No Smoking, For Sale, Way Out, Exit... : Texts Are Made Up of Many Utterances Which Provide

Waldemar Skrzypczak
Department of English and Centre for Australian Studies

Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
Abstract
Parameters and processes underlying linguistic creativity
The paper aims to bring together the key constructs of Text Linguistics, Cognitive Grammar and
Cognitive Semantics in order to integrate the existing terminological diversity and clearly present the parameters
and processes underlying the form-content interface at every level of linguistic organisation, ranging from
morphological and lexical choices to grammatical constructions and textual architecture.
It is posited that meaning is both embodied and imaginative, and displays an ‘organic-gestalt’ nature.
Meaning can be constructed and expressed via appropriate choices of lexical exponents combined with syntactic
constructions, and by the same token, grammar is taken to be imagistic in nature.
Construals of meaning can be analyzed systematically against the background of well-defined
phenomenological and imaginative parameters and processes, involving ranking of experiential domains in
concept formation, categorization by schema and prototype, the organic structuring of cognitive models such as
frames/scripts and cross-domain and intra-domain mappings, as well as selective projections of mental spaces
and the analogy of ‘camera-work’ in construal operations. Criteria of textuality, such as cohesion, coherence,
informativity and intertextuality, are equally relevant to complement the description. Samples of literary texts
will illustrate how lexicon and grammar (as a continuum) interpenetrate and support the construction of novelty
in literary imagery.
Waldemar Skrzypczak
Notes on: Introduction to Text Linguistics

by R. A. de Beaugrande and W. U. Dressler
A TEXT is a unit of language which is made up of at least one UTTERANCE,

e.g. No Smoking, For Sale, Way Out, Exit...
texts are made up of many utterances which
etc. In most cases
provide continuity of senses, for example: There once was a lady of
Bygur… .
Texts incorporate such characteristics as: GRAMMATICAL COHESION,

CONCEPTUAL COHERENCE, they are INTENDED at a particular
ADDRESSEE , they involve SITUATIONAL CONFIGURATIONS of
participants (in time and space), they display various degrees of
INFORMATIVITY LEVELS, and interplay with other texts, thus produce
INTERTEXTUALITY.
Since every linguistic activity is a PROBLEM-SOLVING
activity, textual behaviour is regulated by three
important principles (REGULATIVE PRINCIPLES):
EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS and APPROPRIATENESS.
A. Coffee? B. Yes. A. Milk? B. Black. ||
A. The doorbell. B. I’m in the bath. A. OK.||

The EFFICIENCY-EFFECTIVENESS trade-off rests on the
economy principle: minimum effort – maximum gain.
APPROPRIATENESS requires the agreement between
setting and manners (the bikini, jeans…).
Constitutive Principles (Textuality Criteria)

comprise:
Text-oriented Criteria, such as:
COHESION: SURFACE GRAMMAR
===========================
COHERENCE: MEANING OF CONCEPTS
INFORMATIVITY: INFORMATION DYNAMISM

INTERTEXTUALITY: T-2 RELATIVE TO T-1
Grammar ~ Meaning
Cohesion/Grammar Coherence/Meaning
(A) Are you going to Newcastle (A) Are you going to Newcastle
tomorrow? tomorrow?
(B) No, I am not.
(A) Why not?
(B) Because the buses are on strike. (B) The buses are on strike.
and
Participant-and/ Situation – oriented Criteria
INTENTIONALITY: ATTITUDE OF THE ADDRESSER
ACCEPTABILITY: ATTITUDE OF THE ADDRESSEE
SITUATIONALITY: PARTICIPANTS, PLACE, TIME
The cohesion of writing focuses on the “grammatical” aspects of writing
COHESION concerns
1. G R A M M A T I C A L D E P E N D E N C I E S O R
STRUCTURE as they appear on the surface of a
text. Cohesion involves such elements as
SENTENCE STRUCTURE, AGREEMENT
RELATIONS…
2. JUNCTION/LINKING… AND, BUT, OR, BECAUSE,
IF… MOREOVER, ON TOP OF THIS, TO SUM UP,
HOWEVER …
3. CO-REFERENTIAL devices, which provide/
preserve continuity (of senses) and integrity
(of structure) to the text, as well as ensure
economy (of effort), and are also important
from the viewpoint of stylistic effects. These
are: ANAPHORA, CATAPHORA, ELLIPSIS, FULL
RECURRENCE , PARTIA L RECURRENCE ,
PARALLELISM, PARAPHRASE.
COHESION concerns grammatical

dependencies sentence structure, linking, co-
referential devices
A n a p h o r a I N V O LV E S B A C K WA R D
REFERENCE TO SOME ANTECEDENT.
Anaphora: Michelle was born in London
in 1990. !Her parents lived !there !at
that time.
Cataphora involves a forward reference to

some specification.
Cataphora: After she" had finished the
novel, Virginia set out for a journey to
America.
(Simon and Garfunkel: April…) she…
she… she…love
Ellipsis is ‘substitution by zero.

Ellipsis: Tom lives in Paris and Sally Æ in
London.
(Queen: Bohemian Rhapsody)
Mama, Æ just killed a man, Æ put a gun
against his head, Æ pulled the trigger now
he’s dead…
Full recurrence is a repetition of a lexical

item.
Full recurrence:
There once was a lady of Bygur
!who went for a ride on a tiger.
!They returned from the ride with the
lady inside
and a smile of the face of the tiger.
Partial recurrence is a repetition of a

lexical item in a different (derivational
morphemes: -ment, -ness, -ly… ) form.
Partial recurrence: Tom is happy. His
happiness is the source of his inspiration.
Parallelism is a repetition of a
grammatical construction.
Parallelism: A little bit of this. A little bit
of that.
(W. Churchill, M. Luther King)
Paraphrase involves a verbal
reformulation of a unit (while reference is
preserved)
Paraphrase:
The murderer ~ The taker of life.
The tiger ~ The big cat…,
Linguistics, or the science of language,...
coherence refers to the “rhetorical” aspects of your writing,
COHERENCE concerns CONCEPTS and

CONFIGURATIONS OF CONCEPTS, and how they appear to
be mutually interrelated in a text, and (further on) how
they interact with our CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE
(SEMANTIC MEMORY) and General Knowledge (in
episodic/biographical memory) during comprehension,
as in:
1
(A)Are you going to Warsaw tomorrow?
(B)The buses are on strike.
Note: the implicature requiring shared knowledge,

relevance and co-operation principle
Thus, the fundamental distinction between TEXT

KNOWLEDGE (presented on-line) and WORLD
KNOWLEDGE is called to attention (off-line). Text
knowledge is presented (on-line). World knowledge is
stored (off-line). Thus our interpretation of There once
was a lady of Bygur … will involve the matching of the
conceptual network from the text with the conceptual
knowledge in our minds.
Another important distinction regarding knowledge is

seen in the contrast between DECLARATIVE
KNOWLEDGE and PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE ,
respectively pertaining to facts: I know what, who,
where, when, ... etc. vs. I know how to…(configurations
of facts).
The concept of the GLOBAL PATTERN. The global

pattern is a conceptual package for event structure
(also variously labelled as scenarios, ICMs or
domains):
FRAME: participants (people/objects) located in space

SCHEMA: stages/events in time (and cause-effect relations)
PLAN: intended goal/purpose of action
SCRIPT: a routine plan (therefore much of our procedural
knowledge is scripted)
A LTERNATIVELY : S CENARIO , C ULTURAL M ODEL ,
COGNITIVE MODEL
In conceptual terms every text displays the CONTROL

CENTER, the focal concept, often rendered in the title of
a section or a chapter, which is elaborately connected
with other concepts in terms of such relations as: SPACE,
TIME, STATE, PROCESS, CAUSE, EFFECT, PURPOSE,
ATTRIBUTE, etc.
GLOBAL PATTERN: AGENDA, VARIATIONS ON

A THEME, THE WAY YOU PLAY THE GAME…
Cohesion and coherence are thus two sides of the same

coin, very much like structure and function, or syntax
and semantics, or – simply – grammar and meaning.
INFORMATIVITY concerns the distribution and dynamism of
information, namely, the extent of information expected vs.
unexpected (given vs. new or: theme-rheme structure).
If the informativity level is too high or too low, the addressee

will perform MOTIVATION SEARCH and strive for and
explanation in order to restore balance (James Bond/Harry
Potter).
INTERTEXTUALITY concerns the factors which make one text

dependent upon knowledge of another text (T-1 ! T-2), e.g.
parody, wordplay, allegory, quotation, footnote… for example,
Intertextuality based on linguistic form:

Cogito ergo sum.
我思故我在
I think therefore I am. (Descartes )
! I thought therefore I was.
I drink therefore I am. !I’m drunk, therefore I was.
To be or not to be. Shakespeare.
To beer or not to beer. Shakesbeer.
Drink is the curse of the working classes.

Work is the curse of the drinking classes. O. Wilde.
Graffiti Rules, OK.

X Rules, OK.
Einstein rules relatively, OK.
Heisenberg probably rules, OK.
Spanish rule, O’le.
On a dirty lorry.
“Make love, not war”
“See the driver for details”
On a dirty car:
“Wash me”
“Don’t wash me. Plant something”.
A British Airways poster:

“Breakfast in London. Lunch in New York.”
“And your luggage in Bermuda”
Intertextuality based on meaning/content: (characters,

storyline and plot)
Back in a minute. Godot.
The Bible! Narnia

The Odyssey ! Ulysses (Homer ! Joyce)
Homer’s The Iliad and the Odyssey ! Omeros (by Walcott)
T.S Eliot and his references/notes
Intertextuality also specifies the typology of texts:

DESCRIPTIVE texts (like frames)
NARRATIVE texts are (like schema)
ARGUMENTATIVE texts (like plans)
INTENTIONALITY involves the ACCEPTABILITY involves the

attitude of the speaker (or writer) to attain attitude of the listener (or reader) to discover
the special goal specified in a plan; thus the speaker’s plan and provide co-operation
concerns SPEECH ACTS (illocutionary with the plan; (Co-operation
force and perlocutionary effect and felicity Principle along with the four
conditions)
Maxims).
Literary pragmatics requires adjustments to the above theories, especially when it comes to
poetry and fiction, where The Maxim of Quality is violated, or intentionality – acceptability is
not fully observed due to the existence of IA – IR (Implied Author – TEXT – Implied Reader).
For similar reasons literary pragmatics will also need to restate the criterion of
SITUATIONALITY, which concerns the factors which make the text relevant to a
situation and is defined by participants, time and place.
Situation Monitoring vs. Situation Managing

Plan-box escalation: ‘beg-borrow or steal’
COGNITIVE STYLISTICS
Cognitive stylistics focuses on the relationship

between linguistic choices and stylistic effects [...],
in other words, it aspires to answer the question of
how linguistic patterns in texts reflect cognitive
processes (cf. Semino & Culpeper, 2002: ix-x).
Since Cognitive Semantics and Cognitive Grammar offer a set of well-established tools which are
bound to facilitate a clear-cut description of the relationship between MEANING AND GRAMMAR (or:
content and form) in both literary and non-literary modes of expression, they seem legitimate for
providing explanation how cognitive mechanisms can account for the uniqueness of personal and
cultural experience, including novelty in literary texts.
Australian experience bears the quality of utmost uniqueness, especially when viewed from
an externalist perspective. Users of English in Australia have been immersed in a highly unique
natural and social environment for more than 200 years, which has led to the emergence of what now
is known under the label of the ‘Australian character’ (regardless of how dynamic and elusive this
stereotype may appear today in the age of multiculturalism and globalisation). In the domain of
language the uniqueness of Australian experience is broadly reflected on such levels as pronunciation,
rhythm and intonation patterns, vocabulary, morpho-syntactic encoding and sociolinguistic/pragmatic
modes of interaction.
COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS
The main assumption of COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS is that language is tightly knit into our
cognitive structures and operates along with them. Language then is not relegated to some
separate little black box in the brain. Language, like general perception, relies on the
fundamental figure – ground alignment. An ACT OF PERCEPTION is viewed as an ACT OF
CONSTRUCTION (as in the case of the famous Wittgenstein’s rabbit-duck face).
Cognitive linguistics assumes that thought and meaning are both embodied and imaginative.
Meaning is assumed to be embodied in the sense that such concepts like shape, size, colour,
temperature, pitch, spatial orientation, temporal sequence, causation, etc. are directly
understood (on-line) through our senses and bodily motor programs, which constitute our
experiential potential. The imaginative nature of meaning of abstract concepts rests on such
structures as metaphoric and metonymic mappings, mental space blending and other virtual
operations (off-line).
The on-line v. off-line dichotomy bears some relation to the distinction (however simplified)
between pragmatics and semantics respectively:
Pragmatics ON-LINE Semantics OFF-LINE
public and inter-subjective private in intra-subjective

