CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Location and History

Factory Site
The sugar industry is essentially an agro industry and therefore should be
centrally located with the vast area of can cultivation: otherwise it will increase
cost of transport. THE SALEM CO-OPERATIVE SUGAR MILLS LIMITED is
locates at 2 km from Mohanur town on the way of Velur of NAMAKKAL
DISTRICT. The agronomic conditions such as temperature, humidity, rainfall, lad
fertility and irrigation facilities are highly favorable for abundant growth and
supply of sugar cane with high yields per hectare.

History
Sugar cane the main crop on the northern bank of river cauvery. Till 1964 it
was diverted for making jaggery. Afterwards on 24.07.60 THE SALEM CO-
OPERATIVE SUGAR MILLS LTD, MOHANUR was registered under Co-
operative sector. Arrangement of machinery was signed three days after with M/s
K.C.P. LTD., Madras for 1000 TCD (Tones Crushing per Day) capacity.

Crushing was started on 07.04.1964 an average of 9,000 acres of cane

cultivation per year was there. Subsequently the factory was permitted to expand
to a crushing capacity of 1750 TCD by the year 1973. And presently the capacity
2500 TCD was started on 1977 under nearly 32,000 acres of cane cultivation.

The special and unique feature of his sugar mill is with the desire of
diverting all beagle to the adjacent paper mill. Since from the inception of the
paper mill viz., TAMIL NADU NEWS PRINT AND PAPERS LIMITED, (25 km
from the sugar factory), as a raw material for paper. And in turn they give steam

1
for the process from their coal and biogases fired boilers situated inside our
factory premises.

Nearest Sugar Factories

1. EID PARRY INDIA LIMITED, Pugalur unit, Karur Dt. -20KM
2. EID PARRY SUGAR (1) LTD, Pettavaithalai, Trichy Dt - 50KM
3.PONNI SUGARS LIMITED Pallipalayam, Namakkal Dt. - 50KM
4. SAKTHI SUGARS LIMITED Appakudal, Periyar Dt. - 70KM
5. HARUR CO-OPERATIIVE SUGAR MILLS LTD Harur, -150 KM
Dharmapuri Dt.

1.2 Present Status of the World Cane Sugar Industry

The total crystal sugar manufactured in the world is over 1010 million tones
per annum, out of which the cane sugar accounts for 60-65% of the production, the
remaining being the share of the best sugar industry located mostly in Europe,
U.S.A. and some cold regions of the globe.
The cane sugar industry is widely dispersed indifferent regions of the world
like India, Australia, South America, Africa, U.S.A and many parts of Asia,
enjoying tropical warm climate. Based on the types of sugar produced the cane
sugar factories can be classified into two categories as under-

Process Flow Diagram

2
 Cane

Cane Weighment

Cane Feeding

Cane Preparation by
Leveler and Fibrizer

Milling

Mixed Juice Baggase to TNPL for

raw material for paper
Juice Weighment 6 MT making.

Temp 65 – 70* C
Raw Juice Heating
TNPL Boiler
Milk of Lime
Juice Sulphatation
Sulphur gas Ash Steam
R
E Turbine
Sulphited Juice
C Temp 102–105* C
Heating
Y Power Generation
C
L
I Clarification To all electrical
N power drives
G

Mud Clear Juice 12-15 Brix

Filter Clear Juice Heating

Juice Press mud Evaporation 55-65 Brix

Syrup
Temp 78-85* C

Syrup Sulphatation

Pan Boiling

3
 Pan Boiling

A - Pan B - Pan C - Pan

“A” Crystallizer “B” Crystallizer “C” Crystallizer

Batch Centrifugal “B” Continues “C” Continues

Centrifugal Centrifugal

White “A” Light “A” Heavy

Sugar Molasses Molasses CF Sugar Final Molasses

“C“ Light
Bagging A -Pan B -Pan Molasses To
Distillery
C -Pan

B -Seed “B” Heavy C -Seed For Spirit

Molasses Production

A -Pan C -Pan

Raw Material Input :-

Cane
Intermediates- By Products :-
a). Bagasse
b). Press mud
c). Final Molasses
Final Product Output:-
White Sugar

4
 1. Raw Sugar Factories- cum refineries- In these factories producing raw
sugar from sugar cane, small refining units are uncalled-for processing the
raw sugar and manufacture of refined sugar. The refinery can operate
throughout the year even though the raw sugar production is confined to the
crushing campaign restricted to dry periods of the year.

2. Plantation White Sugar Factories- In India and some of the developing

countries white sugar is manufactured from cane for direct consumption
employing more complicated techniques in clarification of juice and also in
crystallization of sugar. The sugar produced is of 99.8% purity and contains
slightly higher amount of impurities than the refined sugar. These plants can
also produce raw sugar either for export or supply to refineries.

1.3 The Major Components of Sugarcane

1.3.1 Sugars
(a) Sucrose- Commonly known as sugar in the popular parlance, this is the major
constituent of sugarcane and belongs to the family of carbohydrates formed out of
‘C’ ‘H’ and ‘O’. The chemical formula for is C 12 H22 O11.

In its pure form this sugar is crystalline in nature. Sucrose content in fully
mature can ranges from 12-15%. Under conditions of low pH or under influence of
certain enzymes like inverts sucrose is hydrolyzed into two monosaccharide viz.
Glucose and fructose in equimolecular proportions according to equation:

C12H22 O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Glucose Fructose
b. Glucose - Also known as dextrose, this monosaccharide has a chemical formula
C6H12O6. The two major monosaccharide viz. glucose and fructose or laevulose are
present in higher amount in the immature can but their percentage decreases as can

5
reaches maturity. In a sugarcane plant the presence of glucose and laevulose is
more marked in the cane tops than in the middle portion of stalk.

