device. The Internet of Things (IoT), where the interconnection via the
Internet of computing devices embedded in everyday objects, enabling them to
send and receive data, enables usersÊ mobility and changes the way we do things.
There will be changes in the way we perceive transportation, medical and
healthcare, agriculture and security.

TOPIC 10 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE  207
In 2003, Downes stated that future technologies have the potential to change the
fabric of learning through four ways (see Figure 10.1):
Figure 10.1: How future technologies may affect learning

Source: Downes (2003)
Are these areas still relevant today? In what way has the delivery of technology
changed?

208  TOPIC 10 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE
Hence, it is crucial for us to outline some of the issues, challenges and questions
facing schools and higher education institutions as they consider the use of future
technologies in support of teaching and learning. A few questions need to
answered as shown in Figure 10.2:
Figure 10.2: The issues, challenges and questions

of implementing future technologies in learning
These are some of the questions we will try to answer together in this topic by
studying the latest top trends in learning technologies.
10.1 MOBILE LEARNING

In 2016, 68 per cent of the total population (20.6 million) in Malaysia are active
Internet users out of which 18 million (59 per cent) are active mobile Internet users
(Khalifeh, 2016). Hence, mobile technologies have a great potential to be used in
education. However, when investigated, the usage of mobile technologies for
formal education in Malaysia is low.

According to Khalifeh (2016), the frequently used mobile activities in Malaysia are
(see Figure 10.3):
Figure 10.3: The frequently used mobile activities in Malaysia

Source: Khalifeh (2016)
The pervasiveness of the mobile devices is undeniable. We have smart phones and
tablets to smart watches, all mini computers which are changing the way humans
interact with information and their surroundings. Hence, there is a large potential
in designing for learning environments using the mobile platform.
Mobile learning is not something new in the Malaysian education system. Since
2009, Open University Malaysia (OUM) was already experimenting with
SMS-based learning (Yahaya, 2017). There were many isolated projects on using
text message through SMS in schools for language learning and science (Sim, 2005;
DeWitt, 2010). Today, there are numerous applications on both Android and
iPhones. Content from the Internet is also accessed easily as mobile web pages,
interactive simulations and videos.
Mobile learning has been defined in several ways. When it focuses on the
technology, which is mobile technologies to access to materials virtually
anywhere, it focuses on the use of the device. However, Traxler states that mobile
learning can be defined to emphasise the ownership of the mobile device, the
context of the learning or the mobility of the learner (Traxler, 2009). It can be
considered as the process of acquiring and constructing knowledge through
interactions with content and other learners, where the content is delivered in
smaller chunks (DeWitt, Alias & Siraj, 2015). M-learning differs from e-learning
because of the ownership of the personalised device, and the form of learning for

the mobility of the learner, the process of learning and the organisation of content
materials (DeWitt et al., 2015).
As depicted in Figure 10.4, there are a few methods for mobile learning which are
delivering content through:
Figure 10.4: Suggested methods in delivering content for mobile learning
When text messages are used for learning, these text messages are pushed to
learners who were enrolled in a course in the form of SMS or MMS alerts
(Naismith, Lonsdale, Vavoula, & Sharples, 2004). Later studies had more
interactive text messages with content. In a project for driving, sport and health
education, messages, dialogues, quizzes and mobile content using Flash animation
have been delivering content to the learner (Colley & Stead, 2003 as cited in
Naismith et al., 2004).

The current trend is the use of mobile apps to deliver content and simulate learning
environments. Educational apps such as Ready4 SAT, Photomath, My Study Life,
Math Motion: Cupcake! and edX are some of the popular iPhone and Android
apps which can be downloaded from iTunes and Google Play Store. Some of these
apps have content attached to them while others such as Dropbox and Evernote
are for content curation and compilation.
Location-based mobile apps are also used to deliver content using push
technologies. Mobile technologies use global positioning system (GPS) to detect
the location and deliver activities and content in the authentic environment.
Subjects such as biology, geophysics and geography could use the location in the
real environment to deliver additional information and activities (Pintus, Carboni,
Paddeu, Piras & Sanna, 2004).
The Mobile Virtual Campus has also assisted students in making virtual field trips
for distance education in physical geography and science (Tan, Liu & Burkle, 2013).
There are apps for tourists such as Detour which provides guided walking tours
around a cityÊs famous neighbourhoods and landmarks. As you approach the
location of the landmark, the apps trigger audio clips to describe the landmark
with background music provided. This has been used in National Parks ServiceÊs
National Mall app to explore historical buildings and monuments in the city.
A detailed map that tracks landmarks and points of interest, and a „Park Lens‰
augmented reality view that tags surrounding buildings are included in the app.
Another game app, Pokémon Go, combines augmented reality technology for the
player to discover and collect Pokémons, and items in Pokéstops. PokéStop and
Gyms, which are tied to real world locations that you need to physically travel to,
encouraging players to explore their neighbourhood physically.
The first wave of mobile learning was the use of small, low-cost apps which were
extensions to the mobile device (Johnson et al., 2016). Arising from advances in
mobile technologies, numerous educational apps have been created for language
learning, mathematic and science, and for other subjects, which can be used across
Android and iPhone devices. However, the recent trend in m-learning is
demanding for more online learning opportunities to learn and experience new
concepts anywhere, and across multiple devices without being tied to specific apps
for content delivery.

ACTIVITY 10.1
How has mobile learning been used in instruction? What are the changes
in the way mobile learning has been carried out? How do you foresee
mobile learning of the future? Discuss this with your coursemates in the
myINSPIRE forum.
10.1.1 A New Model for Learning: Mobigogy

Implementing mobile learning may have several challenges. Firstly, the limitation
of the device due to the technology. This may depend on whether it uses an
Android or iOS platform. Next, there are issues related to security and
maintenance, to ensure the privacy of the learner is not compromised, and the cost
of implementation as cost of equipment and access needs to be included (Faizah
Abd Majid, 2013). In addition to the challenges related to hardware, instructors
may lack the mobile pedagogy or „mobigogy‰.
(a) What is Mobigogy?