social space mental space
Usage based: involving particular utterances relevant Abstracted: involving potential meanings of words
to actual contexts and participants and grammatical constructions
Actual/Real Virtual/Potential
Peripherally connected (senses) Autonomous (imagination)
Embodied meaning Imaginative meaning
As in language acquisition semantic and constructional elements are acquired in particular

experiential contexts, semantics in not free from pragmatic entanglement. In a likewise
fashion pragmatic interpretations rely on virtual idealized knowledge structures that are stored
in the mind.
Concepts (or cognitive models) are open-ended ENCYLOPEDIC KNOWLEDGE structures in the
form of experiential gestalts of various degrees of complexity. Such an approach to meaning
assumes that human meaning is not encoded in the form of rule-governed abstract symbols,
but meaning is a product of mental processing, which conflates myriads of parameters
accommodated by our cognitive systems. Thus, mind is a process and meaning is equal to
conceptualisation.
In a likewise fashion, linguistic CONSTRUCTIONS in themselves carry CONCEPTUAL IMPORT. As

our minds are bodily connected, processing takes place in both realms on-line and off-line (or:
peripheral v. autonomous / actual v. virtual). When dreaming, for example, we are oblivious to
our surroundings and the process is entirely off-line (autonomous). Whereas during conscious
activities the on-line ~ off-line modes produce the so-called PERCEPTUAL CYCLE (connecting
feed-forward and feed-back), for instance, when playing tennis or improvising a jazz tune.
Imagination (the autonomous off-line) gives us the freedom to divorce the tangible reality.
Imagine, for instance a tennis ball made of chocolate rolling across the lawn made of marsh-
mellow pies, or Lucy in the sky with diamonds….
Words are like little ‘clarion calls’ that open up various ‘slices’ of our conceptual knowledge
structures. Consider the concept of <a cat> and what aspects come to your mind (shape,
touch, smell, sound, …). And what if one is allergic to cats? When an acoustic (or graphic)
form of a word appears, its concept is inevitably activated against the background of our
bodily experience (colour, shape, sound, temperature, force, motion, etc.). Thus, a CONCEPT is
to be understood as a MATRIX OF DOMAINS (D1, D2, D3… etc.). Consider further: <an
orange>, <beep>, <flash>, <the tango>, <check-mate>, etc. How would you characterise
those concepts against background elements of experience?
But lexical concepts do not come in isolation. They cluster in various relations with other
words forming GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS , for example: a crystal ball on a velvet
cushion, the cat under the blanket, the blanket over the cat, I sneezed…, or (!?)… The sneds
trobbed neadly at the glane, or: This bingy bing binged against that bing bingly at the bing.
Grammatical constructions are thus imagistic, very much like figures in a carpet. Hence,
grammar is image. Of course my <bings> here are a bit like little blocks of ice, but real
content words of a natural language (like nouns, adjectives and verbs) possess their respective
rich meanings understood against the background of colours, shapes, sounds, smells, tastes,
bodily motion in time and space, etc. Lexical concepts do not only come in frames, or scripts,
or scenarios, but they intimately interplay with the entire company of other words residing in
vicinity. Nay! More than that, there is also a strong interpenetration between the realm of
lexical concepts and grammatical constructions.
Thus, we can assume that ‘We know a word by the company it keeps. And every word can be
n-times polysemous’ (i.e. can have n-times different senses as POLYSEMY means one form –
many senses, e.g. red wine, red hair, red carpet, red book…). Consider also the verb <to sink>
and its polysemous senses [NOT on the handout]:
The storm sank the boat last night. (SVOA)
The ship sank last night. (SVA)
The sun sank in the sea. (SVA)
She sank her teeth in a juicy pear. (SVOA)
My heart sank. (SV)
Linguistic units are TOPOLOGICAL in nature, in other words, they preserve neutralities of
shape, size, closure, etc., and can be understood in terms of the plasticity of ‘rubber sheet
geometry’. Consider [NOT on the handout]:
this chair and that chair, this building and that building, this planet and that planet (size neutrality)
I ran across the field. I zigzagged across the field. I circled across the field. (shape neutrality).
Cognitive Grammar
Dimensions of imagery/construal
(camera work and focal adjustments)
When the union between LEXICAL CONCEPTS and GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS is created,
we are bound to face ‘stylistic novelty’. The potential for novelty is best illustrated when we
consider some additional parameters of cognitive processing. Let us call them ‘camera work’
or ‘dimensions of imagery’ (more technically ‘focal adjustments’ or ‘construal operations’).
Consider the following construal of the same situation: water in the bottle, the bottle with
water in it, the bottle is half full, the bottle is half empty.
CATEGORIZATION processes help to organize our experience. The residence of lexical

concepts in our mental space can be measured in two dimensions, namely the vertical
dimension between skeletal images and rich images (generic-specific) and the horizontal
dimension ranging from typical to non-typical instances (central-peripheral). Both modes of
categorization are known as CATEGORIZATION BY SCHEMA and CATEGORISATION BY
PROTOTYPE.
CATEGORIZATION BY SCHEMA along the generic > basic > specific spectrum:
ingest > drink > sip/gulp/slurp
ingest > eat > nibble/devour/gobble up
move > run > jog/sprint
animal > vertebrate > mammal > marsupial > kangaroo > wallaby
renders specific elements sip, nibble and sprint, or wallaby require the largest amount of
conceptual/experiential domains to characterise them. For instance <sip> is a type of
‘ingesting a liquid substance slowly in small quantities through a narrow opening in the
mouth’. The interpenetration of lexical items and grammatical constructions allows for a
creation of an even richer image, as in:
She leisurely sipped hot and steamy cappuccino from a tiny blue porcelain coffee-cup.
She thirstily sank her tiny sharp snow-white teeth in a juicy slice of mango.
CATEGORISATION BY PROTOTYPE, namely concerning the spectrum between typical –and –

rare instances, and rests upon the ‘goodness-of-example’ judgments. Thus our daily bread is
more representative for the category of <food> than caviar; as caviar is a rarity! Similarly,
common people are central while eccentrics are to be found away from the category centre
(sic!), etc.
It needs to be emphasized that the mechanism for categorization is universal for all human
beings, but the products of categorization are culture-specific, in other words, they depend on
our experience of the surroundings. For instance, black swans, cockatoos, galahs,
budgerigars … in Australia are not exotic in the sense they are exotic for Europeans.
SCOPE AND PROMINENCE address the F/G arrangement on the levels of lexical concepts and
grammatical constructions repectively.
SCOPE defines the amount of content in the background sufficient for a given
conceptualisation, for instance, <the eye> is sufficient to characterize <the iris>.
PROMINENCE helps to establish how prominent a linguistic concept is relative to another in a

construction in terms of figure and ground. For instance:
our cat’s tail (Gen./Nom) (NP-head = F)

the plane above the clouds vs. the clouds below the plane (NP-head = F)
Tim broke the vase with a stone, The stone broke the vase, The vase broke. (SUBJ. = F)
PERSPECTIVE concerns such elements as the POINT OF ACCESS (VANTAGE POINT) and
directionality of scanning. Such verbs as: come v. go, lend v. borrow, diverge v. converge, to
narrow v. to widen, etc. can activate perspective and virtual motion.
Also dynamic verbs and prepositional expressions activate virtual motion:
The highway runs from Mexico to Canada.

The highway runs from Canada to Mexico.
Consider also zooming out and zooming in operations in ‘nested locatives’:

The camera is on the top shelf in my study on the second floor in the building across the road.
The camera is in the building across the road on the second floor in my study on the top shelf.
Note also other examples of a static situation conceived of in terms of dynamicity, (i.e. virtual
motion):
The road diverges westwards vs.
The two roads converge eastwards.
The scenery was rushing by at the speed of 80 mph.
The tree casts a long shadow.
The sun shone into the cave.
The road sign points to the town.
Additionally, PERSPECTIVE involves degrees along the continuum of OBJECTIVE on-stag/

externalist vs. SUBJECTIVE off-stage/ego-centric/internalist viewing arrangements, (as actors
viewed on stage in a classical theatre vs. spectators becoming part of a participatory street
performance). Perspective calls for Genette’s concept of FOCALISATION in narrative fiction.
ABSTRACTION allows us to divorce ourselves from the concrete, as in the Rainbow Serpent or
the p number, a neutron, the law. Also generic uses: the telephone is a great invention, the car
pollutes atmosphere, the tiger lives in India involve abstracting away from real instances.
SELECTION is a reverse process. It adds fine aspects of reality into our description. It shows
clearly that human cognition bridges the integrated holistic experience with the focally tuned
aspectual entities that we choose to attend to. Selection allows us to grasp aspects of reality
attention to all detail, as in:
a tiny [SIZE] blue [COLOUR] porcelain [MATERIAL] coffee [PURPOSE] cup
In other words, selection allows for a linear arrangement of attention shifts towards separate
details.
Last, but not least. As has been pointed above the ‘marriage’ of words and grammatical
constructions involves the so-called PRODUCTIVITY OF A SCHEMA, and pushes towards an
even greater refinement in the creation of novelty of expression. Consider the following
(based on Fauconnier and Turner):
He removed the napkin off the table. (prototypical)

He sneezed the napkin off the table. (novel)
He made his way through the hallway. (prototypical)

He sneezed his way through the hallway. (novel)
He thought his way through the problem. (novel)
The train made its way across the country. (prototypical/conventional)

The train drummed its way across starlit bush. (novel) (Farwell: A Long Journey Home)
[THE TRAIN AS A MOVING DRUMMER - METAPHOR]
I strutted/swaggered/staggered my way to NP (WS)

I zig-zagged my way home. (WS)
I crawled my way to the bar. (WS)
I rolled my way out of the pub. (WS)
Here we arrive at the stage that requires an elaboration of METAPHOR, METONYMY AND
BLENDED MENTAL SPACES, where – respectively – novelty of expression is highlighted selectively by
analogy (as in novel metaphor), by profile shifting (as in metonymy), or selective projections from input mental
spaces onto the blended space.
COGNITIVE SEMANTICS
The embodied and imaginative nature of meaning is also the main tenet of Cognitive
Semantics. Cognitive Semantics is basically concerned with the conceptual nature of
metaphorical and metonymic framing of concepts in cognitive models and their embodiment
through image-schematic structures incorporated in our motor programs. The theory of
cognitive models is compatible with the theory of mental spaces and blends, also known as
The Conceptual Integration Theory. The evolution of these conceptions leads to a coherent
explanation of such phenomena as how a unique cultural, intellectual, emotive or aesthetic
experience can gain shape through a novelty of expression, including the stylistic quality of
literary expression.
Conceptual metaphor
The Theory of CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR and CONCEPTUAL METONYMY assumes the existence
of cross-domain and intra domain mappings (respectively) as occurring at the level of
conceptualisation, which produces also stylistic effects, among both conventional and novel
linguistic expressions.
Conceptual Metaphor:
Source Domain > Target Domain (SD) > (TD) involves cross-domain projection of ontological
and epistemic relations, and perceived similarity, hence is based on analogical reasoning.
Conceptual Metonymy:
((y)>Y)
involves intra-domain/profile shifting based on contiguity, and performs a referential function
Consider, for example, the CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR: TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT, which yields
such linguistic expressions as: time flies, time flows, time drags, etc. In general, conceptual
metaphor is understood as a mapping from Source onto Target, where the Target imports
appropriate ontological and epistemic correspondences consistent with communicative needs
to highlight and hide certain aspects of reality. Conceptual conventional as well as novel
metaphor rests upon perceived similarity.
Consider conventional conceptual and novel metaphors:
LIFE IS A JOURNEY, LIFE IS A PLAY, LIFE IS WAR… vs. life is a box of chocolates
LOVE IS A GAME, LOVE IS A JOURNEY… vs. love is a collaborative work of art
TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT… vs. time is a rainbow spanning the Universe
As can be observed, NOVEL METAPHORS also transfer certain structural and functional aspects
from the Source to the Target:
My flat is the Central Station. My garden is a jungle. My office is a Zoo.