Glucose is sensitive to alkaline condition and heat undergoing

decomposition under action of heat and alkali to from colored compounds. It is
less soluble in water than sucrose.

C. Laevulose - Laevulose or fructose a laevorotatory monosaccharide is present

along with glucose in the growing portions and tops of cane more than in the main
stalks. The empirical formula of fructose is the same as for glucose is i.e. C 6H12O6.
Out of the two monosaccharide i.e. glucose and fructose, the proportion of fructose
is less than that of the former.

It is highly soluble in water but less soluble in ethanol and at 30 0C saturated

solution of fructose contains 81.54% of this sugar.

Fructose has a kenotic group in its structure unlike glucose which has
aldehyde group. Being highly susceptible to heat and alkaline conditions it gets
decomposes under these conditions. Like glucose fructose reduces cupric salts.

1.3.2 Starch - Starch is formed by condensation of glucose molecules and is

present in cane juice in small amounts the percentage depending on the cane
varieties as also soil and other natural conditions.

1.3.3 Fiber - This water insoluble portion of the sugar cane plant is present in
abundance and forms important component of sugarcane along with sucrose. The
principal constituent of the cane fiber is cellulose and the complex fibrous structure
of the plant is bound together by lignin, pectin and hemicelluloses. The cellulose is
composed of chain of glucose molecules held together closely with varying
degrees of polymerization.

6
1.3.4 Other Organic Polymers- Gums in sugarcane composed of six different
monosaccharide are soluble in water but insoluble in acidified ethyl alcohol.
Though removed in the process to some extent they persist till the final stage and
are present in molasses and to some extent in sugars.

1.3.5 Organic Acids and Nitrogenous Compounds - Cane juice is acidic in nature
with pH of 5.0-5.5 stale, immature or frozen cane yields low pH juice with high
among of free acids. Out of the different organic acids aconite acid claims the
major share in the juice from normal cane. Deterioration of cane after harvest or
due to natural causes results ingeneration of acetic acid, lactic acids etc.

1.3.6 Colour Forming Compounds and Pigments - Natural pigments like

chlorophyll, xanthophylls and carotene present in the cane plant are extracted in
milling but are eliminated in juice clarification and subsequent boiling operations.
1.3.7 Inorganic compounds- Sugar cane plant during the period of growth absorbs
various minerals from the soils, which are partly dissolved in water and to some
extent are present as organic compounds. Prominent among them are anions,
phosphates, sulphate, chlorides and cations like silica, Iron, aluminum, calcium,
magnesium, potassium and sodium.

1.3.8 Lipids- Sugarcane outer surfaces are coated with waxy lipids which are
discernible on the rind of the cane stalk as whitish coating. The fatty lipids and
wax are extracted in milling to the extent of nearly 40-50% and are eliminated in
the filter mud during clarification. These lipids consist of a mixture of alcohols,
free acids and esters. Crude wax extracted from filter cake contains resins and soft
portion or oils a part from hard wax.

1.4 Process of Manufacture of Sugar from Sugarcane

White sugar by Sulphitation Process

7
 The raw juice after being heated to 65-75 0C is treated with phosphoric acid,
sulphur dioxide and dilute lime solution for removal of impurities in suspension in
a continuously working apparatus.

The sulphur dioxide is generated by combustion sulphur, while lime is either

produced in Kiln from limestone or bought as such and stored in a separate house.
The treated juice on boiling is fed to continuous clarifier from which the clear juice
is decanted while the settled impurities known as mud are sent to continuous
vacuum filter for removal of unwanted stuff. The clear juice with about 73-75%
water is concentrated in a multiple effect evaporator under vacuum to yield syrup
with about 37-43% water content.

The syrup is again treated with sulphur dioxide before being sent to the pan
station for crystallization of sugar. It is at the vacuum pan boiling stage that the
sugar crystals appear. The crystal containing mass from the pan is dropped in
crystallizers and subsequently centrifuged in centrifugal machines for isolating
sugar crystals from mother liquor, which again is sent to pan for boiling and
recrystallisation.

Three stages of recrystallisation are adopted to ensure maximum recovery of

sugar in big crystal form. The final mother liquor referred to as final molasses is
sent out of the factory as waste being unsuitable for recovery of sugar under
commercial conditions from economic point of view.

Under conditions of Deccan Sugarcane processing yields-

(a) 27-30% bagasse containing around 46% fibers.
(b) 3.5% filter cake containing 30% dry matter and,
(c) About 4% final molasses containing 80% dry matter besides about 10.5
to 12% crystal sugar which is the principal product of manufacture.

8
1.5 Uses of Sugar
1.5.1 Sucrose commonly known as sugar has an important place in human
life not only as an article of food but also as an ingredient of various medicinal
preparations and even as a raw material for some products of every day use. Sugar
is thus consumed not only as sweetening agent in the human diet but also in
pharmaceutical, food and other industries.
1.5.2 Sugar which is formed by photosynthesis in plants from suns energy is
a natural food for all living beings. In the human system, when taken orally, the
sugar is attacked in the stomach by hydrochloric acid of the gastric juices and
converted into glucose and laevulose. In the small intestines these sugars are
absorbed through the intestinal capillaries in the portal vein whence they are
carried to liver and stored there.
Sugar above a certain level in blood is converted into a polysaccharide
known as glycogen to be decomposed into simple dextrose and used whenever
sugars level of blood falls below certain limit. Energy required for any activity of
the brain or muscles is supplied by dextrose getting oxidized into CO 2 and H2O.
The sugar taken orally raises the blood sugar level in the human system within five
minutes. Sugar thus serves as a source of quick supply of energy to the body for
any physical or mental activity.