The term mobigogy arose as a need for a unifying pedagogy, which is the
science and art of teaching children or university-age youth, and andragogy,
the science and art of teaching adults arose (Keough, 2005). In a mobile
learning environment, the instructorsÊ role needs to change as the learner has
autonomy and is able to access knowledge anywhere and anytime. Hence,
new instructional pedagogies that encourage personalised learning, situated
learning and authentic learning is required. Teachers do not seem to have the
skill and pedagogies for this purpose (Faizah Abd Majid, 2013). Table 10.1
provides a comparison between pedagogy, andragogy and mobigogy.

Table 10.1: Comparison between Pedagogy, Andragogy and Mobigogy
Pedagogy Andragogy Mobigogy

Compulsory Voluntary Continuous
Teacher-centred Learner-orientated Learner-directed
Minimal control by the Education as freedom Education as democracy
learner
Training for life Assimilation of learning Life experience is learning
with life experience
Encourages convergent Encourages divergent Enables network thinking
thinking thinking
Rote learning Active learning Dynamic learning
Dependency on educatorÊs Learning and teaching Supported in learning
learning roles are blurred communities
Imparting of information  Opens vistas for  Seeking knowledge
continuing learning from shared life events
and peer learning acknowledging living
as learning
 Uncertainty about the
outcome, whatever the  Object-oriented
curriculum content recognition
Source: Keough (2005)
Mobigogy is required all the time continuously in a mobile learning

environment. The learner has control and autonomy on what he needs to
learn. Hence, it is a dynamic learning, supported by learning communities.
Mobigogy is based on several principles, which are discussed in the

following subtopics.
(b) Principles of Mobigogy

Firstly, it is collaborative in nature in a mobile learning environments. Tasks
given should be engaging, meaningful and enable social interactions. In the
collaboration principle, learning in collaborative groups can be both formal
and informal, but group processes in learning is mediated and scaffolded
through „discourse‰, which are conversations and interactions in learning
(Jonnasen, Lee, Yang & Laffey, 2005). This means that a facilitator is required
for building and supporting a community of learners. Hence, the principle of
collaboration requires every group member to be committed so that
knowledge can be constructed through the interactions in the community of
learners.
In mobigogy, advanced organisers should be used to present the content

knowledge in advance so that the learners are aware of the objectives of the
course as well as the expectations on completion of the course (DeWitt et al.,
2015).
Further, in mobile learning, the principle of chunking should be used.

Chunking means that information and content knowledge should be
provided in small chunks, so that it is manageable for the learner and so that
he is not overwhelmed by the information. This enables the process of
organising thought and displaying information for it to be meaningful to the
learner (DeWitt et al., 2015).
Hence, the principles of collaboration, having advance organisers and

chunking are required for constructing knowledge in mobigogy.
(c) Application of Mobigogy

The model for mobigogy takes into account the learners skills and access, the
devices which will be used including its usability, social interaction, and
learning that takes place, technologies and tools for social interaction and the
mobile learning process (DeWitt et al., 2015).
Knowing the learners and the skills they have, as well as the devices they can
access can assist the instructor in planning the learning experience that they
require. A survey of the learnerÊs needs and readiness, which included their
perception of the use of the tool or the environment for the mobile learning
process, would be beneficial.
What are the devices which the learner will be using? Are the devices mobile
or static? What are the capabilities of the device? What is the learning
platform? These are some of the considerations required for planning the
technologies to be used. The portability of the device, include the
psychological comfort in using the tool and devices and the satisfaction with
the tool and activities, must be considered.
Social interaction is an important aspect in mobigogy. Hence, instructors

need to have the skills for using technology tools for engaging active and
interactive learning. In learning for interaction, the instructor needs to be a
facilitator for developing new knowledge. Hence, learning communities,
which have the same goal, work together to develop new knowledge. The
instructorsÊ role is to maintain this culture of collaboration and encourage
more interactions.

In building the learning community, the instructor or tutor encourages the

community building processes by introducing first activities for ice-breaking
and providing opportunities to collaborate in interesting situations and tasks
(DeWitt et al., 2015). Hence, teachers should be able to moderate the online
discussions to ensure that all members contribute to the development of
knowledge.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Based on the principles of mobigogy, design a lesson plan to be delivered

on m-learning platform. In the myINSPIRE forum, discuss how you
would deliver and design the content, and support and guide learning.
10.2 SEARCH TECHNOLOGIES

https://archive.google.com/pigeonrank/ states the following:
As a Google user, you may be familiar with the speed and accuracy of a Google
search. How exactly does Google manage to find the right results for every
query as quickly as it does? The heart of GoogleÊs search technology is
PigeonRank™, a system for ranking web pages developed by Google founders
Larry Page and Sergey Brin at Stanford University.
The most highly visited sites often started off by helping people find something on
the Web. Some information are incredibly easy to find on almost all search sites.
Other questions cannot be answered at all using just the Internet resources; some
searches will continue to be extremely difficult. The new technological approaches
may be able to help with some kinds of searches. If nothing else, they can help give
us greater insight into the search process. For example, when you are looking for
magazines or journal articles, search engines can be helpful, but other specialised
search tools are often a better alternative ă particularly in the academic, scholarly
and sci-tech. areas.
Search engines are large software programmes or web crawlers which indexes by
associating worlds and other definable tokens from titles, page content, and
headings, or metadata, to create databases of web pages on specific information on
a given subject. Many search engines have filters that can anticipate the userÊs

requirements based on the user's current history. In this way, the search engine
anticipates your need for information (Abas, Kaur, & Tengku Shariman, 2017).
10.2.1 Specialised Search Tools

Specialised search tools make use of search engines, which are able to search
metadata, subject directories and may have other specialised web tools to explore
the web. Figure 10.5 are examples of specialised search tools targeted at the
academic area.
Figure 10.5: Examples of specialised search tools
(a) Google Scholar

Provides either a summary or, occasionally, the full text of „scholarly‰
articles and books. While the search page and the search results look similar
to the regular Google search engine, youÊre searching a different index of
material. Many of the search result items link to article citations and abstracts
provided by the publisher or an aggregator. A relatively small number of
citations include links to a free, full-text copy of the article. The search results
page also provides information on the number of citations to each article
within the Google Scholar database. This is sometimes a useful way of
gauging an articleÊs impact within that discipline.
(b) PubMed
A well-known database for biomedical literature developed and maintained
by National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), at the U.S.
National Library of Medicine (NLM) (NCBI, u.d.). This is a very in-depth
collection of medical research, dating back to the 1950s. There are links
within selected article summaries that will take you to a free, full text archive.