The sun is sinking over the Munby range.
CENTRAL STATION " MY HOUSE , JUNGLE" MY GARDEN

ZOO " OUR OFFICE, SHIP/SEA " SUN/MUNBY RANGE
The SOURCE DOMAIN incorporates, in fact, the conceptual complexes described earlier in
terms of experiential gestalts [also dubbed as knowledge structures: conceptual frames,
scripts, scenarios]. These involve image schemata emerging from our motor programs (i.e.
CENTRE-PERIPHERY, PART-WHOLE, PATH, LINK, FORCE, CONTACT, CYCLE, ORIENTATIONS,
BALANCE, etc.), as well as other parameters and ‘vital relations’ integrated conceptually, such
SPATIO-TEMPORAL STRUCTURE, PROCESS [along with MANNER, MEANS, INSTRUMENT], CAUSE-
EFFECT (REASON-RESULT), AGENCY-INTENT AND PURPOSE, CONDITION, CONCESSION, etc.
Metaphorical mappings defining the same concept preserve TOPOLOGICAL COHERENCE (or
CONFIGURATION CO-REFERENCE). In other words, logic structures incorporated in image
schemata of bodily orientations and motor programs are preserved despite modifications of
orientation or dimensionality, hence they preserve topological neutralities. The celebrated
example of coherence is example 22, where logic is perfectly preserved in spite of mixing
various metaphorical mappings:
LIFETIME IS A DAY ~LIFETIME IS A YEAR (morning ~ spring = young age)

So far we have constructed the core of our argument.
ARGUMENT IS A JOURNEY (so far) #
ARGUMENT IS A BUILDING (we have constructed) $
ARGUMENT IS A CONTAINER (the core of our agrument)
ARGUMENT IS AN IN-DEPTH EXPLORATION (now we can dig deep into it) %
ARGUMENT IS A TWO-WAY EXPANSION (and expand on it)& #
$
$
&|&#|#
%
%
Configuration co-references also preserve the logical structure thanks to IMAGE SCHEMATIC
TRANSFORMATIONS and mental rotation. Image schematic transformations are, in fact,
instances of a metaphorical process, also dubbed earlier in terms of virtuality (cf. camera eye-
imagery construals), as in:
The crowd poured into the stadium. (MULTIPLEX IS MASS metaphor) virtual boundary
The road ran to the forest. (STATIC IS MOVING metaphor) virtual motion
Conceptual metonymy
Conceptual metonymy, operates on PART-WHOLE, ATTRIBUTE-WHOLE, CAUSE-EFFECT

alternations accommodated by profile-shifting within the same domain, where a certain
element within a given domain is profiled, but the entire domain becomes identified and
activated. It is grounded on contiguity and plays a referential function, thus provides a
referential short-cut. It can operate on the lexical level, as in 25-29, as well as on the levels of
higher conceptual complexes, i.e. 30-12 and 33-34:
John is chasing skirts. (=girls; part/attribute for whole)

I’m in the phone book. (=my name; person for name/phone number)
I hear the trumpet. (=the sound of a trumpet; effect for cause/source)
The White House is silent on that isssue. (=president; building for the official) (or: Canberra)
Plato is on the top shelf. (=book; author for the book)(or: David Malouf)
Consider also different selections of sub-domains and metonymic profile shifts within the
conceptual base of the <flight> frame between: air – plane – flying:
(A) How did you come here? (B) By air. (medium)
(A) How did you come here? (B) By plane. (vehicle)
(A) How did you came here? (B) I flew. (activity)
Due to such conceptual capacities of metonymy we can also extract and interpret a portion of
a conceptual script/scenario, for example, <taking a taxi> script. Consider:
(A) How come you are here? (B) I hailed a taxi. I flagged a cab at Martin Place.
(A) How come you are here? (B) I rang for the taxi.
Only one stage (part) of the ‘taking the taxi scenario’ is extracted and stands for the entire
event.
NOTE that: hijacking a taxi would be an instance of metaphtonymy operating between

metonymic stage extraction and a projection from the source airplane domain to the target
taxi domain.
***
Metaphorical extensions from the prototype and metonymic profile shifts within a conceptual
base, respectively, also produce LEXICAL POLYSEMY:
Polysemy based on metaphorical extension from the central member:

head as a body part > head of the nail,
leg as a body part > leg of the table,
neck as a body part > neck of a bottle
Polysemy based on a metonymic profile shift within the same domain:

church as A BUILDING v. the church as A CONGREGATION,
school as A BUILDING v. school as A GROUP OF STUDENTS v. school as AN INSTITUTION
(similarly: court, garage, book…)
NOTE:
I bind my Plato in leather. v. Plato is heavy to read.
The book is heavy to carry. V. The book is heavy to read.
MENTAL SPACES AND BLENDING

Image structuring processes can be best explained in terms of the Conceptual Integration
Theory, which is a consolidation of THE GENERIC IS SPECIFIC METAPHOR, THE INVARIANCE
PRINCIPLE AND THE THEORY OF MENTAL SPACES.
THE GENERIC IS SPECIFIC Metaphor provides evidence of the existence of some highly
schematic/skeletal structure, called the GENERIC STRUCTURE which can bridge many linguistic
conceptions, such as proverbs and other multiple ways of framing situations, and thus explain
such phenomena like paraphrase and translation. The generic level seems to preserve such
relations as space, time, process, causation, agency, purpose, etc. For example, such sayings
as: A bad workman always blames his tools and A blind man blames the ditch can be
interpreted through a common ‘blame-shifting’ scenario stored at the generic level.
Note also translation:

To kill two birds with one stone viz. Dwie pieczenie na jednym ogniu,
When in Rome do as Romans do viz. Jeśli wejdziesz miedzy wrony…
THE INVARIANCE PRINCIPLE assumes the preservation of topological structure across domains.
Image metaphors seem to be the best exemplars:
Mary is a rose bud. (I > I orientation preserved).
Her waist is an hour-glass ([)(] > [)(] transfer of shape)
)Bruce is a rounded balloon. (transfer of shape) O > O
MENTAL SPACES are set up locally as ‘mind states’ for the purpose of ongoing thought and
discourse. They can be structured by configurations of cognitive models. They are dynamic
and extendable. Various mental spaces are linked up by connectors, which convey role and
value allocations. Mental spaces are set up by means of space builders (MSB), such as
prepositional phrases of space and time, conjunctions, verbs of perception and cognition, etc.
Consider reality vs. belief spaces:

MBS [In real world] Lisa (role) has blue eyes (value),
but MSB [X believes] she (role) has green eyes (value).
{Lisa---blue eyes---}Real world----->{--Lisa---brown eyes}X’s belief

Consider also counterfactuality in HYPOTHETICAL SPACES:
If I were a millionaire, my VW would be a Rolls
THE CONCEPTUAL INTEGRATION THEORY (the theory of blending) assumes multidirectional

mappings among such mental spaces as:
{ GENERIC }
! "
{ }#{ }
INPUT 1 INPUT 2
${ }%BLEND
(a) projection from the generic space (skeletal space of ‘vital reletions’ of time, space, causation,
participant roles etc.):!"
(b) cross-space mapping between input spaces (akin to SD and TD in metaphor): #
(c) selective projections from input spaces $% into a novel structure in the blend.
BLENDING, also dubbed as ‘backstage of human cognition’, involves both linguistic and non-
linguistic situations, such as single concepts, analogies, proverbs, metaphors, counterfactuals,
thought experiments, symbolic behaviour, rituals, etc. At the level of conceptual processing
multiple mappings and selective projections allow for deciphering missing elements (implicit
knowledge) in an effortless and automatic fashion.
Analogies
The cutting down of the rain forest for economic gain
is like burning a Renaissance picture to cook dinner.
Proverbs
Music is the food of love.
Necessity is the mother of invention.
Metaphors
My surgeon is a butcher
Conterfactuals
If Clinton were the Titanic, the iceberg would sink
Everyday novel/creative expressions in discourse:

The stock-market in London suffered a hangover this morning.
An injection of sad music leaking from the radio this morning.
My daughter needs an injection of cash.
ANALYSIS:
Proverbs:

Mother : : Necessity
Child : : Invention

Person : : Love
Food : : Music
Analogies:
The cutting down of the rain forest for economic gain is like burning a Renaissance picture to cook dinner.
Generic Space
AGENT > INSTRUMENT > PATIENT
& PURPOSE
Input 1 Input 2
the cutting down of the rain forest :: burning a Renaissance picture
for economic gain :: to cook dinner.
Blended Space ::fully transparent
Everyday novel/creative discourse (radio, TV, journalism etc.):
The stock-market suffered a hangover this morning.

Generic
CAUSE misjudgenment
EFFECT negative outcome
Input 1 Input 2
PERSON STOCK-MARKET
CAUSE: excessive driniking CAUSE: excessive investment
EFFECT: hangover EFFECT: >>>>>>>>>>
Blended Space
novel structure
Stock-market
suffering a hangover
***
An injection of sad music leaking from the radio
Generic Space
SOURCE-PATH-GOAL
SUBSTANCE transfer
Input 1: Input 2:
AGENT: nurse AGENT: radio presenter
INSTRUMENT: syringe INSTRUMENT: radio
SUBSTANCE: liquid medicine STIMULUS: sad music
PATIENT: patient EXPERIENCER: listener
Blended Space
novel structure
An injection
of sad music
leaking from the radio
***
References:
Fauconnier, Gilles. Mental Spaces: Aspects of Meaning Construction in Natural Language. Cambridge, Mass./London: MIT Press/Bradford,
1985.
Fauconnier, Gilles. “Conceptual Blending and Analogy”, The Analogical Mind. Eds. D. Gentner, K. J. Holyoak, B. N. Kokinov. Cambridge
Mass./London, England, A Bradford Book MIT, 2001. 255-286.
Fauconnier, Gilles, and Mark Turner. “Compression and global insight”, Cognitive Linguistic Research, Vol. 11-3/4, 2000. 283-303.
Fauconnier, Gilles, and Mark Turner. “Blending as a Central Process of Grammar”, Conceptual Structure, Discourse and Language. Ed.
Adele Goldberg. CSLI Publications. Stanford, California. 1996. 113-130.
Gärdenfors, P. Conceptual Spaces: The Geometry of Thought. Cambridge, Mass./London, England:MIT Press, 2001.
Johnson, Mark. Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination and Reason. Chicago/London: Univerity of Chicago Press,
1987.
Lakoff, George. “Contemporary Theory of Metaphor”, Metaphor and Thought. Ed. A. Ortony. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1993. 202-251
Lakoff, George. Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago/London: University of Chicago
Press, 1987.
Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1980.
Lakoff, George and Mark Turner. More than Cool Reason: A Guide to Poetic Metaphor. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1989.
Langacker, Ronald W. Foudations of Cognitive Grammar, Vol. I., Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987.
Langacker, Ronald W. Concept, Image and Symbol: The Cognitive Basis of Meaning. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1990.
Langacker, Ronald W. Grammar and Conceptualization. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000.
Semino, Elena and Jonathan Culpeper (eds.), Cognitive Stylistics, Language and cognition in text analysis, John Benjamins Publishing
Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 2002.
Skrzypczak, Waldemar, Analog-Based Modelling of Meaning Representations in English, N.Copernicus Univesrity Press. 2006.
Turner, Mark. Cognitive Dimensions of Social Science. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Talmy, Leonard. Towards a Cognitive Semantics. Vol I: Concept Structuring Systems. Cambridge, Mass./London, England: Bradford Book,
MIT Press, 2000.
GENERIC TEMPLATE
Level 1 SPACE (SPACE adverbials: location, directional., orient.,
distance…)
Level 2 TIME (TIME adverbials: location, directionality, duration, span…)
Level 3 MOTION ( and PROCESS adverbials: manner, means, instrument)
Level 4 PHYS. CAUSATION (cause-effect: reason result adverbials)
Level 5 AGENCY (intent: purpose adverbials)
Level 6 CONDITION (IF x-1 … THEN… x-2 condition)
Level 7 CONCESSION (ALTHOUGH x-1 … NOT x-2… concession)
SPACE and scale of amount for plexity and mass:
100% all-many/much-some-a few/a little-few/little-no(ne) 0 %
3-D IN ! 2-D ON ■ 1-D AT ● loc. y

TO ♦======= STATE
a &
' l & PROCESS (dynamic)
(ORIENTATIONS) between o &
* n ======♦
g STATE (stative)
FROM
3-D IN ! 2-D ON ■ 1-D AT ● loc. x ------time-1■---------------------■
time-2
during
AT' AT (
ON" ON"
IN # ON#
FROM/SINCE TO/
TILL
TIME
and frequency:
100% always-often-sometimes-seldom-never 0%
EVENT STRUCTURE: STATES = LOCATIONS, CAUSES = FORCES, ACTIONS = SELF-