1.5.3 Food products - Sugar serves as a good preservative for edible

products which can keep well in concentrate sugar solution for quite some time
without deterioration. Fruit preservation and canning is a big industry in advanced
countries of the world. It is widely used in beverages in tea, coffee etc. In most of
the countries and forms the principal raw material base for candy as well as
confectionery industries.

1.5.4 Pharmaceutical and Other Industries - Sugar Syrups i.e.

concentrated sugar solution containing on of more medicinal ingredients are quite
common. In smaller amounts sugar is used for coating for medicinal tablets or

9
pills which are better in test, so as to make them palatable. Apart from these,
following products can be manufactures with sugar as base?

(a) Sorbital used in diabetic food and for producing ascorbic acid.
(b) Lactic acid which forms an important chemical intermediate in food
pharmaceutical and leather industry is produced by action of lime on
sucrose and high temperature 240ºC.
Oxalic acid is manufactured by oxidation of sucrose by nitric acid.
(c) Sucrose octaacetate produced by the action of acetic anhydride and
sodium acetate is used as adhesive, plasticizer etc.
(d) Nonionic surfactants are manufactured from sucrose and fatty acidic.
These surfactants with good wetting properties are widely used in food,
pharmaceutical industries and cosmetics. As detergents these surfactants
have gained wide acceptance in the market.

CHAPTER – II
CHEMICALS USED FOR PROCESS

1. Lime
2. Sulphur
3. Phosphoric acid
4. Flocculent (settling Aid)
5. Mill Sanitation chemicals

10
2.1 Lime
Lime Stone
It is kind of stone available in nature. The stone is in the form of rocks and
rich in calcium carbonate and it is the (CaCO 3) Calcium Carbonate, which is
systematic burning kiln, produces quick lime or CaO, which is useful for juice
clarification.

CaCO3 + Heat CaO+CO 2 (endothermic reaction)

A good lime stone should contain with the following specification.

1. Calcium Carbonate - 95% (minimum)

2. In soluble matter - 20% (maximum)
3. Magnesium Oxide (MgO) - Below 1%
4. Iron Oxide and Alumina (Sesquiodixe) - Below 2%
5. Silica - below 1.0%
6. Sulphates - below 0.5%
7. Moisture - below 2.0%

The above impurities from lime stone passes one to quick lime in spite of
very systematic burning in the lime kiln. Therefore in the limestone burnt the
factory in the own kiln it should confirm with the above standard.

Many factory purchase quick lime directly from lime manufacturer. The
prominent being as under.

1. Non-availability of assured supply of good quality of steam coal.

2. Non-availability of skilled labor at reasonable cost to carryout limestone
burning operation.

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 3. Non-availability space in the factory premises for erecting limekiln.
4. Preparation of the lime kiln result in the air pollution due to emission of CO 2
gas and therefore the risk of attracting profusion from the anti air pollution
authority.

In the case of these factories, which purchase of quick lime (or) hydrated
lime from the supplier. The lime should confirm with the following specifications.

Preparation of Milk of Lime or Lime Cream

Preparation of lime cream requires careful supervision. The milk of lime
should be prepared 3-4 hrs before its use.

The formation of Ca(OH)2 from quicklime is exothermic reaction.

CaO+2H2O Ca (OH) 2+ 63.6 KJ
Since only one part of dissolves is 79 parts of the result of lime slaking
process is portion (or) dispersion of finely divided Ca(OH) 2 particles in limed
water.

1Beaume = 1.8 Brix

Milk of Lime Storage Tank
Lime storage tank is a cylindrical tank in which vertical axis is provided
which is the part of the stirrer with a rake of a hanging chains which revolve round
and high rubbing against the bottom of the tank prevents any lime accumulating at
the bottom. The speed of the stirrer should be 8 to 10 RPM (Revolutions per
Minute).

Practical Consideration
(i) To ensure good slaking full time should be allowed for the reaction i.e. it
should be take 3-4 hrs to slake before use.

12
 (ii) Water should be pure and hot for this the condensates from the second,
third and fourth the bodies of the evaporator are suitable.
(iii) The slacker should rotate 6 to 8 RPM speed. Higher speed will
discharge the lime from the slacker, which will help complete slaking of
lime.

The grit from discharges lime coming out of the lime slacker is removed by
equipment called as “lime clarifier”.

The grit free lime from the lime clarifier is then screened on 14 mesh sieve
and its stored in a primary storage tank, were the density of lime is around 15 to 20
Beaume (1 Beaume = 1.8 Brix). This relatively high density of milk of lime then
flows into lime collection tank where after suitable dilution with pure water the
density is adjusted to 10 to 12 Brix and this lime from collection tank is pumped to
the lime proportionate device. This device regulates the dose of lime, which is to
be added in the heated raw juice in liming and sulphitation tank.

2.1.1 Lime Analysis

Aim
To analysis the CaO% and grit % of the burnt lime.

Apparatus and Chemicals Required

 Burette
 Pipette
 250 ml standard flask
 250 g sub sample lime
 N/2.8 H2SO4
 Phenolphthalein indicator

13
Method of Sampling
The burnt lime sampling is being done normally from 15% of the total bags
of lime received and from each bag about 250g of lime taken out. The total
quantities thus collected in a backed us against sub sampled for 1 kg. Kept in a
polythene bag and tightly covered to avoid absorption of moisture.