(c) CiteSeerX
CiteSeerX is an evolving scientific literature digital library and public search
engine which focuses on scientific and academic papers, primarily in the
fields of computer and information science (About CiteSeerX, 2016). The
features of CiteSeer X enables the extraction of citation, metadata and
computes citation statistics of related documents. What is particularly
intriguing about these two databases is that they let you look for articles that
reference a particular article, thus letting you track down articles related to
your topic. Individual records list the articles that cite that record („Cited
by:‰) as well as a list of „Similar documents‰ and „Related documents‰,
calculated by analysing the articles themselves. These two databases are built
by specialised search engine spiders that scour the web for full-text articles,
so you can download the full text of any of the articles retrieved in CiteSeerX.
(d) OAIster
OAI data is obtained from Open Archives initiative (OAI)-compliant digital
libraries through the WorldCat Digital Collection Gateway (OCLC, 2018). An
index to academically-oriented „digital resources‰ available for free more
than 2,000 organizations organisations using metadata tagged to the
resources to identify the content (OCLC, 2018). These digital resources range
from images at the Library of Congress to audio files, reference books such
as dictionaries, articles from online journals and electronic books. You can
search for any word within the document, or you can limit your search to the
document title, author, subject or type of material (audio, video, text and so
on). The search results page includes a description of each item, along with a
link you can click to get a copy of the item.
After searching and finding the articles that you need, you may decide to
bookmark the article. Bookmarking tools on your browser or other social
bookmarking tools may be used (see Topic x).
ACTIVITY 10.3
Use one of the specialised Search Tools such as Google Scholar. Attempt
to do a search for a keyword relevant in your subject area. Identify how
many items are suggested. Are the number of citations per article given?
What other information can you obtain from the items identified? Share
your findings in the myINSPIRE forum.

10.2.2 Application of Search Technologies in the

Future
The challenge in search technologies was to effectively and efficiently harvest
information and knowledge layers from unorganised and unstructured Web data.
Now, search technologies tools apply data mining, machine learning and
knowledge discovery techniques to information analysis, organisation, retrieval
and visualisation in searching. The makes the possibility of penetrating deeper into
the World Wide Web.
Some resources may not be searchable with search engines, and are considered in
the invisible web. Resources on the invisible web are mainly maintained by
academics. Hence, the next development in search technology is to find means and
ways to penetrate the „walled gardens‰ of the invisible web. Technology will need
to find ways to trespass these gardens, which are impenetrable to search engines,
to harvest information (Sentance, 2016).
Mobile technology has changed the way people search for information. We are
searching for information while on-the-go: during meetings, as we read
newspapers, and while travelling (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017). Search
engines need to adapt to run on mobile devices, and will need to be app-based.
At present, there are a few mobile app based applications: Google app, Wikipedia
app, and DuckDuckGo (Sentance, 2016).
Technology is becoming more humanised. This changes how we interact with

machines. One example is in how search queries are made. Users type whole
sentences and questions in the search box and the search engines need to take this
into account. For example a query might look like: „How do I find the best search
engine?‰ As users phrase their search queries differently, there needs to be
adaptations to search technologies to take into account the integration of man and
machine (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).
Digital assistants on mobile phones like Siri on iPhone and MicrosoftÊs Cortana are
able to respond to voice commands and perform tasks. Hence, the next level of
search technologies needed is to incorporate Voice search on the mobile device to
make it more efficient. Siri and Cortana can already perform search queries and
need not route their searches through Google to return the results (Sentance, 2016).
GoogleÊs voice-controlled digital assistant, Google Now is GoogleÊs reaction to
Voice activated search tool.

Data mining has enabled search engines to be more contextual in nature.

A contextual app discovery engine uses algorithms to recommend relevant apps
to the user based on behaviour, location and other factors (Friedman, 2015).
Google has been personalising search results using search history and social
activity. For example, Goggle scans our emails for information like flight details
and suggests when to leave for the airport or sends a notification of a flight delay.
Similarly, Google sends my suggested route home when travelling based on
patterns of travel and traffic for my most favoured route (Abas, Kaur & Tengku
Shariman, 2017).
As wearable technologies become more common, and the digital mobile devices
become smarter and more predictive. It can already be used to read the weather
forecast. Can it soon be used to predict potential relationships and, maybe even
suggest what we should be searching for? All these are possible in the near future.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
In the myINSPIRE forum, discuss how search technologies will possibly

change in the future and how would it affect research in education.
10.3 BLOG AND VLOG

Blog is a shortened term for „weblog,‰ which is a diary of events or a personal
journal published on a webpage on topics of interest and may have many followers
from a community (Alias, DeWitt & Siraj, 2013). The weblogs are usually organised
in reverse-chronological order. The main features of a blog as a publishing tool are
shown in Figure 10.6.

Figure 10.6: Main features of a blog
10.3.1 Characteristics of a Blog

A blog is dynamic, and hence, it needs to be updated regularly. It has features
which differ from a normal website. Byrd (2014) highlights that the visitor to the
blog can communicate through the comment section attached to each post.
According to Byrd (2014); Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman (2017) other significant
characteristics blogs are as follows:
(a) Has some form of navigation, usually in the form of menus;
(b) The layout contains a header, footer, and content. Usually, there is at least
one sidebar running beside the content;
(c) There are categories of posts given which may be part of the navigation;
(d) Previous posts can be accessed, usually through the archives;
(e) Post may contain text and images, (and often video and other media
embedded);
(f) Posts may be linked to other posts, both within a blog and to the entire web;
(g) Has a contact page and a form for submission of comments; and
(h) Should have an „About‰ page.