PROPELLED MOTIONS, MANNER ACTION = MANNER OF MOTION, DIFFICULTIES =
IMPEDIMENTS TO MOTION, DESTINATIONS = PURPOSES (Lakoff 1993)
Initial state (be/have) |----c-h-a-n-g-e---| Result state (be/have)
Affecting > ------------------------ >Affected
Space for
CASE&
SEMANTIC ROLES
FROM TO… FOR
BY WITH
for ENERGY transfer: break, melt, cut… destroy….collapse
SOURCE/AG "INST"PAT/GOAL
for LOCATION transfer: move, go, emerge, fly, float… give, send, sell… receive, get, buy…
SOURCE/AG "MVR"REC/GOAL
for STIMULUS transfer (also speech): show, look/see/look, listen/hear/sound… shock,
frighten, amuse, entertain, make…, convince… be happy/sad (as a result state)
SOURCE/AG "STIM"EXP/GOAL
1. windowing of attention horizontally [ ] zooming in and out
2. shifting the viewpoint perspective [ ] ! "[ ] viewpoint, access and
directionality of scanning
3. vertical and horizontal conflation of roles {[ ] [ ]}
double exposure
4. metaphorisation vertical mappings and horizontal mappings
Transitivity: John sliced bread. )

Reflexivity: John cut himself. +
Reciprocity: A and B wounded each other. #
GENERIC
TEMPLATE
for
SPACE TIME PROCESS
CAUSATION AGENCY
CONDITION
with space for
case & roles
from with to/for
by
AG "INST"PAT
AG "MVR"REC
AG "STIM"EXP
PARTITIVE
AG "INST"PAT CONSTRUCTION AG "INST"PAT
nurse syringe patient DJ radio ear-drums
AG "MVR"REC X OF Y AG "MVR"REC
medicine sound-waves
AG "STIM"EXP AG "STIM"EXP
Needle sensory music listener
n.
SAD MUSIC
AN INJECTION
AG "INST"PAT
AG "MVR"REC
AG "STIM"EXP AG
"STIM"EXP
AN INJECTION
OF
SAD MUSIC
O
GENERIC
TEMPLATE
for
SPACE TIME PROCESS
CAUSATION AGENCY
CONDITION
with space for
case & roles
from with to/for
by
AG "INST"PAT
AG "MVR"REC
AG "STIM"EXP
PARTITIVE
AG "INST"PAT CONSTRUCTION AG "INST"PAT
nurse syringe patient
AG "MVR"REC X OF Y AG "MVR"REC
medicine dad cash daughter
AG "STIM"EXP AG "STIM"EXP
needle sensory n.
AN INJECTION CASH
AG "INST"PAT
AG "MVR"REC
AG "STIM"EXP AG
"STIM"EXP
AN INJECTION
OF
CASH
Waldemar Skrzypczak
Notes on: Introduction to Text Linguistics by R. A. de Beaugrande and W. U. Dressler

Handout
A TEXT > UTTERANCE(S), e.g. No Smoking, For Sale & Continuity of senses
PROBLEM-SOLVING regulated by EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS and APPROPRIATENESS.
(A) The door-bell (B) I’m in the bath! (A) OK.
CRITERIA OF TEXTUALITY (or Constitutive Principles):

text-oriented: COHESION, COHERENCE, INFORMATIVITY, AND INTERTEXTUALITY
participant and situation-oriented: INTENTIONALITY, ACCEPTABILITY, SITUATIONALITY.
Grammar ~ Meaning.
Cohesion Coherence
(A) Are you going to Newcastle tomorrow? (A) Are you going to Newcastle tomorrow?
(B) No, I am not. (B) The buses are on strike.
COHESION concerns grammatical dependencies sentence structure, linking, co-referential devices

Anaphora INVOLVES BACKWARD REFERENCE TO SOME ANTECEDENT.
Cataphora involves a forward reference to some specification.
Full recurrence is a repetition of a lexical item.
Partial recurrence is a repetition of a lexical item in a different (derivational) form.
Parallelism is a repetition of a grammatical construction.
Paraphrase involves a verbal reformulation of a unit (while reference is preserved)
anaphora: Michelle was born in London in 1990. Her parents lived there at that time.
cataphora: After she had finished the novel, Virginia set out for a journey to America..
ellipsis: Tom lives in Paris and Sally Æ in London.
full recurrence: There once was a lady of Bygur who went for a ride on a tiger.
They returned from the ride with the lady inside and a smile of the face of the tiger.
partial recurrence: Tom is happy. His happiness is the source of his inspiration.
parallelism: A little bit of this. A little bit of that.
paraphrase: The murderer ~ The taker of life. The tiger ~ The big cat…
COHERENCE, as has been seen, involves concepts and relations among these concepts.
TEXT KNOWLEDGE (&CONTROL CENTRE) and WORLD KNOWLEDGE.
DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE and PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE.
GLOBAL PATTERN a conceptual package, a conceptual envelope.
CONSTRUCTION: concepts like buy, sell, pay, cost, price understood against the BACKGROUND FRAME of
<the commercial event>.
Consider:
I bought the book for 25 $.
They sold me the book for 25$.
The book cost me 25$.
I paid 25$ for the book.
GLOBAL PATTERN, which is made up of the following parameters:

PLAN: intended goal of action
SCRIPT: a routine plan (therefore much of our procedural knowledge is scripted)
INFORMATIVITY: expected vs. unexpected (given vs. new).

I (given) saw a girl yesterday (new).
The girl (given) was wearing a funny hat (new).
INTERTEXTUALITY T[Y]!T[X] e.g. parody, allegory, quotation

I think therefore I am. I thought therefore I was. Back in a minute. Godot.
The typology of texts:

DESCRIPTIVE texts are like frames (specifying participants, locations and attributes)
NARRATIVE texts are like schema (specifying temporal sequencing and cause-effect relations)
ARGUMENTATIVE texts are like plans (specifying the goal to convince
INTENTIONALITY involves the attitude of the speaker ACCEPTABILITY involves the attitude of the listener
(or writer) to attain the special goal specified in a plan (or reader) to discover the speaker’s plan and provide
co-operation with the plan.
SPEECH ACTS & FELICITY CONDITIONS
COMMISSIVE: a threat or a promise (x commits the speaker to doing sth in the future)
DECLARATIVE: nominating, naming, declaring (x changes the state of affairs: “I pronounce you. Man and wife”)
DIRECTIVE: “Please, sit down”, “Why don’t you sit down?” (x has the function of getting the listener to do sth.)
EXPRESSIVE: “The meal was delicious” (x in which the speaker expresses feelings and attitudes)
REPRESENTATIVE: “This is a German car” (x which describes the state of affairs in the world)
CO-OPERATION PRINCIPLE REQUIRES
THE MAXIM OF QUALITY: say what you believe to be true

THE MAXIM OF QUANTITY: say as much as necessary
THE MAXIM OF RELATION: be relevant, speak to the point
THE MAXIM OF MANNER: be orderly and clear
SITUATIONALITY: PARTICIPANTS, TIME AND PLACE.

SITUATION MONITORING and SITUATION MANAGING.
plan-box escalation: asking, bargaining, threatening, or even overpowering (e.g. beg-borrow or steal)
Waldemar Skrzypczak
Cognitive stylistics focuses on the relationship between linguistic choices and stylistic effects
(cf. Semino & Culpepper, 2002: ix-x). Relationship between MEANING AND GRAMMAR is central.
LANGUAGE, like general perception, relies on the fundamental FIGURE – GROUND alignment.
An ACT OF PERCEPTION is viewed as an ACT OF CONSTRUCTION.
It is manifested in the S>T comparison and scanning operations (summary and sequential scanning)
Meaning are both EMBODIED (ON-LINE) AND IMAGINATIVE (OFF-LINE).
The fundamental distinction between pragmatics and semantics can be grasped as follows:

Public Private
Inter-subjective Intra-subjective
Social space Mental space
to actual contexts and participants and grammatical constructions to be used
Actual Virtual
Real Potential
CONCEPTS (or cognitive models) are open-ended ENCYLOPEDIC

Mind is a PROCESS and meaning is equal to conceptualisation.
Linguistic CONSTRUCTIONS in themselves carry CONCEPTUAL IMPORT.

Our MINDS are bodily connected, processing takes place on-line and off-line.
These modes produce the so-called PERCEPTUAL CYCLE.
CREATIVITY (like dreaming and fantasy) rests on the OFF-LINE mode-first
WORDS activate configurations of knowledge.

A CONCEPT is to be understood as a MATRIX OF DOMAINS (D1, D2, D3…, etc.).
Lexical concepts cluster in various relations with other words forming GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS are thus IMAGISTIC (like figures in a carpet). GRAMMAR IS IMAGE.
THE INTERPENETRATION between lexical concepts and grammatical constructions rests at the core of novelty of
expression:
[1] She thirstily sank her tiny sharp snow-white teeth in a juicy slice of mango.
POLYSEMY: “We know a word by the company it keeps. And every word can be n-times polysemous”.
Consider <red> and <to sink>: red wine, red hair, red carpet, red book…
[2] The boat sank. (SV)
[3] The storm sank the boat. (SVO)
[4] The sun sank over the Munby Range. (SVA)
[5] She sank her teeth in a juicy pear. (SVOA)
[6] My heart sank. (SV)
LINGUISTIC UNITS are TOPOLOGICAL in nature, as they preserve neutralities of SHAPE, SIZE, CLOSURE, etc. [cf.
plasticity of ‘rubber sheet geometry’]:
[7] this chair and that chair, this building and that building, this planet and that planet (size neutrality)
[8] I ran across the field. I zigzagged across the field. I circled across the field. (shape neutrality).
COGNITIVE GRAMMAR
The union of LEXICAL CONCEPTS and GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS provides stylistic novelty.
The notion of CONSTRUAL of a situation (DIMENSIONS OF IMAGERY/FOCAL ADJUSTMENTS/CAMERA WORK): the
bottle is half full, the bottle is half empty.
CATEGORIZATION processes help to organize our experience:

CATEGORIZATION BY SCHEMA skeletal images and rich images (generic-specific)
CATEGORISATION BY PROTOTYPE typical to non-typical instances (central-peripheral)
[9] ingest > drink > sip/gulp/slurp
[10] move > run > jog/sprint
[11] animal > vertebrate > mammal > marsupial > kangaroo > wallaby
CATEGORISATION BY PROTOTYPE the spectrum of ‘goodness-of-example’; e.g. the category of <FOOD> daily
bread vs. caviar, <PEOPLE> common people vs. eccentrics… NOTE: black swans, cockatoos, galahs,
SCOPE AND PROMINENCE address the Figure/Ground (F/G) arrangement on the levels of LEXICAL CONCEPTS
and GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS respectively.
SCOPE: content in the background <the eye> is sufficient to characterize <the iris>.
PROMINENCE how prominent a linguistic concept is relative to another in a construction in terms of FIGURE AND
GROUND. For instance:
[12] our cat’s tail (Gen./Nom) (NP-head = F)
[13] the plane above the clouds vs. the clouds below the plane (NP-head = F)
[14] Tim broke the vase with a stone, The stone broke the vase, The vase broke. (SUBJ. = F)
PERSPECTIVE concerns the POINT OF ACCESS (VANTAGE POINT) and DIRECTIONALITY of scanning. Such verbs as:
come v. go, lend v. borrow, diverge v. converge, to narrow v. to widen, etc. can activate perspective and
virtual motion.
Also prepositional expressions activate virtual motion:
[15] The highway runs from Mexico to Canada.
[16] The highway runs from Canada to Mexico.
Also zooming-out and zooming-in operations in ‘nested locatives’:
[17] The camera is on the top shelf in my study on the second floor in the building across the road.
[18] The camera is in the building across the road on the second floor in my study on the top shelf.
Note also other examples of a static situation conceived of in terms of dynamicity, (i.e. virtual motion):
[19] The road diverges westwards vs. The two roads converge eastwards.
[20] The scenery was rushing by at the seed of 80 mph.
[21] The tree casts a long shadow.
[22] The road sign points to the town.
[23] The road cuts across the Nullarbor Plain.
PERSPECTIVE also involves degrees along the continuum of OBJECTIVE on-stag/externalist vs. SUBJECTIVE off-
stage/ego-centric/internalist viewing arrangements (cf. FOCALISATION).
ABSTRACTION away from the concrete (the p number, a neutron, the law. Also generic uses: the telephone,
the car, the tiger...
SELECTION allows us to grasp aspects of reality