Analytical Method
About the 250g sub sample lime is taken out and ground well in a pestle and
mortar 5g of lime powder is weighed accurately immediately after the powdering is
done and is dissolved in a 250 ml standard flask using to 100 ml of freshly boiled
distilled water. The flask is then heated and the lime solution is boiled for 3minutes
for the evolution of CO2 then it is cooled.

About 40-30g of white sugar is dissolved in about 50 ml of boiled distilled

water. The cooled sugar solution is added to the lime solution in 250 ml standard
flask (both the solutions should be in the room temperature).

The solution is mixed well and filtered 25 ml of filtrates and is pipette out in
a conical flask and titrates against N/2.8 H 2SO4. This had already been
standardized using the indicator phenolphthalein. The end point is disappearance of
pink colour. The titrations are repeated for the concordant values.

Calculation:-
CaO% = 2 x T.V x Strength of acid
= 2x 36x1.105
= 79.56.

2.1.2 CaO Content in the mixed juice and Clear juice

Aim

14
 To determine CaO content in the mixed juice and clear juice by EDTA
method.

a)Chemicals Required:
1. M/56 EDTA (ETHYLENE DIAMINE TETRA ACETIC ACID) solution
(6.6473 g di sodium salt of ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid is weighed
accurately, dissolved in distilled water and made up the solution to
1000ml.
2. Ammonia
3. Lead subacetate: Horne’s dry lead.
4. Potassium Ferro cyanide (Merck quality) powder.
5. Erichrome Black T (weight 0.1 g of Erichrome Black T in 100 mL
rectified spirit or absolute alcohol).

b) Apparatus Required
1. Calibrated Brix Spindle.
2. Brix cylinder
3. 250 ml Conical flask
4. 100 ml Beaker and Funnel
5. Calibrate 10 ml pipette.
c) Procedure
Take the juice, syrup or molasses sampled as obtained from the factory. In
case of juices no dilution is require. In case of molasses, dilute to 5 Brix. Transfer
about 150 ml of the juice or diluted solution into a conical flask. Clarify the
solution by lead sub acetate as in Horne’s method (Add if necessary some amount
of active carbon).

Transfer about 60 ml of the clarified solution into a dry conical flask or flask
previously rinsed with the clarified solution. Add powdered Potassium Ferro
15
cyanide little by little till not further precipitate forms. Shake thoroughly and filter.
Test the filtrate for absence of lead with potassium iodide. Clean conical flask
previously rinsed with distilled water and dried. Add 5 drops of ammonia and add
a few drops of the indicator solution of EBT when a pink red colour appears.
Titrate against EDTA solution shaking the contents of the flask after additional of
EDTA solution. The end point is indicated by the sharp change of colour from red
to blue know the volume of titrant.

Calculation:-
1. Observed (Un corrected Brix) =B
2. Titration reading =V ml

Formula:
Amount of Ca2+ is expressed as CaO = Vx100 mg per liter of juice or diluted
solution.
= V x 100 mg per liter per 100 Brix.
B
Mixed juice Clear juice
= 8.6 x 100 = 15.6 x 100
10 10
= 860 mg/litre = 156 mg/litre

S.No Mixed juice mg/litre Clear juice mg/litre

1. 860 1560
2. 920 1450
3. 820 1410
4. 690 1360
5. 840 1430
6. 940 1340

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2.2 Sulphur
Sulphitation Process
Purification of juice employing SO2 gas and milk of lime is called as
sulphitation. This process was first invented in European beet sugar industry and
later was introduced in java by end on 19 th century was operating successfully than
country before the II world war. When the java sugar industry was a model of the
other sugar industry of the world, on account of innovation introduced the research
were carried out and the technological advances achieved. Almost 85 to 90% of
white crystal produces by vacuum pan sugar industry. In India is manufactured by
sulphitation process of clarification.

Chemistry of SO2
Sulphur occurs as an element in USA, Sicily and to a smaller extends in
Japan and France. Sulphur also occurs in abundance in combined form as sulphides
of Lead, Iron, Zn and Cu.

As sulphate gypsum or calcium sulphate is of wide occurrence the main use

of sulphur is for the manufacture of H 2SO4 one of the most important chemicals
used is various industry. Sulphur obtained can 99.9% pure.

Properties
Sulphur has an atomic weight of 32.06, which melts at 130 oC. It vaporizes
at 444oC when heated out of contact with air. One account of its self sustained
burning characteristic. A mass of pure sulphur once ignited burns completely in
air.

Sulphur DiOxide (SO2)

Sulphur is available in two forms, namely rock sulphur and roll sulphur.
Roll sulphur is pure than rock sulphur.

17
Combustion of sulphur
SO2 is a gas resulting from combustion of Sulphur.
S+O2 SO2 +293 KJ
32 g+32 g 64 g

Hence 1kg of sulphur requires1kg of O 2. The reaction releases us 293KJ or

221k. Calories 1kg of sulphur-di-oxide Combustion takes place of a temperature
about 360oC. If the combustion were it take place with theoretical quantity of air
would be 4.3 times the weight of sulphur. This is the quantity of air required. (The
air contains 23.15% of O 2 by weight). Similarly the maximum volume of SO 2 in
the combustion gases is about 21% (Air contains 20.84% of O 2 by volume).