Blogs may have a display of recent posts and even a plugin that automatically
sends new post details to be shared on Twitter or Facebook. There may also be
image galleries and the ability to turn the post into an easy to print document
(Byrd, 2014).
A blog which is well-managed promotes a presence and a sense of community

which is needed for online visibility among the specific target audience (Abas,
Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017). In business, blogs give companies an opportunity
to establish their branding, authority, and to communicate company news directly
to their clients and customers. Great blogs enable interaction and exchange of
knowledge, ideas, and experiences. Hence, compelling content is important to
draw the learnerÊs interest.
Several characteristics for successful blogs have been outlined as follows (Abas,
Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017; Collins, 2012):
(a) Your post must have content which is relevant and pertinent to your
audience. This means that you will need to know your audience;
(b) Secondly, you will need to post information that is useful to your audience.
If you aim to educate your audience, with relevant and useful information,
your blog would be valuable. However, when your information is too self-
absorbed and just stating your feeling and thoughts, it may be a failure;
(c) Thirdly, your posts should be engaging, and that means is should be well-
written, without errors, personal, interesting, and interactive;
(d) Next, your blog should be able to spark discussion and generate
conversation. So, you would include your readers in the discussion, asking
for their feedback, thoughts, opinions, or even just comments especially at
the end of article to garner a response;
(e) Further, blog posts should be readable, which means that if the articles
cannot be easily digested, people will skip reading it. So, you need to be
direct to the point. Bullets, lists, graphs, and images make content easy to
read; and
(f) Finally, do have an appropriate length for the post. If you can write a well
thought out, complete article in 400 words, that is great. If you can keep it
interesting, engaging, relevant and informative all the way to 1,500 words,
then it is still a great blog post.
In conclusion, good posts would be informative, engage the reader and enable
interaction with a sense of online community (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman,
2017).

10.3.2 Characteristics of a Vlog

A Vlog (or video blog) is a blog that contains video content. Vlogs primarily feature
video shorts instead of text. Vlogging is becoming more common as equipment
becomes cheaper and supporting software and hosting and aggregation sites
become more prevalent. Both Yahoo and Google feature video sections and many
MP3 players, such as the hugely popular iPod support video. Anyone with access
to a video-capable camera and a computer equipped with a high-speed connection
can create a vlog and publish and distribute it online. More information on
vlogging is in Section 5.0.
However, there are three elements to differentiate blogs from vlogs. They are as
depicted in Figure 10.7:
Figure 10.7: Elements to differentiate blogs from vlogs

Source: Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman (2017); Khan (2016)
Khan (2016) in Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, (2017) also highlighted six
characteristics for successful vlogs. They are as follows:
(a) Firstly, there must be a goal, a mission and a passion for the idea. It can be
about hairstyling, for example the YouTube channel, Luxy Hair which
creates hair tutorials.
(b) Then, the value of the message: Storytelling is an important element: your
stories, personal life plans, goals, and married life form an attachment
between the audience and the vlogger. People want to be entertained as well
as learn.

(c) Thirdly, depending on the mission of your vlog, what niche area it stands for
and who is the target audience interested in your content: hobbies, beauty
and fashion, entrepreneurship guidance and business.
(d) Targeting your audience, and knowing who constitutes your audience may
differ. For example, a prankster vlogger, Roman Atwood, has now grown
into a family vlogger as he films with his sons, girlfriend, dog, friends and
family, so he has a mixed audience.
(e) Fifth, having cinematography with cinematographic effects helps. Small

clips to describe a daily routine (such as Nikki Phillippi) or filming every tiny
step with different gear usage (such as Casey Neistat). Looking at other
vloggers and YouTubers may help you come up with your style.
(f) Finally, you have to be natural and innovative in creating your distinctive
style. Do not impersonate others, instead use your own style. For
instance, Adam Saleh is a popular YouTuber and vlogger. He has a certain
style of giving his vlog intro by saying a certain dialogue „Hey guys, whatÊs
up? I hope youÊre having an amazing day, because IÊm having an amazing
day, so if IÊm having an amazing day, so you all should be having an amazing
day‰.
ACTIVITY 10.4
Would you start a vlog or a blog? You can get some ideas from the
following link: http://tech.co/the-great-debate-blogging-vs-vlogging-
and-how-to-get-the-most-out-of-both-2016-07.
In the myINSPIRE forum, discuss why you would blog/vlog and why
you would not, if relevant.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
What are the important points to be aware of when you develop your
own vlogs? Suggest a topic which you could vlog on. Share your topic
with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE forum.

10.3.3 Blogging/Vlogging’s Benefits for Students

Blogging and vlogging are ways to express thoughts in a well-designed format for
people to tell stories, conduct in-depth analyses and interact with others (Zeiger,
2015). Blogging enhances writing skills. Students are encouraged to write and are
motivated to read and analyse texts, thereby improving reading comprehension
skills. Vlogging, on the other hand, encourages more skills such as the ability to
speak well spontaneously and to attract the audience. Hence, there are some
differences in the benefits and some similarities as well as which were outlined in
Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, (2017). They are as follows:
(a) Blogging and Vlogging Encourages Storytelling

The ability to create a story to engage and capture the attention of the
audience requires skills such as making critical connections that can improve
their reading comprehension skills (Zeiger, 2015, Baran, 2007). Teachers can
provide tasks by giving situations requiring the learner to share their
experiences, and relate to the characters in a similar story, which means they
would need to think critically. Also, digital stories can be created for
vlogging in which the learner can integrate the use of media such a video,
graphics and audio together (Baran, 2007).
(b) Blogging and Vlogging Encourages Research

Not all blogs and vlogs are stories. Some posts can be informative and require
some amount of research (Zeiger, 2015). In blogs, the content needs to be
verified. Organising the content in an interesting manner and providing links
to the relevant topics as collections of links from reliable sources require
effort in researching (Zeiger, 2015). Posting opinions of authors and requiring
the blogger to find similarities and differences in opinions, and supporting
their arguments would enable learners to write and organise their thoughts
better. In vlogs, content also needs to be researched and organised so that it
can be presented well. This means that the learner needs to know and
understand the content (Baran, 2007). Vlogs are designed projects that need
to researched and planned well. The processes of higher order thinking and
problem-solving are involved for the production of the vlogs (Baran, 2007).
(c) Blogging and Vlogging Encourages Analysis and Reflection