[24] a tiny [SIZE] blue [COLOUR] porcelain [MATERIAL] coffee [PURPOSE] cup
THE UNION of words and grammatical constructions involves the so-called PRODUCTIVITY OF A SCHEMA:
[25] He made his way through the hallway. (prototypical)
[26] He thought his way through the problem. (novel)
[27] The train made its way across the country. (prototypical/conventional)
[28] The train drummed its way across the country. (novel) [THE TRAIN AS A MOVING DRUMMER – METAPHOR]
COGNITIVE SEMANTICS
The embodied and imaginative nature of meaning is also the main tenet of Cognitive Semantics.
CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR: (SD) " (TD) cross-domain projection of ontological and epistemic relations (based
on analogical reasoning and perceived similarity)
CONCEPTUAL METONYMY: ((y)>Y) involves intra-domain/profile shifting and performs a referential function
(based on contiguity)
Both (CONVENTIONAL) CONCEPTUAL AND NOVEL METAPHORS transfer certain structural and functional aspects
[30] LIFE IS A JOURNEY, LIFE IS A PLAY, LIFE IS WAR… vs. life is a box of chocolates
[31] LOVE IS A GAME, LOVE IS A JOURNEY… vs. love is a collaborative work of art
[32] TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT… vs. time is a rainbow spanning the Universe
[33] My flat is the Central Station. CENTRAL STATION " MY HOUSE

[34] My garden is a jungle. JUNGLE" MY GARDEN
[35] My office is a Zoo. ZOO " OUR OFFICE
[34] The sun is sinking over the Munby range. SHIP/SEA " SUN/MUNBY RANGE
The SOURCE DOMAIN incorporates experiential gestalts [knowledge structures: conceptual frames, scripts,
scenarios]. These involve: IMAGE SCHEMATA emerging from our motor programs (CENTRE-PERIPHERY, PART-WHOLE,
PATH, LINK, FORCE, CONTACT, CYCLE, ORIENTATIONS, BALANCE, etc.), as well as other parameters integrated conceptually: SPATIO-
TEMPORAL STRUCTURE, PROCESS [along with MANNER, MEANS, INSTRUMENT], CAUSE-EFFECT (REASON-RESULT), AGENCY-INTENT AND
PURPOSE, CONDITION, CONCESSION…
Metaphorical mappings are mutually COHERENT. They preserve TOPOLOGICAL NEUTRALITIES.

[35] LIFETIME IS A DAY ~LIFETIME IS A YEAR (morning ~ spring = young age) or:
[36] So far we have constructed the core of our argument.
$
$
&|&#|#
%
%
IMAGE SCHEMATIC TRANSFORMATIONS and mental rotation (dubbed earlier in terms of VIRTUALITY):
[37] The crowd poured into the stadium. (MULTIPLEX IS MASS metaphor - virtual boundary)
[38] The road ran to the forest. (STATIC IS MOVING metaphor - virtual motion)
CONCEPTUAL METONYMY operates on PART-WHOLE, ATTRIBUTE-WHOLE, CAUSE-EFFECT alternations

accommodated by profile-shifting within the same domain
[39] John is chasing skirts. (=girls; part/attribute for whole)
[40] I’m in the phone book. (=my name; person for name/phone number)
[41] Plato is on the top shelf. (=book; author for the book)
Metonymic profile shifts within the same conceptual base of the <FLIGHT> FRAME between: air – plane – flying:
[42] (A) How did you come here? (B) By air. (medium)//(B) By plane. (vehicle)//(B) I flew. (activity)
Metonymy in extracting a portion of a conceptual SCRIPT/SCENARIO <TAKING A TAXI> SCRIPT.

[43] (A) How come you are here? (B) I hailed a taxi. I flagged a cab at Martin Place.
[44] (A) How come you are here? (B) I rang for the taxi.
NOTE METAPHTONYMY: in <HIJACKING A TAXI>.
Metaphorical extensions from the prototype and metonymic profile shifts within a conceptual base, respectively,
also produce LEXICAL POLYSEMY:
POLYSEMY based on metaphorical extension from the central member:

[45] head as a body part > head of the nail,
[46] neck as a body part > neck of a bottle
POLYSEMY based on a metonymic profile shift within the same domain:

[47] church as A BUILDING v. the church as A CONGREGATION,
[48] school as A BUILDING v. school as A GROUP OF STUDENTS v. school as AN INSTITUTION
NOTE:
[49] I bind my Plato in leather. v. Plato is heavy to read.
[50] The book is heavy to carry.v. The book is heavy to read.
THE GENERIC IS SPECIFIC: the generic level seems to preserve such relations as: SPACE, TIME, PROCESS,
CAUSATION, AGENCY, PURPOSE… As in the proverb [blame-shifting scenario is shared]):
[51] The blind man blames the ditch v. a bad workman always blames his tools
[52] To kill two birds with one stone viz. (PL) Dwie pieczenie na jednym ogniu,
[53] When in Rome do as Romans do viz. (PL) Jeśli wejdziesz miedzy wrony…
THE INVARIANCE PRINCIPLE: the preservation of topological structure across the two domains of image
metaphors:
[54] Mary is a rose bud. (I > I orientation preserved).
[55] Her waist is an hour-glass ([)(] > [)(] transfer of shape)
[56] Bruce is a rounded balloon. (transfer of shape) O > O
MENTAL SPACES are set up locally as ‘mind states’ for the purpose of ongoing thought and discourse. They are
linked up by connectors, which convey role and value allocations. Mental spaces are set up by means of space
builders (MSB: such as: prepositional phrases of space and time, conjunctions, verbs of perception and
cognition…)

[57]
MBS [In real world] Lisa (role) has blue eyes (value), but MSB [X believes] she (role) has green eyes (value).
{Lisa---blue eyes---} Real world ----->{--Lisa---brown eyes}X’s belief

[58]
{I--- VW} Real world ----->{--millionaire---Rolls}Hypothetical world

THE CONCEPTUAL INTEGRATION THEORY (the theory of blending) assumes multidirectional mappings among
such mental spaces as:
{ GENERIC }
! "
{ }#{ }
INPUT 1 INPUT 2
${ }%BLEND
BLENDING at backstage of human cognition (linguistic and non-linguistic situations, single concepts, analogies,
proverbs, metaphors, counterfactuals, thought experiments, symbolic behaviour, rituals, etc. At the level of
conceptual processing multiple mappings and selective projections allow for deciphering missing elements
(IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE) in an effortless and automatic fashion.
Analogies:
[59] The cutting down of the rain forest for economic gain is like burning a Renaissance picture to cook dinner.
Proverbs:
[60] Music is the food of love.
[61] Necessity is the mother of invention.
Metaphors:
[62] My surgeon is a butcher
Counterfactuals:
[63] If Clinton were the Titanic, the iceberg would sink
[64] The stock-market in London suffered a hangover this morning.
[65] An injection of sad music leaking from the radio this morning.
[66] My daughter needs an injection of cash.
ANALYSIS:
Proverbs:
Child : : Invention
Person : : Love
Food : : Music
Analogies:
Generic Space
& PURPOSE
Input 1 Input 2

Generic
CAUSE misjudgment
Input 1 Input 2
PERSON STOCK-MARKET
CAUSE: excessive drinking CAUSE: excessive investment
Blended Space
novel structure
Stock-market
***
Generic Space
SOURCE-PATH-GOAL
SUBSTANCE transfer
Input 1: Input 2:
Blended Space
novel structure
An injection
of sad music
GENERIC TEMPLATE
Level 1 SPACE (SPACE adverbials: location, directional., orient., distance…)
Level 4 PHYSICAL CAUSATION (cause-effect: reason result adverbials)
English: a would-be artist Polish: nie-doszły artysta

Level 1 SPACE Level 1 SPACE
Level 2 TIME Level 2 TIME
Level 3 MOTION (PROCESS) Level 3 MOTION (PROCESS)
Level 4 CAUSE/REASON---EFFECT/RESULT Level 4 CAUSE/REASON---EFFECT/RESULT
Level 5 REASON (INTENT)---PURPOSE (RESULT OF INTENT) Level 5 REASON (INTENT)---PURPOSE (RESULT OF INTENT)
Level 6 CONDITION Level 6 CONDITION
Level 7 CONCESSION Level 7 CONCESSION
EVENT STRUCTURE: STATES ARE LOCATIONS, CAUSES ARE FORCES, ACTIONS ARE SELF-PROPELLED MOTIONS,
MANNERS ACTION ARE MANNER SOF MOTION, DIFFICULTIES ARE IMPEDIMENTS TO MOTION, DESTINATIONS ARE PURPOSES (Lakoff 1993)
SPACE MAXIMISED FOR NOUNS

and scale of amount for plexity and mass:
100% all-many/much-some-a few/a little-few/little-no(ne) 0 % (HOW MANY? HOW MUCH?)
WHO? WHAT? WHICH? WHERE? HOW FAR?
3-D IN! 2-D ON ■ 1-D AT ● loc. y [result/purpose]WHAT FOR?

TO ♦ ============ STATE (stative)
a &
' l & PROCESS (dynamic: manner/means)
* n ==========♦WHY?[reason]
g STATE (stative)
FROM
3-D IN! 2-D ON ■ 1-D AT ● loc. x ------time-1■---------------------■ time-2 WHEN? HOW
OFTEN?
during
AT' AT (
ON" ON"
IN # ON#
FROM/SINCE TO/TILL
TIME MAXIMISED FOR

VERBS
and frequency: 100% always-often-sometimes-seldom-never 0%
Initial state (be/have) |---------c-h-a-n-g-e--------| Result state (be/have)
Affecting > ----------------------------------------- >Affected

Space for
CASE&
SEMANTIC ROLES
FROM TO………… FOR
(beneficiary)
BY WITH
for energy transfer: break, melt, cut… destroy….collapse
SOURCE / AG "INST"PAT / GOAL

for object transfer: move, go, emerge… fly, float… give, send, sell… receive, get, buy…
SOURCE / AG "MVR"REC / GOAL

for stimulus transfer (also speech): show, look/see/look, listen/hear/sound… shock, frighten, amuse, entertain, make…, convince…
be happy/sad (as a result state)
SOURCE / AG "STIM"EXP / GOAL
CAMERA-EYE OPERATIONS WITHIN THE MATRIX:
(A) windowing of attention horizontally [ ] zooming in and out

(B) shifting the viewpoint perspective [ ] ! "[ ] viewpoint, access and scanning
(C) vertical and horizontal conflation of roles {[ ] [ ]} double exposure
(D) metaphorisation vertical mappings and horizontal mappings
THE ABOVE MATRIX CAN BE VIEWED WITH REGARD TO:

SYNTACTIC ROLES – MATRIX
[S] Subject [V] Verb [O] Object [O] Object [C] [A] Adverbial
Complement
NP"... V... NP"... NP" NP. " AdvP. "
PP"... AP "
SV: intransitive verb
Birds sing. Babies sleep. Students yawn, Tom smokes.
SVO: mono-transitive verb
I kissed her. I see you. Tom smokes a pipe.
SVOO: di-transitive verb
I sent her a card. I gave him a book. I showed him a photo.
SVOO: di-transitive verb (with Object Switch) I sent a card to her. I gave a book to him. I showed a photo to him.
SVC: linking/copular verb
Tom is/became a teacher/happy. She looks beautiful. He seems happy.
SVOC: complex-transitive verb
She made me sad. I consider you a genius. We nominated/elected him president.
SVOA: motion verbs (regarding object)
I put the book down. also: place/insert/locate… (Adverbial is obligatory)
SVA: location or motion verbs (regarding subject) They are at school. She went to London.
WILLIAM EASTLAKE: SOMETHING BIG IS HAPPENING TO ME
TOMAS TOMAS, behind his round cracked face and shallow-set lizard eyes, was one hundred years old, or
he was chasing one hundred. Or one hundred was chasing him, no one knew, least of all Tomas Tomas.
But early one morning nine months ago Tomas Tomas had gone down to the water hole in the arroyo and
had come back dying.
It was cold for a September in New Mexico. The old Indian medicine man, Tomas Tomas, would never
see another, warm or cold, and now he knew he would never see the end of this diamond-hard and dove-
blue New Mexican day – he sat dreaming in front of his log and conical hogan; he sat dreaming that the
white never happened; he sat dreaming that death never came. (selected from New American Short Story,
ed. Robert Creely)
WILLIAM EASTLAKE: PORTRAIT OF AN ARTIST WITH 26 HORSES
WITH EYES wet and huge the deer watched; the young man watched back. The youth was crouching over
a spring as though talking to the ground, the water pluming up bright through his turquoise-ringed hand,
and eddying black in the bottomless whorl it had sculptured neat and sharp in the orange rock . The rock
retreated to a blue then to an almost chrome yellow at the foot of the deer. The deer was coy, hesitant and
greasewood camouflaged excepting the eyes that watched limpid and wild. The young man called Twenty-
six Horses made a sweeping arc, raising his ringed hand from the spring. The deer wheeled and fled
noiselessly in the soft looping light, and now all around , above and far beyond where the youth crouched
at the spring, the earth was on fire in summer solstice with calm beauty from a long beginning day.; the
sky was on fire too and the spring water tossing down the arroyo was ablaze. The long Sangre de Cristo
range to the east had not fully caught; soon it would catch; not long after, in maybe half an hour, the
world would be all alight. (selected from New American Short Story, ed. Robert Creely)
DAVID MALOUF: THE SUN IN WINTER
It was dark in the church, even at noon. Diagonals of chill sunlight were stacked between the piers, sifting
down luminous dust, and so thick with it that they seemed more substantial than stone. He had a sense of
two churches. One raised vertically on gothic arches and a thousand years old, the other compounded of
light and dust, at an angle of the first and newly created in the moment of this looking. At the end of the
nave, set far back on the platform, like a miraculous vision, that the arctic air had immediately snap-
frozen, was a Virgin with a child at her knee. The Michelangelo. Selected from : Contemporary Australian
Short Story (ed. Murray Bail)
Expression: Source to Target mapping:
Diagonals of chill sunlight (SD: geometry) " (TD: solar beams)
Church compounded of light and dust (SD: light/dust) " TD: church)
Blades of ice slicing in off the sea (SD: blades) " (TD: ice) (SD: substance) "(TD: sea)
Crawling with fog (SD: animal) " (TD: fog)
A great wish burned up in him: (SD: fire) " (TD: wish)
Bells powdered with frost (SD: powder) " (TD: frost)