However it is not possible to obtain complete combustion with this amount

of O2 and it is necessary to allowed excess of air above the theoretical level. In
actual practice pure SO2 obtained in the burner gas mixture would be 8-14% on an
average 10%. The remaining components of the burner gas are free air, Nitrogen,
Oxygen and a small extend SO3.

Precaution
In the presence of moisture sulphur burns to give sulphuric anhydride i.e.
SO3 instead of sulphurous anhydride. On reacting with moisture SO 3 immediately
forms sulphuric acid. It is therefore absolutely necessary to exercise greatest
possible care to avoid introduction of water into the sulphur furnace. The air to be
used for burning of sulphur should always be dried. For this the air is generally
passed over a layer of quick lime which has got great affinity for moisture and
absorbs moisture from the air. It is advisable to renew quick lime pieces in the air
dried before it is completely saturated.

Preparation of SO2 Gas

18
 Sulphur heated to 250oC is oxidized to sulphur dioxide with evolution of
heat which heats the sulphur in the burner and rises its temperature to the point of
oxidation in present of air. The molten sulphur is first vaporized and the sulphur
vapour in contact with air form sulphur dioxide. Vapour pressure of sulphur
increases with temperature and unless sufficient air is supplied, complete
conversion of sulphur to SO2 gas is not possible.

The mixture of sulphur dioxide and sulphur vapour when cooled results in
sublimation of sulphur. Secondary a small portion of SO 2 is gets oxidized to SO3
(sulphur trioxide) as per the following reaction.

2SO2 + O2 2SO3

This reaction is exothermic and more SO 2 is in equilibrium at low

temperature second factor is supply of sufficient air for completion of SO 2
formation. Since in adequate O2 sulphur vapour would remain unreacted and can
be carried with the gas.
Sulphur dioxide generation station consists of (a) a burner combustion
chamber (b) gas cooler (c) scrubber (d) air drier and air compressor is very often
located in close vicinity of the lime station.

A sulphur burner designed to work continuously is composed to three parts.

1. Sulphur Melter
2. A Chamber for molten sulphur
3. The burner or a combustion chamber was Sulphur is converted into SO 2

The chamber for molten sulphur serves as feeding chamber to the

combustion chamber. A live steam of about 5.0 kg/cm (70-75 pounds per square in
gauge) is supplied to the steam chamber to melt the sulphur in the sulphur Melter.

19
2.2.1 Analysis of Sulphur
Aim
To determine the purity of Sulphur.

Procedure
Percentage of Sulphur
a) Take 10 gm of properly mixed Sulphur sample in a beaker.
b) Add sufficient carbon disulphide to dissolve all the Sulphur.
c) Decant the carbon disulphide. Heat residue for half an hour in hot water
bath.
d) Now add more carbon disulphide and dissolved more Sulphur if possible.
e) Decant the CS2 and wash several times with the same.
f) Allow the beaker to stand for some time when the CS 2 will evaporate.
g) Weigh the beaker and residue.

Calculation
Percentage of residue
Percentage of Sulphur
= weight of residue x 100
10
= 100 - (% moisture + % residue)
= 100 - (0.04+0.06)
= 99.90.

2.3 Phosphoric Acid

Purpose of Addition of Phosphoric Acid in Raw Juice

20
 The phosphate content of the juice is the most important factor in efficient
clarification. In sugarcane, the phosphates are inorganic as well as organic. The
inorganic phosphates exist as free phosphate ions, where as the organic exists in
the form of phospholipids, phospoproteins, nucleotides phosphates and hexose
phosphates.

It is understandable that only the free phosphate ions take part in juice
clarification. Therefore juice with adequate quantity of inorganic phosphates is
most desirable. Generally phosphate is most phosphorous content is sufficient for
better clarification. Since the phosphate content in juice is normally less that the
desired level. Orthophosphoric acid is added in raw juice to 350ppm. The addition
is about 0.0005% on cane.

Reaction Involved in Phosphoric Acid and Clarification

The Phosphoric acid presents in the mixed juice in the form of soluble
phosphor and has practical significance. The P 2O5 reacts with lime to form various
calcium phosphate and tri-calcium phosphate.

CaO + H3PO4 CaHPO4 + H2O

CaHPO4 +2CaO+ H3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H2O 3CaO +
2H3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3H2O

Intermediate precipitation of CaHPO4 which later dissolves with great

slowness, the slowness and slow rate at which Ca 3(PO4)2 precipitate the two
following reaction takes place simultaneously.

Ca2+ + HPO4 2- CaHPO4 ------ (1)

3Ca2+ + 2(PO4)2- Ca3(PO4)2 ----- (2)

21
 The first reaction is more rapid because it is a second order reaction involves
two ions while the other is a higher order reaction involving five ions. The
probability of two ions coming together is much greater than five. As a reaction
approaches completion. The rate of the reaction (1) slows down the reaction
exceeds it. This result in further dissociation of second order reaction H and PO43-
process which cause decreases in p H.

2.3.1 Phosphoric Acid Analysis

Aim
Determination of available P2O5 in Phosphoric acid.
Procedure
Take 20 g of well mixed sample of Phosphoric acid in 1000 ml standard
flask with 800 ml water and shake for half an hour then till the flask up to mark
and then used for titration.

100 ml (or) equivalent of 2 g prepared solution in conical flask add 3 to 4

drops of phenolphthalein indicator and titrate with 1N sodium hydroxide solution
and end point is colourless to pink.

As phenolphthalein show naturally as soon as the sodium salt is formed,

every ml of 1N NaOH is equivalent to 0.0355 g of P 2O5.