Blogging and vlogging encourage communities of learners to share their
opinions and knowledge with the world. Learners share content they have
read with the world, and they receive comments and questions which they
have to defend from peers and teachers (Zeiger, 2015). The format of a blog
is less threatening compared to an analysis assignment. However, for many,
to blog their thoughts, insights and reactions, gives them the opportunity to
interact with a text on a much deeper level. Analysis can be encouraged with

prompts such as, what questions would you ask the author on the text, and
who would most benefit from this?
Vlogs may be more challenging. However, vlogs enhance studentsÊ cognitive

abilities when they analyse and reflect on what they had learned (Baran,
2007). In this way, they realise what they know, what they learned and what
they can learn in the future (Baran, 2007).
(d) Blogging and Vlogging Promotes Interaction

Blogging and vlogging provide students with an authentic environment and
audience to share and collaborate. Also, the audience can respond to them
(Zeiger, 2015). The social interaction motivates students as well as makes
them defend their opinions and arguments when required. Alternative
viewpoints also need to be considered. Also, learners are made aware of the
need to use appropriate language, to connect with their audience, and
understand the impact of what they write and say.
In developing vlogs, students may work together to design their

documentaries. The process of sharing their work on videoblogs with other
students, even the people outside of the class enables interactions to occur
(Baran, 2007). Hence, in blogs and vlogs, the learning space can expand the
borders of a classroom, creating new types interactions between them and
the society (Baran, 2007).
(e) Blogging and Vlogging Promotes Media Literacy

Media literacy is important as we are constantly being exposed to different
forms of media. In blogs, students can design the textual information and
enhanced with appropriate media: audio, graphic or videos.
However, with blogs, media tools are being used to create highly interactive
channels using audio-visuals and the Internet. Videoblogging may serve as
a strong educational tool by providing students with rich opportunities to
reflect on messages being conveyed and in the creation of their messages
(Baran, 2007).
(f) Blogging Promotes Regular Writing

The most obvious benefit of blogging is that it encourages students to write
regularly, giving them a reason to blog. A range of tasks, purposes and
audiences to focus on in their blogs can be designed by the teacher to use as
a fun way for promoting new ideas. Examples of student vlogs can be found
in the following link: http://www.suitedandbooted.org/portfolio/student-
vlogs/.

ACTIVITY 10.5
Design a lesson for students to blog on. Identify the skills that can be
promoted in your instructional activities. Share your answer in the
myINSPIRE forum.
10.3.4 Blogging/Vlogging’s Benefits for Educators

Blogging and vlogging have been used in social media for marketing both by
professionals promoting their businesses, or amateurs and hobbyists. In education,
blogging has been used for reflections and homework assignments. However,
there are much more reasons why educators should use blogging and vlogging.
An example of a teacher vlog is the YouTube channel Lettered Classroom. You
may view the channel in the following link:
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCFebmxJBh559c8BEcnxL-DQ
Now, let us look into some of the main benefits of blogging and vlogging for
educators as stated in Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, (2017). They are as follows:
(a) Sharing within the Community of Practice

You can share your success stories and best practices with other practitioners
within the educator community. Projects, ideas, resources and best teaching
practices, lesson ideas or classroom management strategies can be shared
among thousands of teachers worldwide (Palmer, 2015). Blogging can be
done almost anywhere and anytime, as long as there is Internet connection.
There is a possibility for vlogging to be done anywhere as well with todayÊs
technologies.
(b) Reflection on Practices

Blogging and vlogging provide a platform for you to reflect on your learning
and teaching. By blogging it is an engaging thinking activity as you are
required to write, hence enhancing your analysis and critical thinking skills
(Palmer, 2015). For vloggers, being spontaneous in your speaking skills
requires you to be actively processing your thoughts. Your teaching
philosophy, teaching style, beliefs and preferences may be expressed in your
blog or vlog (Palmer, 2015). Blogging and vlogging will help you clear up the
head and make sense of your thinking, organise and visualise your ideas,
and record your progress (Palmer, 2015).

(c) Publishing Content

Publishing content on vlogs and blogs brings the responsibility in ensuring
the accuracy of the online content. This would mean that vloggers and
bloggers need to continue to research while processing and reporting the
findings. When vlogging and blogging are done for a real audience and
receiving real feedback, there is a need for the vloggers and bloggers to have
the responsibility to provide authentic and meaningful information (Palmer,
2015).
(d) Improve Your Reading and Information Processing Skills

Blogging as a writing activity will still encourage you to read more books,
blogs, articles and all other relevant materials. It will change the way you
select and process new information as you will be connecting it to the topics
you write about (Palmer, 2015). You will develop certain filters and improve
your ability to analyse and synthesise new information and think critically.
Vlogging is similar to blogging. However, the difference is that the vlogger
may need to have sufficient information at hand and be proficient in his field
in order to vodcast.
(e) Serve to Improve Knowledge within the Community

Vlogging and blogging can be used to build your library of content and
resources of useful links, articles, content and activities. The content curated
will then be the list of resources to be shared with other educators who teach
the same grade, level or student population (Palmer, 2015).
(f) Lead Your Own Professional Development

Vlogging and blogging build your professional development. You can
engage with your audience and build your own professional learning
community. This helps you in your professional development which you
hope to have. It will help you identify your starting point, where you are at
the moment, and where you are heading.
(g) Become a Digital Citizen

Vlogging and blogging establish your digital presence. You are now a
content generator as you produce new knowledge, having the opportunity
to contribute your unique point of view (Palmer, 2015). This creates your
positive digital footprint and promotes your digital literacy.