He had rather exhausted his interest in art (SD: resource) " (TD: interest)
There’s plenty of time (SD: resource) " (TD: time)
The claws of ivy (SD: predator) " (TD: ivy)
Picturesque corner of the past (SD: building) " (TD: time)
The voice came form the pew (SD: moving object) " (TD: voice)
His laughter came back to him (SD: moving object) " (TD: laughter)
A kind of grace came over him (SD: moving object/substance) " (TD: emotion)
Who had give birth to the decimal system (SD: children) " (TD: ideas)
Sick with love (SD: sickness) " (TD: love)
Zooming-in: At the end of the nave […] was a Virgin at her knee
Zooming-out: The cold afternoon in the fifties
Metonymy: painter for painting. Hospital full of Memlings and the splendid Van Eycks…The Michelangelo
MARJORIE BARNARD: THE PERSIMMON TREE
I saw in the spring come once and I won’t forget it. Only one. I had been ill all the winter and I was
recovering. There was no more pain, no more treatments or visits to the doctor. The face that looked back
at me from my old silver mirror was the face of woman who had escaped. I had only to build up my
strength. For that I wanted to be alone, an old and natural impulse. I had been out of things for quite a
long time and the effort of returning was still to great. My mind was transparent as tender as new skin.
Everything that happened, even the commonest things , seemed to be happening for the first time, and
had a delicate hollow ring like music played in an empty auditorium.
I took a flat in a quiet, blind street, lined with English trees. It was one large room, high ceiling with
pale walls, chaste as a cell of a honeycomb, and furnished with passionless, standardized grace of a
fashionable interior decorator. It had the afternoon sun which I prefer because I like my mornings
shadowy and cool., the relaxed end of the night prolonged as far as possible. When I arrived the trees
were bare and still against the lilac dusk. There was a block of flats opposite, discreet, well tended, with a
wide entrance. At night it lifted its oblongs of rose and golden light far up into the sky. One of its
windows was immediately opposite mine. It noticed that it was always shut against the air. The street was
wide but because it was so quiet the window seemed near. I was glad to see it always shut because I spend
a good deal of time at my window and it was the only one that might have overlooked me and flawed my
privacy.
I liked the room from the first. It was a shell that fitted without touching me. The afternoon sun threw
the shadow of the tree on my light wall and it was in the shadow that I first noticed…
Selected from : Contemporary Australian Short Story (ed. Murray Bail)
Categorisation by schema: plant>tree>persimmon tree

Categorisation by prototype: firebird (specific to Australia and other tropical regions)
Prominence: Figure-Ground:
There was a row of persimmon trees [F] down one side of the house [G]
When I arrived the trees [F] were bare and still against the lilac dusk [G]
The shadow [F-1] of the burgeoning bough [F-2] was on the white wall [G]
The shadow pattern [F] on my wall [G] was intricate and rich
I saw a woman’s figure [F] opposite the curtains [G]
Perspective (point of access and scanning):

Her window opposite mine (not mine opposite hers) […] I passed her in the street (not she passed me)
She was a lonely woman and so was I (not I was a lonely woman and so was she)
There was a block of flats opposite […] one of the windows was opposite mine [+ zooming in]
It was one large room, high ceiling with pale walls, chaste as a cell in a honeycomb, and furnished with the
passionless, standardized grace of a fashionable interior decorator
+ Fictive/virtual motion:
The afternoon sun threw shadow of the tree on my light wall […] The shadows of trees and buildings fell
Persimmons cast a rosy light/blaze deep red […] The sun has left the sill […] I saw the spring come
My blood ticked like a clock (simile) […] It was growing late and the sun would soon be gone
+ Zooming out:
I took a flat in a quiet, blind, street lined with English trees […] Dark gold fruit clinging to the branches
A watercolour, pretty and innocuous, hung on the wall […]A bowl appeared on the sill
+ Zooming in & [F] [G]:
The street [G] was wide but because it was so quiet the window [F] seemed near
The window [G] was open but there was a row of persimmons [F] set out carefully on the sill
It was a shell [F] that fitted me [G] without touching me [G]
Selection: a still warm milky day […] bowl of thick creamy pottery […] my old silver mirror
tiny, long spouted, hand-painted cans […] a quiet, blind street, lined with English trees (also zooming out)
Scope: The trees in the street showed green now, thick with budded leaves
Metaphors: My mind was transparent (SD: glass) -" (TD: mind)

Spring comes (SD: moving objects) " TD: seasons) […] The sun left (SD: moving object) " (TD: the sun)
Waldemar Skrzypczak
Notes on: Introduction to Text Linguistics by R. A. de Beaugrande and W. U. Dressler

Handout
A TEXT > UTTERANCE(S), e.g. No Smoking, For Sale & Continuity of senses
PROBLEM-SOLVING regulated by EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS and APPROPRIATENESS.
CRITERIA OF TEXTUALITY (or Constitutive Principles):

text-oriented: COHESION, COHERENCE, INFORMATIVITY, AND INTERTEXTUALITY
participant and situation-oriented: INTENTIONALITY, ACCEPTABILITY, SITUATIONALITY.
Grammar ~ Meaning.
Cohesion Coherence
(A) Are you going to Newcastle tomorrow? (A) Are you going to Newcastle tomorrow?
(B) No, I am not. (B) The buses are on strike.
COHESION concerns grammatical dependencies sentence structure, linking, co-referential devices

Anaphora INVOLVES BACKWARD REFERENCE TO SOME ANTECEDENT.
Cataphora involves a forward reference to some specification.
Full recurrence is a repetition of a lexical item.
Partial recurrence is a repetition of a lexical item in a different (derivational) form.
Parallelism is a repetition of a grammatical construction.
Paraphrase involves a verbal reformulation of a unit (while reference is preserved)
anaphora: Michelle was born in London in 1990. Her parents lived there at that time.
cataphora: After she had finished the novel, Virginia set out for a journey to America..
ellipsis: Tom lives in Paris and Sally Æ in London.
full recurrence: There once was a lady of Bygur who went for a ride on a tiger.
They returned from the ride with the lady inside and a smile of the face of the tiger.
partial recurrence: Tom is happy. His happiness is the source of his inspiration.
parallelism: A little bit of this. A little bit of that.
paraphrase: The murderer ~ The taker of life. The tiger ~ The big cat…
COHERENCE, as has been seen, involves concepts and relations among these concepts.
TEXT KNOWLEDGE (&CONTROL CENTRE) and WORLD KNOWLEDGE.
DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE and PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE.
GLOBAL PATTERN a conceptual package, a conceptual envelope.
CONSTRUCTION: concepts like buy, sell, pay, cost, price understood against the BACKGROUND FRAME of
<the commercial event>.
Consider:
I bought the book for 25 $.
They sold me the book for 25$.
The book cost me 25$.
I paid 25$ for the book.
GLOBAL PATTERN, which is made up of the following parameters:

PLAN: intended goal of action
SCRIPT: a routine plan (therefore much of our procedural knowledge is scripted)
INFORMATIVITY: expected vs. unexpected (given vs. new).

I (given) saw a girl yesterday (new).
The girl (given) was wearing a funny hat (new).
INTERTEXTUALITY T[Y]!T[X] e.g. parody, allegory, quotation

I think therefore I am. I thought therefore I was. Back in a minute. Godot.
The typology of texts:

DESCRIPTIVE texts are like frames (specifying participants, locations and attributes)
NARRATIVE texts are like schema (specifying temporal sequencing and cause-effect relations)
ARGUMENTATIVE texts are like plans (specifying the goal to convince
INTENTIONALITY involves the attitude of the speaker ACCEPTABILITY involves the attitude of the listener
(or writer) to attain the special goal specified in a plan (or reader) to discover the speaker’s plan and provide
co-operation with the plan.
SPEECH ACTS & FELICITY CONDITIONS
COMMISSIVE: a threat or a promise (x commits the speaker to doing sth in the future)
DECLARATIVE: nominating, naming, declaring (x changes the state of affairs: “I pronounce you. Man and wife”)
DIRECTIVE: “Please, sit down”, “Why don’t you sit down?” (x has the function of getting the listener to do sth.)
EXPRESSIVE: “The meal was delicious” (x in which the speaker expresses feelings and attitudes)
REPRESENTATIVE: “This is a German car” (x which describes the state of affairs in the world)
CO-OPERATION PRINCIPLE REQUIRES
THE MAXIM OF QUALITY: say what you believe to be true

THE MAXIM OF QUANTITY: say as much as necessary
THE MAXIM OF RELATION: be relevant, speak to the point
THE MAXIM OF MANNER: be orderly and clear
SITUATIONALITY: PARTICIPANTS, TIME AND PLACE.

SITUATION MONITORING and SITUATION MANAGING.
plan-box escalation: asking, bargaining, threatening, or even overpowering (e.g. beg-borrow or steal)
Waldemar Skrzypczak
Cognitive stylistics focuses on the relationship between linguistic choices and stylistic effects
(cf. Semino & Culpepper, 2002: ix-x). Relationship between MEANING AND GRAMMAR is central.
LANGUAGE, like general perception, relies on the fundamental FIGURE – GROUND alignment.
An ACT OF PERCEPTION is viewed as an ACT OF CONSTRUCTION.
It is manifested in the S>T comparison and scanning operations (summary and sequential scanning)
Meaning are both EMBODIED (ON-LINE) AND IMAGINATIVE (OFF-LINE).
The fundamental distinction between pragmatics and semantics can be grasped as follows:

Public Private
Inter-subjective Intra-subjective
Social space Mental space
to actual contexts and participants and grammatical constructions to be used
Actual Virtual
Real Potential
CONCEPTS (or cognitive models) are open-ended ENCYLOPEDIC

Mind is a PROCESS and meaning is equal to conceptualisation.
Linguistic CONSTRUCTIONS in themselves carry CONCEPTUAL IMPORT.

Our MINDS are bodily connected, processing takes place on-line and off-line.
These modes produce the so-called PERCEPTUAL CYCLE.
CREATIVITY (like dreaming and fantasy) rests on the OFF-LINE mode-first
WORDS activate configurations of knowledge.