1 N NaOH = 40 gms of NaOH 1000ml

% P2O5 = T.V x 0.0355 x 1000
20
= 41.5 x 0.0355 x 1000
20
= 73.66%

2.3.2 P2O5 Content in the Mixed Juice and Clear Juice

22
Aim
To determine P2O5 content in the mixed juice and clear juice by Uranium
Acetate method.

Uranium Acetate Solution

Dissolved 35 g of chemically pure uranium acetate in distilled water and add
50 ml of chemically pure glacial acetic acid and made up to 1 liter.

Standardization of Uranium Solution

Dissolve 9.583 g of potassium phosphate (KH 2PO4) in one liter of water.
Dilute 25 ml of this solution to 100ml. Add uranium solution from a burette to the
cold phosphate solution till a few drops drawn with a pipette given a brown
precipitate on a drop reaction plate dusted with potassium Ferro cyanide. Heat the
solution to 90-100oC and add uranium solution till a precipitated appears. 25 ml of
uranium acetated till be required. Adjust to the corrected volume if necessary.
When a 100 gm sample is titrated with each ml of uranium solution is
equivalent to 0.005% of P2O5.

Procedure
To 100 ml of juice and 1 ml of 10% NH 4OH solution and acetify with acetic
acid and add 10 ml of sodium acetate solution (100 gm of Sodium acetate and 50
ml of glacial acetic acid per liter of distilled water).

Titrate with standard uranium solution. Using powdered potassium Ferro

Cyanide as indicator. The solutions will usually settle sufficient to pipette of a
small portion of clear liquid for the end point determination nearly the whole of the
uranium solution should be added in the cold and the titration finished at 90-100 oC.

23
 When the solution contains the slightest excess of Uranium the addition of
drop of solution to the Ferro cyanide on a drop reaction plate produced a brown
precipitate of uranium Ferro cyanide
Calculation:-
P2O5 volume used = V ml
Weight of juice = w gms
i.e. 100 ml of juice = 100 gm of juice
Before addition:
The Amount of P2O5 = 0.005 x V x 1000
100
= 0.005 x 4.5 x 1000
100
= 225 mg/lit.
After addition:
The Amount of P2O5 = 0.005 x V x 1000
100
= 0.005 x 6.3 x 1000
100
= 315 mg/lit.
Phosphoric acid before addition and after addition in mixed juice and clear
juice
S.No. Mixed juice mg/lit Clear juice mg/lit
Before After Before After
1. 180 280 105 145
2. 240 360 95 120
3. 225 315 90 135
4. 195 360 120 150
5. 265 320 80 100

2.4 Flocculants (Settling Aid)

24
 Purpose of flocculent is to improve flocculation and increase settling rate of
mud in the clarifier. The basic chemical present in these flocculants available in the
market is called “Polyacryl amide”. Common brand of flocculent available in
market are.

1. Sedipure DF-2 German products

2. Sedipure AF 200
3. Seperan AP 300 American product
4. Mango floe LT 27 British product
5. Nalco
6. Tulsipar Indian Products
7. High floe
8. Dai-Idu-Indian-Japanese product

Properties
Some times normal practice and precautions followed in the process of
juice clarification do not give desired clarity in the clarified juice and also leads to
higher mud level in clarifier. Under such condition suspension or dispertion of the
chemical known as “flocculent” is applied to the boiled sulphited juice entering the
clarifier in adequate doses.

Now a day there are number of flocculants available in market. Some are
crystalline in nature and some of the semi solid nature in the jelly form. The basic
chemical underlined these flocculants is polyacrylamide. This chemical facilitates
better flocculation of the mud flocks from the sulphited juice which increase the
settling rate of mud floes in the clarifier. These are polymers having very high
molecular weight to the order of 0.15 to 0.3 million. Normal dose of flocculent are
in the rang of 2.6 ppm (parts per million) as compared to juice.

25
Name of the Colouring Impurities Present in Juice
1. Chlorophyll
2. Xanthophylls
3. Crotone
4. Saccharetin
5. Tanin
6. Anthocyanin

2.4.1 Methods of Preparing Flocculent Suspension

1. Take necessary weight of flocculants.
2. Generally to separately cylindrical tanks of 1-2 m.t (millitonnes) capacity,
are connected to each other having mechanical stirrer and common outlet
piping is used both the tanks are provided with hot water connection.
3. Then hot water in one of the tank to 1/3 level sprayed the flocculent powder
in the hot water of the tanks in installment and allow the stirrer to mix the
content thoroughly for about 10-50 min.
4. Take same more water in the tank and add second installment of the
flocculent when the contents are continuously being stirred.
5. In this way dissolve all the flocculent dose in hot water until the tank full at
desired level. Take one precaution essentially that no lumps of flocculant
should be formed during mixing as they may block the pipe lines.

When one tank is being prepared the flocculant solution from other tank
should be used. The cost of flocculant is approximately Rs.165/ kg.
2.5 Mill Sanitation Chemicals
The prevalence of micro organisms in freshly extracted cane juice their
ability to induce losses of the recoverable sucrose having in greater Delong study
of means the reduce in loses by the addition of some ‘biocide’. As delivered to the
mil, the sugarcane states contain high concentration of bacteria.

26
 There are eight species in freshly extracted cane juice.

1. Saccharomyces- carlsbergensis
2. S. cerevisiae
3. Alcoholophila
4. Sichia membranafacious
5. Candida krusia
6. Torrulopsis stellada
7. C. Guilliermondi
8. P.Fermenteans

The sugarcane rings to the mill high concentration of vibal micro-organism

but most of them are washed off in the extracted juice where if the temperature
level with in the growth limit microbial development in gently occurs.