(h) Be Ahead of Your Students

As more teachers make vlogging and blogging a requirement for students,
they also need to build their experience. This will enable you to foresee the
difficulties, learning curves or fears students may face along the way
(Palmer, 2015). Also, you will also get the experience in trouble shooting to
possible technical issues, and you can model by showing students your vlog
or blog, and even teach from it (Palmer, 2015).
(i) Showcase Student Work

Vlogs and blogs can be used to showcase studentsÊ work and projects. And
this can be down throughout the world. Students will also be able to leave
their comments and share your blog.
10.4 PODCASTING AND VODCASTING

Podcasting started in the era of the iPod. The term „podcasting‰ is a combination
of the terms „iPod‰ and „broadcasting‰. The Professional Learning Board (2013)
states that podcasting is a type of radio show which allows access to periodic
information through downloads on portable devices. Podcasting can also be
referred to as a type of media that consist of an episodic series of audio, video, PDF
or ePub files subscribed to and downloaded through the Web or streamed online
to a computer or mobile device. Some of the popular podcasts among the
youngsters at present are „Serial‰, „and „StartUp‰, which have several episodes
and are based on a story (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).
Podcasts and vodcasts are simple to create and view. In education, more schools
and institutions are podcasting. In the classroom, podcasting stimulates learning
through creative means and open lines of communication.
10.4.1 Factors for the Explosive Growth of Podcasting

In the US, listener growth of podcast has increased in the last decade. In 2016, 98
million or 36 per cent of the population had listened to a podcast (Nevins, 2017).
As many as 21 per cent of Americans aged 12 and above listened to a podcast in a
month in 2016, compared to 17 per cent in 2015 (Baer, 2016). Large corporations
are spending more money on advertising from radio to podcasts.
In Malaysia, radio channels like BFM produce podcasts on Tech Talks and other
popular matters, and it is fast gaining popularity (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman,
2017). Table 10.2 suggests factors for the massive growth of podcasting based on
studies done in this field.

Table 10.2: Factors Contributing to the Growth of Podcasting
Factors Explanation
Listening on demand  Having the choice to stream or download the media

(Nevins, 2017) during podcasts makes it convenient, hence, creates
more habitual listening in a personÊs daily life.
 Nevins also notes that podcasts are more authentic, and

has deep audience engagement.
The quality of podcasts  Some like on The AtlanticÊs list are full-scale
recently has improved productions with a real staff, budget and industry
(Roose, 2014) expertise behind them.
Lower economic costs  An average podcast costs far less a TV production or a

(Abas, Kaur & Tengku radio show. There is little technical costs required
Shariman, 2017) (a microphone, a copy of Audacity or other editing
software, and a cheap hosting service for the audio files).
 But the advertising rates on a successful podcast are big

enough to pay for the costs many times over popularity.
Cars are now being  Just like radio-listening during the drive-time commute,
connected (Roose, 2014) drive-time commuters will now listen to online podcasts
such as GoogleÊs Android Auto and AppleÊs Apple
CarPlay.
 Most new cars in the US these days come with the ability
to play smartphone audio over the carÊs speakers, either
through Bluetooth connectivity or a USB or auxiliary
plug, and it is believed that by 2025, all cars will be
internet-connected.
 Just as TV viewers now watch Netflix and iflix, and

Astro On Demand, radio listeners will also demand their
choice of in-car channels popularity (Abas, Kaur &
Tengku Shariman, 2017).
SELF-CHECK 10.3
(a) What is podcasting?
(b) What are the forms of podcasts you have used?

10.4.2 Compelling Uses for Podcasting in an

Educational Setting
Podcasts are episodic series of audio, video, or PDF files that can be downloaded
or streamed through the Internet. Podcasts are described to be engaging, funny,
entertaining and often educational. The following are some of the ways of using
podcasts in the classroom (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017):
(a) Podcasts seems to encourage reading habit. With the advent of engaging
podcasts such as Serial and The Atlantic, more students were reading and
listening at the same time (Godsey, 2016). Audio books and podcasts do have
their role to play, making learning a very personal to the learner.
(b) Students can be asked to create podcasts as an alternative to an oral report.

Students record their presentations and upload them to the class online
platform. This saves time, and yet enhances opportunity for creativity as
music, audio and even interviews can be added in. In addition, this form of
report allays the learnersÊ fear of standing in front of the class.
(c) In language learning, podcasts can be used with compelling stories to discuss
and analyses situations where pieces of evidence are used to prosecute
criminals. The practice of investigative journalism can be put to practice.
(d) Podcasts can be used for reviewing materials. Students who are creating
materials and speaking out loud seem to retain information better as well.
Study groups to produce podcasts before a topic enables collaborative and
productive work.
(e) Podcasts can be independent learning projects for students to research a topic
and create a weekly podcast on the development of the event. An example is
the 60 second science podcast where an expert scientist discusses a scientific
topic for under 2 minutes.
ACTIVITY 10.6
Research into apps that can be used for recording podcasts: Soundtrap,
GarageBand, Vocaroo, and SoundCloud. Next the podcast needs to be
uploaded on a platform: Podbean and YouTube, both of which will
quickly upload Mp3 files for your class to listen to. In the myINSPIRE
forum, suggest ways in which you can create podcasts or other audio
files to share.

10.5 VIRTUAL WORLDS

Virtual worlds make use of immersive technologies to provide alternative
environments for situated learning by providing a variety of virtual contexts to
give the users a sense of „being there‰ (Bishop & Elen, 2014). The usersÊ avatar, a
representation of the self in some form, interacts with digital agents, artefacts, and
contexts. Games such as Minecraft, Second Life, OpenSim, World of Warcraft and
Unity have been used to engage learners (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).
So can similar environments be used for teaching and learning?
10.5.1 Artificial Intelligence: Virtual Learning

Companions
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is an autonomous behaviour and an artificial agent.
(Hindi and Luckin, 2016)
AI has been called machine-learning, and is related to big data and algorithms.
Hindi gives a few examples of AI: A „Google search‰ that filters what the
individual needs based on his regular search behaviour, and that decides what to
show and what not to show as he does the search; the news feed on Facebook
which is pushed based on by the profiles that the user has clicked on, as it models
what the user is interested in; and self-driving cars (Hindi, & Luckin, 2016). In all
these cases, the learning in the system is based on oneÊs interaction which may be
what we search, or click on, as there is an autonomous algorithm involved (Abas,
Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017). In the self-driving car, the car is autonomous and
replaces the human driver.
(a) Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd)

Professor Rose Luckin stated that artificial intelligence in education (AIEd)
was about building computational models for school curriculum in subjects
such as maths (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017). A model of how
learners learn could be created when AI recorded and predicted a childÊs
behaviour as he interacts with the software (Hindi, & Luckin, 2016). They
stated that the recordings of these models are to show how to teach using the
most optimal path for learning (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).