A CONCEPT is to be understood as a MATRIX OF DOMAINS (D1, D2, D3…, etc.).
Lexical concepts cluster in various relations with other words forming GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS are thus IMAGISTIC (like figures in a carpet). GRAMMAR IS IMAGE.
THE INTERPENETRATION between lexical concepts and grammatical constructions rests at the core of novelty of
expression:
[1] She thirstily sank her tiny sharp snow-white teeth in a juicy slice of mango.
POLYSEMY: “We know a word by the company it keeps. And every word can be n-times polysemous”.
Consider <red> and <to sink>: red wine, red hair, red carpet, red book…
[2] The boat sank. (SV)
[3] The storm sank the boat. (SVO)
[4] The sun sank over the Munby Range. (SVA)
[5] She sank her teeth in a juicy pear. (SVOA)
[6] My heart sank. (SV)
LINGUISTIC UNITS are TOPOLOGICAL in nature, as they preserve neutralities of SHAPE, SIZE, CLOSURE, etc. [cf.
plasticity of ‘rubber sheet geometry’]:
[7] this chair and that chair, this building and that building, this planet and that planet (size neutrality)
[8] I ran across the field. I zigzagged across the field. I circled across the field. (shape neutrality).
COGNITIVE GRAMMAR
The union of LEXICAL CONCEPTS and GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS provides stylistic novelty.
The notion of CONSTRUAL of a situation (DIMENSIONS OF IMAGERY/FOCAL ADJUSTMENTS/CAMERA WORK): the
bottle is half full, the bottle is half empty.
CATEGORIZATION processes help to organize our experience:

CATEGORIZATION BY SCHEMA skeletal images and rich images (generic-specific)
CATEGORISATION BY PROTOTYPE typical to non-typical instances (central-peripheral)
[9] ingest > drink > sip/gulp/slurp
[10] move > run > jog/sprint
[11] animal > vertebrate > mammal > marsupial > kangaroo > wallaby
CATEGORISATION BY PROTOTYPE the spectrum of ‘goodness-of-example’; e.g. the category of <FOOD> daily
bread vs. caviar, <PEOPLE> common people vs. eccentrics… NOTE: black swans, cockatoos, galahs,
SCOPE AND PROMINENCE address the Figure/Ground (F/G) arrangement on the levels of LEXICAL CONCEPTS
and GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS respectively.
SCOPE: content in the background <the eye> is sufficient to characterize <the iris>.
PROMINENCE how prominent a linguistic concept is relative to another in a construction in terms of FIGURE AND
GROUND. For instance:
[12] our cat’s tail (Gen./Nom) (NP-head = F)
[13] the plane above the clouds vs. the clouds below the plane (NP-head = F)
[14] Tim broke the vase with a stone, The stone broke the vase, The vase broke. (SUBJ. = F)
PERSPECTIVE concerns the POINT OF ACCESS (VANTAGE POINT) and DIRECTIONALITY of scanning. Such verbs as:
come v. go, lend v. borrow, diverge v. converge, to narrow v. to widen, etc. can activate perspective and
virtual motion.
Also prepositional expressions activate virtual motion:
[15] The highway runs from Mexico to Canada.
[16] The highway runs from Canada to Mexico.
Also zooming-out and zooming-in operations in ‘nested locatives’:
[17] The camera is on the top shelf in my study on the second floor in the building across the road.
[18] The camera is in the building across the road on the second floor in my study on the top shelf.
Note also other examples of a static situation conceived of in terms of dynamicity, (i.e. virtual motion):
[19] The road diverges westwards vs. The two roads converge eastwards.
[20] The scenery was rushing by at the seed of 80 mph.
[21] The tree casts a long shadow.
[22] The road sign points to the town.
[23] The road cuts across the Nullarbor Plain.
PERSPECTIVE also involves degrees along the continuum of OBJECTIVE on-stag/externalist vs. SUBJECTIVE off-
stage/ego-centric/internalist viewing arrangements (cf. FOCALISATION).
ABSTRACTION away from the concrete (the p number, a neutron, the law. Also generic uses: the telephone,
the car, the tiger...
SELECTION allows us to grasp aspects of reality

[24] a tiny [SIZE] blue [COLOUR] porcelain [MATERIAL] coffee [PURPOSE] cup
THE UNION of words and grammatical constructions involves the so-called PRODUCTIVITY OF A SCHEMA:
[25] He made his way through the hallway. (prototypical)
[26] He thought his way through the problem. (novel)
[27] The train made its way across the country. (prototypical/conventional)
[28] The train drummed its way across the country. (novel) [THE TRAIN AS A MOVING DRUMMER – METAPHOR]
COGNITIVE SEMANTICS
The embodied and imaginative nature of meaning is also the main tenet of Cognitive Semantics.
CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR: (SD) " (TD) cross-domain projection of ontological and epistemic relations (based
on analogical reasoning and perceived similarity)
CONCEPTUAL METONYMY: ((y)>Y) involves intra-domain/profile shifting and performs a referential function
(based on contiguity)
Both (CONVENTIONAL) CONCEPTUAL AND NOVEL METAPHORS transfer certain structural and functional aspects
[30] LIFE IS A JOURNEY, LIFE IS A PLAY, LIFE IS WAR… vs. life is a box of chocolates
[31] LOVE IS A GAME, LOVE IS A JOURNEY… vs. love is a collaborative work of art
[32] TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT… vs. time is a rainbow spanning the Universe
[33] My flat is the Central Station. CENTRAL STATION " MY HOUSE

[34] My garden is a jungle. JUNGLE" MY GARDEN
[35] My office is a Zoo. ZOO " OUR OFFICE
[34] The sun is sinking over the Munby range. SHIP/SEA " SUN/MUNBY RANGE
The SOURCE DOMAIN incorporates experiential gestalts [knowledge structures: conceptual frames, scripts,
scenarios]. These involve: IMAGE SCHEMATA emerging from our motor programs (CENTRE-PERIPHERY, PART-WHOLE,
PATH, LINK, FORCE, CONTACT, CYCLE, ORIENTATIONS, BALANCE, etc.), as well as other parameters integrated conceptually: SPATIO-
TEMPORAL STRUCTURE, PROCESS [along with MANNER, MEANS, INSTRUMENT], CAUSE-EFFECT (REASON-RESULT), AGENCY-INTENT AND
PURPOSE, CONDITION, CONCESSION…
Metaphorical mappings are mutually COHERENT. They preserve TOPOLOGICAL NEUTRALITIES.

[35] LIFETIME IS A DAY ~LIFETIME IS A YEAR (morning ~ spring = young age) or:
[36] So far we have constructed the core of our argument.
$
$
&|&#|#
%
%
IMAGE SCHEMATIC TRANSFORMATIONS and mental rotation (dubbed earlier in terms of VIRTUALITY):
[37] The crowd poured into the stadium. (MULTIPLEX IS MASS metaphor - virtual boundary)
[38] The road ran to the forest. (STATIC IS MOVING metaphor - virtual motion)
CONCEPTUAL METONYMY operates on PART-WHOLE, ATTRIBUTE-WHOLE, CAUSE-EFFECT alternations
accommodated by profile-shifting within the same domain
[39] John is chasing skirts. (=girls; part/attribute for whole)
[40] I’m in the phone book. (=my name; person for name/phone number)
[41] Plato is on the top shelf. (=book; author for the book)
Metonymic profile shifts within the same conceptual base of the <FLIGHT> FRAME between: air – plane – flying:
[42] (A) How did you come here? (B) By air. (medium)//(B) By plane. (vehicle)//(B) I flew. (activity)
Metonymy in extracting a portion of a conceptual SCRIPT/SCENARIO <TAKING A TAXI> SCRIPT.

[43] (A) How come you are here? (B) I hailed a taxi. I flagged a cab at Martin Place.
[44] (A) How come you are here? (B) I rang for the taxi.
NOTE METAPHTONYMY: in <HIJACKING A TAXI>.
Metaphorical extensions from the prototype and metonymic profile shifts within a conceptual base, respectively,
also produce LEXICAL POLYSEMY:
POLYSEMY based on metaphorical extension from the central member:

[45] head as a body part > head of the nail,
[46] neck as a body part > neck of a bottle
POLYSEMY based on a metonymic profile shift within the same domain:

[47] church as A BUILDING v. the church as A CONGREGATION,
[48] school as A BUILDING v. school as A GROUP OF STUDENTS v. school as AN INSTITUTION
NOTE:
[49] I bind my Plato in leather. v. Plato is heavy to read.
[50] The book is heavy to carry.v. The book is heavy to read.
THE GENERIC IS SPECIFIC: the generic level seems to preserve such relations as: SPACE, TIME, PROCESS,
CAUSATION, AGENCY, PURPOSE… As in the proverb [blame-shifting scenario is shared]):
[51] The blind man blames the ditch v. a bad workman always blames his tools
[52] To kill two birds with one stone viz. (PL) Dwie pieczenie na jednym ogniu,
[53] When in Rome do as Romans do viz. (PL) Jeśli wejdziesz miedzy wrony…
THE INVARIANCE PRINCIPLE: the preservation of topological structure across the two domains of image
metaphors:
[54] Mary is a rose bud. (I > I orientation preserved).
[55] Her waist is an hour-glass ([)(] > [)(] transfer of shape)
[56] Bruce is a rounded balloon. (transfer of shape) O > O
MENTAL SPACES are set up locally as ‘mind states’ for the purpose of ongoing thought and discourse. They are
linked up by connectors, which convey role and value allocations. Mental spaces are set up by means of space
builders (MSB: such as: prepositional phrases of space and time, conjunctions, verbs of perception and
cognition…)

[57]
MBS [In real world] Lisa (role) has blue eyes (value), but MSB [X believes] she (role) has green eyes (value).
{Lisa---blue eyes---} Real world ----->{--Lisa---brown eyes}X’s belief

[58]
{I--- VW} Real world ----->{--millionaire---Rolls}Hypothetical world

THE CONCEPTUAL INTEGRATION THEORY (the theory of blending) assumes multidirectional mappings among
such mental spaces as:
{ GENERIC }
! "
{ }#{ }
INPUT 1 INPUT 2
${ }% BLEND
BLENDING at backstage of human cognition (linguistic and non-linguistic situations, single concepts, analogies,
proverbs, metaphors, counterfactuals, thought experiments, symbolic behaviour, rituals, etc. At the level of
conceptual processing multiple mappings and selective projections allow for deciphering missing elements
(IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE) in an effortless and automatic fashion.
Analogies:
[59] The cutting down of the rain forest for economic gain is like burning a Renaissance picture to cook dinner.
Proverbs:
[60] Music is the food of love.
[61] Necessity is the mother of invention.
Metaphors:
[62] My surgeon is a butcher
Counterfactuals:
[63] If Clinton were the Titanic, the iceberg would sink
[64] The stock-market in London suffered a hangover this morning.
[65] An injection of sad music leaking from the radio this morning.
[66] My daughter needs an injection of cash.
ANALYSIS:
Proverbs:
Child : : Invention
Person : : Love
Food : : Music
Analogies:
Generic Space
& PURPOSE
Input 1 Input 2

Generic
CAUSE misjudgment
Input 1 Input 2
PERSON STOCK-MARKET
CAUSE: excessive drinking CAUSE: excessive investment
Blended Space
novel structure
Stock-market
***
Generic Space
SOURCE-PATH-GOAL
SUBSTANCE transfer
Input 1: Input 2:
Blended Space
novel structure
An injection
of sad music
GENERIC TEMPLATE
Level 1 SPACE (SPACE adverbials: location, directional., orient., distance…)
Level 4 PHYSICAL CAUSATION (cause-effect: reason result adverbials)
English: a would-be artist Polish: nie-doszły artysta

Level 1 SPACE Level 1 SPACE
Level 2 TIME Level 2 TIME
Level 3 MOTION (PROCESS) Level 3 MOTION (PROCESS)
Level 4 CAUSE/REASON---EFFECT/RESULT Level 4 CAUSE/REASON---EFFECT/RESULT
Level 5 REASON (INTENT)---PURPOSE (RESULT OF INTENT) Level 5 REASON (INTENT)---PURPOSE (RESULT OF INTENT)
Level 6 CONDITION Level 6 CONDITION
Level 7 CONCESSION Level 7 CONCESSION
EVENT STRUCTURE: STATES ARE LOCATIONS, CAUSES ARE FORCES, ACTIONS ARE SELF-PROPELLED MOTIONS,
MANNERS ACTION ARE MANNER SOF MOTION, DIFFICULTIES ARE IMPEDIMENTS TO MOTION, DESTINATIONS ARE PURPOSES (Lakoff 1993)
SPACE MAXIMISED FOR NOUNS
and scale of amount for plexity and mass:
100% all-many/much-some-a few/a little-few/little-no(ne) 0 % (HOW MANY? HOW MUCH?)
WHO? WHAT? WHICH? WHERE? HOW FAR?
3-D IN! 2-D ON ■ 1-D AT ● loc. y [result/purpose]WHAT FOR?