The application of modern biocides for the prevention of mill loser is

justifiable and may prove especially effective when grinding damaged cane. The
interaction between the microorganisms various sugars present in juice reduce
sugar recovery as well as cause various problems in juice clarification due to
increased viscosity and turbidity.
By good house keeping of the mills station the application of steam and
water jets at the joints and chain links can be 60% effective. The remaining
bacterial concentration i.e about 40% can be deactivated by applications of
appropriate biocide.
The biocide i.e. nowadays commonly used as the following composition.
1) Disodium cyano dithio cyano diamido carbonate
2) Ethylene diamide
3) Potasium “N”- Methyl dithio carbonate

27
 Indion 9053 used in the salem-co-operative sugar mills Ltd, Mohanur. It
cost is approximately Rs. 45/kg.
2.5.1 Mill Sanitation Chemicals Analysis
Estimation of Active Content for Biocide
(Di Thio Carbomate Base)
Aim
To estimation of active biocide in mill sanitation chemicals.

Procedure
Sample:
Take 4-5 g of biocide is added to 200 ml of distilled water and add 2-3
drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Incase of pink colour formed add 0.1N H 2SO4
till colourless. Then add 50 ml of 1N H 2SO4 and this solution is boil for 30
minutes and cool and titrate against 1N NaOH. The end point is the appearance of
pink colour.
Blank:
Take 200 ml of distilled water is added to 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator and add 50 ml of 1N H2SO4 and the solution is boil for 30 minutes and
cool and titrate against 1N NaOH. The end point is the appearance of pink colour.
Calculation
Active biocide in mill [Blank – Sample] x Normality of NaOH x7.18
=
Sanitation chemicals Weight of sample
(25.9-0.6) x 1 x 7.18
=
5
= 36.33
CHAPTER – III
PROCESS INVOLVED IN SUGAR PRODUCTION

3.1 MAXWELL BOULOGNE

Juice Weighing Scale

28
 Juice weighing the most common type of prevailing in Indian sugar
industry. Maxwell Boulogne design operating for levers and counter weights. It’s
consist of
1. Over head juice receiving tank.
2. Weighment tank
3. System of levers, counter weight and valves for the two tanks
4. Weighed juice receiving tank.

The top rectangular tank receives the juice continuously which flows into
cylindrical weighment tank provided with small vertical baffle at the conical
bottom with a hole, which retains certain amount of juice. After the weighing tank
is discharged and this arrangement help to maintain a constant weight.

As soon as the completely discharged and the tare weight of weighing tank
is reached, the counter weight which is in the raised position caused tilting of the
weigh beam. There by raising the empty weighing tank. The two valves of the top
juice tank and weighing tank are fitted to a common steel rod in such a way that
when upper one get open the lower one is closed and vice versa and are operated
only by the upward and downward movements of the weighing tank. When the
weighing discharged the inlet to the same is closed.

A scale of this type is usually designed for 25-28 discharge tips/ hr. a
totalizer or a digital counter is attached to all modern scales for indicating the
number of tipping. The tare chamber has to be maintained free function properly
and the juice weight in accurate.

3.2 Juice Clarification

The raw juice (or) mixed juice obtained from the mills is weighed in
automatic juice weighing scale and required quantity of O-Phosphoric acid is

29
added into the weighed raw juice so as to get phosphate level in juice 300-350
mg/liter. Weighed raw juice is heated to the temperature of 70-75°C in a raw juice
heater, which is heated by, normally vapours from Second body of the Evaporator.

The heated raw juice is then passed into a liming and Sulphitation tank
which is also called as juice Sulphitor via so 2 gas absorption tower. The vent pipe
of juice Sulphitor is connected to the gas absorption tower at the bottom so that
the residual SO2 gas left after its due absorption in the juice Sulphitor finds its way
in the stack gases which enters in the gas absorption tower. The heated raw juice
enters the gas absorption tower from the top and travels downward through and
over the baffle plates fitted in zigzag manner in the tower.

The milk of lime enters the outlet juice of gas absorption tower at a suitable
point so the pH of the limed juice remains in the range 9.5 to 10.5 of about 10 to 15
seconds before it is neutralized by SO2 gas entering the juice Sulphitor at the
bottom. The incoming SO2 gas comes out through the gas spargner for uniformed
distribution of gas in juice. The commonest spargner is designed are

 Perforated coil type

 Perforated cross type.
The perforation on the coil is cross should face downward. The following
physico chemical reactions take place in juice sulphitor.

3.3 Physico Chemical Reactions

 Most of the colloidal non sugars from juice get coagulated due to hest
and addition of milk of lime. Most of the colloidal non sugars are
coagulated.
 Ca from juice and Ca from milk of lime react with phosphates from juice
to form insoluble precipitate of tricalcium phosphate (Ca 3 (PO4)2).

30
  Some of the coloring impurities are absorbed by the tricalcium
precipitate.
 Calcium from juice and calcium from milk of lime reacts with SO 2 gas to
form insoluble ppt of calcium sulphate (CaSO 3). Due to reaction with
SO3 which is always present in Sulphur burner gas in a small proportion
forms calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
 Due to action of SO2 gas some of the colouring impurities from juice are
bleached off.
 Due to action of SO2 gas viscosity of the juice is reduced.