Hence, AIEd can be used to create learning tools that are more efficient,
flexible and inclusive than those currently available; tools that will help
learners prepare for an economy that is swiftly being reshaped by digital
technologies (Institute of Education, 2016). This would mean that we could
begin to predict what our learners need and be able to provide one-on-one
tutoring to every student, in every subject in order to create authentic virtual
learning environments while personalising learning (Institute of Education,
2016).
(b) The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIed)

Virtual learning companions, sometimes called pedagogical agents, have
been used to simulate peer interactions in virtual learning environments
(Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017) (see Figure 10.8). A virtual learning
companion observes the human learnerÊs actions and their effects, i.e., the
environmental changes and based on the observations, the virtual learning
companion responds accordingly to the learner using cognitive and affective
reasoning (Wu, Miao & An, 2014).
Figure 10.8: The role of a virtual learning companion

Source: Wu et al. (2014)
(c) Characters in Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIed)

There are various types of characters for these virtual companions: some are
trouble makers, challengers and collaborators; meanwhile some others play
the roles of instructors, tutees and companions; and may show different
emotions (Wu, Shen & Miao, 2013). These virtual companions have been
shown to be able to engage students and enable mastery of sophisticated
knowledge and skills, and transfer of learning in the virtual learning
environment (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).

In Wu et al. (2014), curiosity as an emotional motivation related to exploratory

behaviours such as learning, investigation, and exploration, has been modelled in
a virtual learning companion to allow the companion to discover knowledge gaps
and formulate questions. To be able to discover knowledge gaps, these virtual
companions need to have social intelligence with social abilities, such as having a
conversation, showing emotions, having memory and trust (Yu, Shen, Wu, &
Miao, 2014). By asking questions, new interactions which may help individual
learners notice the weakness in their knowledge structure, are added, and this may
motivate them to actively explore the virtual learning environment (Wu et al.,
2014).
In Yu et al. (2014), a curious companion in the form of „a butterfly‰ follows the

learner and asks questions, and attempts to stimulate learnersÊ curiosity. In
another on the topic of osmosis, the companion would suggest to ask questions
from a more knowledgeable expert, the Sage: „What does osmosis transport? LetÊs
ask the Sage‰ (Wu et al., 2014).
ACTIVITY 10.7
Have you used any virtual reality applications? How do they make use
of artificial intelligence? Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
10.5.2 Virtual Reality

AIEd can be used for virtual reality environments. Here learning environments
using movements and gestures for communication can be captured and modelled
to represent aspects of a bigger idea, abstract concept or idea (Lane & Santos, 2016).
Gestures such as pointing have been used to reference an object, and metaphoric
gestures such as the relative height of one hand from another, or the drawing of
lines in space can be used to form representations of ratios or slopes of lines, which
in turn enhance mathematical understanding (Lane & Santos, 2016). Hence, the
concept of virtual reality is using physical motion as an input in a system (Abas,
Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).

The learnerÊs movement is used to deliver personalised experiences. To do this,

AI-based educational technologies require a learner model, which estimates what
a learner believes, thinks and is trying to achieve in the system (Lane & Santos,
2016). Hence, a tremendous amount of rich and varied data, made available
through sensing technologies such as smart watches, cameras and other sensors,
need to be processed in real time using Big Data techniques, or smart technologies
(Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).
An example of an intelligent tutoring system using AI to make the VR system

„smart‰ is the SafeChild platform (Gu, 2016). The amount of practice a student is
assigned, the level of detail of feedback and instructions the student receives, or
the sequence of exercises that the student must complete depend on the real-time
interactions between the learner and system (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman,
2017). The AI adjusts the parameters of the experience, such as car speed, visual
aids or the number of obstructions, according to the needs of each learner (Gu,
2016).
ACTIVITY 10.8
There are many other possibilities of using AI and virtual reality for
teaching and learning. In the myINSPIRE forum, discuss some of the
applications that can be used and how you would incorporate them into
teaching and learning.
SELF-CHECK 10.4
Consider all the different technologies we have discussed.
Debate on the strengths of these technologies for education. Do also

discuss the challenges in implementing these technologies, and how
these challenges can be overcome.

10.6 THE NEXT WAVE OF E-LEARNING:

CONNECTIVISM AND WEB 2.0
Is there a difference between knowing and learning? According to Downes
(2005), „to ÊknowÊ something is to be organised in a certain way, to exhibit patterns
of connectivity but to ÊlearnÊ is to acquire certain patterns‰. In this digital era, with
the amount of information in the networked world, we need to be able to explore
patterns of connectivity to know and learn things.
The network theory or connectivism, is concerned with the organisation of

individual knowledge and learning in the networked world. Based on this theory,
the role of the student and the instructor will need to change. Not only is it
sufficient to present the content to be learnt to the student using direct instruction,
there need to be opportunities to connect the information he has learnt and to form
patterns of connectivity. Once, there is more pieces of information surrounding the
knowledge with strong ties, we are more willing to accept them as valid, even
though the number of ties may be weak.
Siemens (2005) writes the following about this:
How does knowledge flow within a network? Which factors have an impact on
the process? If we tentatively ascribe life-like properties to our learning
networks, we can partly answer this question. Any living organism seeks two
primary functions: replication and preservation. Nodes within our networks
follow similar aspirations. Established beliefs and learning often ensure that
new information is routed through (i.e., contextualised) the existing network.
New information is evaluated and coded with reference to the existing meme of
the learning network‰.
The learning theory of the information age, „connectivism‰, differs from the
traditional theories such as behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism
(Siemens, 2005). Connectivism considers learning as a process in which the role of
informal information exchange, organised into networks and supported with
electronic tools, becomes more and more significant. Learning becomes a
continuous, lifelong system of network activities, embedded into other activities
(Bessenyei, 2008).