TO ♦ ============ STATE (stative)
a &
' l & PROCESS (dynamic: manner/means)
* n ==========♦WHY?[reason]
g STATE (stative)
FROM
3-D IN! 2-D ON ■ 1-D AT ● loc. x ------time-1■---------------------■ time-2 WHEN? HOW
OFTEN?
during
AT' AT (
ON" ON"
IN # ON#
FROM/SINCE TO/TILL
TIME MAXIMISED FOR

VERBS
and frequency: 100% always-often-sometimes-seldom-never 0%
Initial state (be/have) |---------c-h-a-n-g-e--------| Result state (be/have)
Affecting > ----------------------------------------- >Affected

Space for
CASE&
SEMANTIC ROLES
FROM TO………… FOR
(beneficiary)
BY WITH
for energy transfer: break, melt, cut… destroy….collapse
SOURCE / AG "INST"PAT / GOAL

for object transfer: move, go, emerge… fly, float… give, send, sell… receive, get, buy…
SOURCE / AG "MVR"REC / GOAL

for stimulus transfer (also speech): show, look/see/look, listen/hear/sound… shock, frighten, amuse, entertain, make…, convince…
be happy/sad (as a result state)
SOURCE / AG "STIM"EXP / GOAL
CAMERA-EYE OPERATIONS WITHIN THE MATRIX:
(A) windowing of attention horizontally [ ] zooming in and out

(B) shifting the viewpoint perspective [ ] ! "[ ] viewpoint, access and scanning
(C) vertical and horizontal conflation of roles {[ ] [ ]} double exposure
(D) metaphorisation vertical mappings and horizontal mappings
THE ABOVE MATRIX CAN BE VIEWED WITH REGARD TO:

SYNTACTIC ROLES – MATRIX
[S] Subject [V] Verb [O] Object [O] Object [C] [A] Adverbial
Complement
NP"... V... NP"... NP" NP. " AdvP. "
PP"... AP "
SV: intransitive verb
Birds sing. Babies sleep. Students yawn, Tom smokes.
SVO: mono-transitive verb
I kissed her. I see you. Tom smokes a pipe.
SVOO: di-transitive verb
I sent her a card. I gave him a book. I showed him a photo.
SVOO: di-transitive verb (with Object Switch) I sent a card to her. I gave a book to him. I showed a photo to him.
SVC: linking/copular verb
Tom is/became a teacher/happy. She looks beautiful. He seems happy.
SVOC: complex-transitive verb
She made me sad. I consider you a genius. We nominated/elected him president.
SVOA: motion verbs (regarding object)
I put the book down. also: place/insert/locate… (Adverbial is obligatory)
SVA: location or motion verbs (regarding subject) They are at school. She went to London.
WILLIAM EASTLAKE: SOMETHING BIG IS HAPPENING TO ME
TOMAS TOMAS, behind his round cracked face and shallow-set lizard eyes, was one hundred years old, or
he was chasing one hundred. Or one hundred was chasing him, no one knew, least of all Tomas Tomas.
But early one morning nine months ago Tomas Tomas had gone down to the water hole in the arroyo and
had come back dying.
It was cold for a September in New Mexico. The old Indian medicine man, Tomas Tomas, would never
see another, warm or cold, and now he knew he would never see the end of this diamond-hard and dove-
blue New Mexican day – he sat dreaming in front of his log and conical hogan; he sat dreaming that the
white never happened; he sat dreaming that death never came. (selected from New American Short Story,
ed. Robert Creely)
WILLIAM EASTLAKE: PORTRAIT OF AN ARTIST WITH 26 HORSES
WITH EYES wet and huge the deer watched; the young man watched back. The youth was crouching over
a spring as though talking to the ground, the water pluming up bright through his turquoise-ringed hand,
and eddying black in the bottomless whorl it had sculptured neat and sharp in the orange rock . The rock
retreated to a blue then to an almost chrome yellow at the foot of the deer. The deer was coy, hesitant and
greasewood camouflaged excepting the eyes that watched limpid and wild. The young man called Twenty-
six Horses made a sweeping arc, raising his ringed hand from the spring. The deer wheeled and fled
noiselessly in the soft looping light, and now all around , above and far beyond where the youth crouched
at the spring, the earth was on fire in summer solstice with calm beauty from a long beginning day.; the
sky was on fire too and the spring water tossing down the arroyo was ablaze. The long Sangre de Cristo
range to the east had not fully caught; soon it would catch; not long after, in maybe half an hour, the
world would be all alight. (selected from New American Short Story, ed. Robert Creely)
DAVID MALOUF: THE SUN IN WINTER
It was dark in the church, even at noon. Diagonals of chill sunlight were stacked between the piers, sifting
down luminous dust, and so thick with it that they seemed more substantial than stone. He had a sense of
two churches. One raised vertically on gothic arches and a thousand years old, the other compounded of
light and dust, at an angle of the first and newly created in the moment of this looking. At the end of the
nave, set far back on the platform, like a miraculous vision, that the arctic air had immediately snap-
frozen, was a Virgin with a child at her knee. The Michelangelo. Selected from : Contemporary Australian
Short Story (ed. Murray Bail)
Expression: Source to Target mapping:
Diagonals of chill sunlight (SD: geometry) " (TD: solar beams)
Church compounded of light and dust (SD: light/dust) " TD: church)
Blades of ice slicing in off the sea (SD: blades) " (TD: ice) (SD: substance) "(TD: sea)
Crawling with fog (SD: animal) " (TD: fog)
A great wish burned up in him: (SD: fire) " (TD: wish)
Bells powdered with frost (SD: powder) " (TD: frost)
He had rather exhausted his interest in art (SD: resource) " (TD: interest)
There’s plenty of time (SD: resource) " (TD: time)
The claws of ivy (SD: predator) " (TD: ivy)
Picturesque corner of the past (SD: building) " (TD: time)
The voice came form the pew (SD: moving object) " (TD: voice)
His laughter came back to him (SD: moving object) " (TD: laughter)
A kind of grace came over him (SD: moving object/substance) " (TD: emotion)
Who had give birth to the decimal system (SD: children) " (TD: ideas)
Sick with love (SD: sickness) " (TD: love)

Zooming-in: At the end of the nave […] was a Virgin at her knee
Zooming-out: The cold afternoon in the fifties
Metonymy: painter for painting. Hospital full of Memlings and the splendid Van Eycks…The Michelangelo
MARJORIE BARNARD: THE PERSIMMON TREE
I saw in the spring come once and I won’t forget it. Only one. I had been ill all the winter and I was
recovering. There was no more pain, no more treatments or visits to the doctor. The face that looked back
at me from my old silver mirror was the face of woman who had escaped. I had only to build up my
strength. For that I wanted to be alone, an old and natural impulse. I had been out of things for quite a
long time and the effort of returning was still to great. My mind was transparent as tender as new skin.
Everything that happened, even the commonest things , seemed to be happening for the first time, and
had a delicate hollow ring like music played in an empty auditorium.
I took a flat in a quiet, blind street, lined with English trees. It was one large room, high ceiling with
pale walls, chaste as a cell of a honeycomb, and furnished with passionless, standardized grace of a
fashionable interior decorator. It had the afternoon sun which I prefer because I like my mornings
shadowy and cool., the relaxed end of the night prolonged as far as possible. When I arrived the trees
were bare and still against the lilac dusk. There was a block of flats opposite, discreet, well tended, with a
wide entrance. At night it lifted its oblongs of rose and golden light far up into the sky. One of its
windows was immediately opposite mine. It noticed that it was always shut against the air. The street was
wide but because it was so quiet the window seemed near. I was glad to see it always shut because I spend
a good deal of time at my window and it was the only one that might have overlooked me and flawed my
privacy.
I liked the room from the first. It was a shell that fitted without touching me. The afternoon sun threw
the shadow of the tree on my light wall and it was in the shadow that I first noticed…
Selected from : Contemporary Australian Short Story (ed. Murray Bail)
Categorisation by schema: plant>tree>persimmon tree

Categorisation by prototype: firebird (specific to Australia and other tropical regions)
Prominence: Figure-Ground:
There was a row of persimmon trees [F] down one side of the house [G]
When I arrived the trees [F] were bare and still against the lilac dusk [G]
The shadow [F-1] of the burgeoning bough [F-2] was on the white wall [G]
The shadow pattern [F] on my wall [G] was intricate and rich
I saw a woman’s figure [F] opposite the curtains [G]
Perspective (point of access and scanning):

Her window opposite mine (not mine opposite hers) […] I passed her in the street (not she passed me)
She was a lonely woman and so was I (not I was a lonely woman and so was she)
There was a block of flats opposite […] one of the windows was opposite mine [+ zooming in]
It was one large room, high ceiling with pale walls, chaste as a cell in a honeycomb, and furnished with the
passionless, standardized grace of a fashionable interior decorator
+ Fictive/virtual motion:
The afternoon sun threw shadow of the tree on my light wall […] The shadows of trees and buildings fell
Persimmons cast a rosy light/blaze deep red […] The sun has left the sill […] I saw the spring come
My blood ticked like a clock (simile) […] It was growing late and the sun would soon be gone
+ Zooming out:
I took a flat in a quiet, blind, street lined with English trees […] Dark gold fruit clinging to the branches
A watercolour, pretty and innocuous, hung on the wall […]A bowl appeared on the sill
+ Zooming in & [F] [G]:
The street [G] was wide but because it was so quiet the window [F] seemed near
The window [G] was open but there was a row of persimmons [F] set out carefully on the sill
It was a shell [F] that fitted me [G] without touching me [G]
Selection: a still warm milky day […] bowl of thick creamy pottery […] my old silver mirror
tiny, long spouted, hand-painted cans […] a quiet, blind street, lined with English trees (also zooming out)
Scope: The trees in the street showed green now, thick with budded leaves
Metaphors: My mind was transparent (SD: glass) -" (TD: mind)

Spring comes (SD: moving objects) " TD: seasons) […] The sun left (SD: moving object) " (TD: the sun)

No Smoking, For Sale, Way Out, Exit... : Texts Are Made Up of Many Utterances Which Provide

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Waldemar Skrzypczak

Department of English and Centre for Australian Studies

Parameters and processes underlying linguistic creativity

Notes on: Introduction to Text Linguistics

A TEXT is a unit of language which is made up of at least one UTTERANCE,

Texts incorporate such characteristics as: GRAMMATICAL COHESION,

A. Coffee? B. Yes. A. Milk? B. Black. ||

A. The doorbell. B. I’m in the bath. A. OK.||

Constitutive Principles (Textuality Criteria)

INFORMATIVITY: INFORMATION DYNAMISM

The cohesion of writing focuses on the “grammatical” aspects of writing

COHESION concerns grammatical

Cataphora involves a forward reference to

Ellipsis is ‘substitution by zero.

Full recurrence is a repetition of a lexical

Partial recurrence is a repetition of a

COHERENCE concerns CONCEPTS and

Note: the implicature requiring shared knowledge,

Thus, the fundamental distinction between TEXT

Another important distinction regarding knowledge is

The concept of the GLOBAL PATTERN. The global

FRAME: participants (people/objects) located in space

In conceptual terms every text displays the CONTROL

GLOBAL PATTERN: AGENDA, VARIATIONS ON

Cohesion and coherence are thus two sides of the same

If the informativity level is too high or too low, the addressee

INTERTEXTUALITY concerns the factors which make one text

Intertextuality based on linguistic form:

Drink is the curse of the working classes.

Graffiti Rules, OK.

A British Airways poster:

Intertextuality based on meaning/content: (characters,

Back in a minute. Godot.

The Bible! Narnia

Intertextuality also specifies the typology of texts:

INTENTIONALITY involves the ACCEPTABILITY involves the

Situation Monitoring vs. Situation Managing

Cognitive stylistics focuses on the relationship

Pragmatics ON-LINE Semantics OFF-LINE

public and inter-subjective private in intra-subjective

Peripherally connected (senses) Autonomous (imagination)

Embodied meaning Imaginative meaning

As in language acquisition semantic and constructional elements are acquired in particular

In a likewise fashion, linguistic CONSTRUCTIONS in themselves carry CONCEPTUAL IMPORT. As

CATEGORIZATION processes help to organize our experience. The residence of lexical

CATEGORISATION BY PROTOTYPE, namely concerning the spectrum between typical –and –

PROMINENCE helps to establish how prominent a linguistic concept is relative to another in a

our cat’s tail (Gen./Nom) (NP-head = F)

Also dynamic verbs and prepositional expressions activate virtual motion:

The highway runs from Mexico to Canada.

Consider also zooming out and zooming in operations in ‘nested locatives’:

Additionally, PERSPECTIVE involves degrees along the continuum of OBJECTIVE on-stag/

He removed the napkin off the table. (prototypical)

He made his way through the hallway. (prototypical)

The train made its way across the country. (prototypical/conventional)

I strutted/swaggered/staggered my way to NP (WS)

involves intra-domain/profile shifting based on contiguity, and performs a referential function

Consider conventional conceptual and novel metaphors:

My flat is the Central Station. My garden is a jungle. My office is a Zoo.

CENTRAL STATION " MY HOUSE , JUNGLE" MY GARDEN

LIFETIME IS A DAY ~LIFETIME IS A YEAR (morning ~ spring = young age)

Conceptual metonymy, operates on PART-WHOLE, ATTRIBUTE-WHOLE, CAUSE-EFFECT

John is chasing skirts. (=girls; part/attribute for whole)