As we communicate differently today and use different tools for learning, we also
experience knowledge in different formats and at a different pace. There is an
overwhelming amount of information, and so new theories of knowledge and
learning are needed. And it is in this space that a whole development model of
learning must be created (i.e. learning beyond vocational skills, leading to the
development of persons as active contributors to quality of life in society).
Knowledge is no more residing only in the mind of an individual, but in a
distributed manner across a network and learning is the act of recognising patterns
shaped by complex networks.
According to Siemens (2006), the networked act of learning exists on two levels:
(a) Internally, as neural networks (where knowledge is distributed across our

brain, not held in its entirety in one location); and
(b) Externally as networks we actively form (each node represents an element of

specialisation, and the aggregate represent our ability to be aware of, learn
and adapt to the world around).
By taking part in a network, or virtual community of learners, the collective

knowledge becomes a source of individual knowledge, within a cycle of
knowledge development. Hence, the need for motivation for gaining and
contextualising information becomes stronger, as searching and evaluation of
information become a cooperative, network activity. Students who participate in
cooperative activities can improve the efficiency of their learning (Bessenyei, 2008).
Web 2.0 applications foster the culture of contextualising information and building
connections for learning. This is because the users can express themselves, to share,
communicate and collaborate with others on these applications. Web 2.0
applications such as blogs, podcasts, wikis, collaborative documents and concept
mapping, VoiceThread, video sharing applications (e.g., YouTube), microblogging
(e.g., Facebook and Twitter), social networking sites and social bookmarking are
engaging and can connect millions of members of the community (Hsu, Ching, &
Grabowski, 2014). Hence, the creation of a collective knowledge can only be done
when there are connections to acquire the information distributed across all these
applications and repositories of knowledge. As the community of learners
exchange knowledge and relate and make connections with their work and life, a
collective knowledge of the community is developed.

SELF-CHECK 10.5
(a) Discuss how collective knowledge can be formed from a

community of practice. Based on the theory of connectivistm, there
needs to be a change in the role of the student, the teacher and the
institution. How does this affect the role of the student? The
teacher? And the administrator?
(b) How is connectivism different from other learning theories?
10.7 CONCLUSION
Technology constantly evolves and there will always be newer and better tools
developed. As an instructional designer and an educator, and a lifelong learner, it
is your task to ensure that you are constantly aware of the new developments and
updating your knowledge as well as exploring new possibilities and frontiers for
innovation and change.
Technology has changed the way we play, communicate and work. It will also
affect the way we teach and learn. In the networked work, new learning theories
are required to explain the way we learn. It is a collective knowledge, which arises
from the community. Collaboration and interactivity needs to be designed into
learning activities. While learning is personal to the learner, learning is also
situated in the communities which we are a part of. The teacher, with the support
of the learning institution needs to ensure that they support the connectivism and
allow for learners to explore and develop patterns of connections in knowledge.
As technology changes the way information is delivered, instructional designers
and teachers will need to consider the best way to adapt these technologies to
benefit the learners.

ACTIVITY 10.10
You have been asked to implement one of these emerging technologies

in your instruction. Decide on the learning outcomes that can be
addressed and plan for a small-scale implementation of the use of the
technology for designing a suitable learning environment.
(a) What are the learning outcomes?
(b) What preparations do you need for the use of this technology?
What learning materials do you require?
(c) What does the learner need to do to be prepared for the use of this
technology? Describe your implementation plan.
(d) How would you evaluate the suitability of the technology?
Share your answers in the myINSPIRE forum.
 Sophisticated technological devices will influence the nature of education over

the next decade.
 Educators must evolve their current practices in teaching and learning when
applying these technologies.
 The high-performance computing and communications technologies available

will range from mobile and wireless devices to enablers of virtual worlds and
highly efficient search technologies.
 These technologies will make knowledge utilities, virtual communities, shared

collaborative environments and sensory immersion a part of everyday
existence just like the telephone, television, radio and newspaper are today.
 It is more likely that there is a particular technology mode that suits an area of
study.
 However, the most significant influence on the evolution of education will

NOT be the technical development of more powerful devices, but the
professional development of wise designers, educators and learners.

Andragogy Mobigogy
Artificial intelligence (AI) Podcast
Artificial Intelligence in Education Vlog
(AIEd)
Vodcast
Blog
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INTERNET READING
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http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/index.asp?layout=article&articleid=CA3
19016
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http://www.techlearning.com/db_area/archives/TL/2003/04/spotlight.htmlht
tp://www.k12handhelds.com/apps.php
http://www.trainer.org.uk/members/theory/process/pedagogy_androgogy.htm
http://www.weblogg-ed.com/about

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


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HPGD3103

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Wan Zah Wan Ali

Tengku Putri Norishah Tengku Shariman

Translator: Prof Dr Rio Sumarni Shariffudin

Enhancer: Dr Dorothy Dewitt

Adapted by: Teh Lai Ling

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, December 2010

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Instructional Technology 1

Topic 2 Instructional Design 11

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 3 Learning Theories and Instructional Design (ID) 26

Topic 4 Instructional Systems Design Models 53

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

4.11 Components in Instructional Design Model 71

Topic 5 Putting ID Theories into Practice 77

Topic 6 Teaching and Learning Strategies 97

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 7 Components of Instruction 138

Topic 8 Instructional Media 158

Topic 9 Educational Technology in Schools 175

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 10 Instructional Media 206

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Describe the historical development and important concepts, principles and

2. Apply these concepts, theories and principles in a situational context.

Topic 1 begins with an introduction to instructional technology and concepts

Topic 2 elaborates on the definitions of instructional design and its importance.

Topic 4 provides an overview and highlights the features, differences and

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5 gives examples of the use of selected instructional design models in

Topic 6 describes the application of learning theories in designing teaching

Topic 7 elaborates on the components of learning by focusing on the function and

Topic 8 discusses the categories of instructional media, the purpose of using

Topic 9 highlights some of the latest developments related to educational

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

SelfăCheck: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Activity: Like SelfăCheck, the Activity component is also placed at various

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Morrison, G. R. (2011). Designing effective instruction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

The field of instructional technology is not about the use of technology in

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 THE CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY

„⁄the systematic application of scientific knowledge and other organised

Therefore, technology in any discipline is the knowledge resulting from studies

What is technology? Is the definition of technology limited by

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.2 THE CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTION

(a) Examining learnersÊ prior knowledge;

(b) Determining the structure and combination of learning material;

(c) Using incentives and feedback;

(d) Determining required capabilities for desired learning outcomes;