The treated limed and Sulphured juice is then heated to 102°C to 104°C
in Sulphured juice heaters. The primary heating is done by means of vapour from
1st body or vapour cell of the Evaporator to the temperature of 90 0C to 950C and in
secondary heating of the Sulphured juice the temperature is raised to 102 0C to
1040C by means of exhaust steam of 7 to 9 psig (Psig - pounds per square in
gauge).

The heated Sulphured juice is then released into continuous juice clarifier
via flash tank. The heated Sulphured juice enters in the juice clarifier firstly in the
flocculation chamber in tangential manner. The juice then decant down the clarifier
through the centre tube called as ‘recess’.

Firstly the bottom most compartment gets filled and than the above
compartment. In this manner the entire clarifier gets filled with juice. The bed
plate of the each compartment is stopping towards the centre. There is juice box
and mud box situated at the top of the clarifier. In some clarifiers there are to two
juice boxes and one mud box. The mud from the mud boots of different
compartments in conveyed to the mud box by individual pipes with value to
control the mud flow.

31
 Similarly clarified juice is drawn from the upper most portion of each
compartment and is conveyed to the juice box by means of separate pies and
valves. The mud from the mud box overflows into adjoining compartment of the
box which is conveyed to the Rotary vacuum filter section by separate piping. This
mud is mixed with specific quantity of bagacillo and is the mixture is fed the
Rotary vacuum filters which separate the filtrates from the mud solid. The
combined filtrates, which are about 15 to 20% of the juice quantity, are recycling
into weighed raw juice.

The mud solids get accumulated over the perforated screen of the R.V.Filter
(Rotary vacuum filter) in the form of filter cake. The filter cake detached from this
screen by means of scrapper plate, which falls into screw conveyor or belt
conveyor which conveyed the filter cake trolley. This filter cake important by
product of the sugar factory, which have get very good manure value.

The clear juice emerging from juice box of the clarifier has the temperature
of 900C – 950C and the pH of 6.8. to 7.0.

Juice Heater

3.4 Construction of Juice Heater:

The tubular juice heaters are cylindrical cells fitted with two plates and both
ends, the tube plates are provided with baffles beyond the tubes so as to divide the
two end portions of the heater into compartment.

The compartment of juice entry and exit have only one pass and the
remaining compartment have two passes i.e. are upward and downward flow.
Multiple circulation of juice is achieved by providing double the number of juice in
each compartment i.e. for 12 tubes per pass the compartment will be fitted with 24
tubes. The shell heaters and tube plates are of mild steel construction. But
stiffeners are welded to the covers to enable than to withstand high pressure of

32
circulating juice. These covers are hinged to the body of the heater and closed by
hinged bolts of sufficient strength.

In the case of vertical heaters the doors are balanced by counter weighs. The
juice heaters are equipped with two double beet valves. According to practice
followed in India and usually the same heaters are operated for Raw and Sulphured
juice on alternate days to prevent accumulation of scales. The doors are provided
with corks one for each compartment. The corks and the corks provided on the
bottom cover are called as drain corks.

Solid drawn brass tubes of 42mm ID (Inner Dia) and 1.5mm thickness are
common Indian sugar industry. The length of the tubes varies from 3 to 4 meters.
Many factory they are using S.S. tubes instead of brass tube. The juice velocity is
about 1.8 to 2.0 meter/sec. Higher velocity of juice is conductive to higher rates of
heat transmission.
The steam or vapour connection is provided in the upper half of the shell
about ¼ the height from top of the heater, in the case vertical juice heaters to the
facilitate drainage of the condensates.

With horizontal heaters the steam entry is close to one end of the shell. The
incondensable gas vent is open to atmosphere when steam is the heating medium
bleed vapour are to be used the vent pipe has to connected to a vacuum system.
The incondensable gas should be drawn from top as well as from bottom of the
shell.

The heat transmission from heating vapour or steam to juice is affected

adversely by scale on the heating surface of the heater, which gradually develops
during running. The total installed heating surface of juice heater in modern plants
in around 6.5 to 7.0m i.e. to five heaters one of which is always under cleaning.

33
 Vapour line juice heater is installed of the vapour line of the last body of the
evaporator, before the condenser for cold raw juice heating. Since the temperature
and pressure with consequent small temperature difference between cold juice and
vapour rise in temperature of 10-15 0C can be achieved in the vapour line heater if
the heater is properly designed.

5.6 Dorr Clarifier:

34
 The first successful modern continuous system of mud settling was
introduced in Cuba in 1918 and gained Rapid favour through the world. The latest
design produce by the company is known as Rapi- Dorr- 444.

35
 The Rapi - Dorr - 444 consists of 4 compartments with separate provision
for free over flow take off and mud withdrawal system allowing the unit to operate
as 4 totally independent clarifier enclosed in a common housing.

As in ordinary old Rapi Dorr model juice is introduced at the top centre of
the each compartment through the hollow rotating centre tube. As the feed entered
each compartment its strike the reflector baffle and flows out wards at the
decreasing velocity creating minimum turbulence rotating rake arms or the stirrer
arm in each compartment moves the settled mud to the mud discharged boot at the
centre of the tray where from the mud is drawn separated by a combination of pipe
and valves leading to the mud box situated at the top. Each compartment has its
own overflow pipeing to remove the clarified juice at the multiple points around
the periphery.

A single over flow box collects the clarified juice from all the compartments
with more uniform juice takes off; the potential stagnant pockets are eliminated.

The juice clarifier is free from excess vapour and volatile gases. This
prevents the disturbance of settling mud in the clarifier.

3.7 Vacuum Filters

The typical and more widely used filter of the class is the Oliver campale
filter. The filter consists of a hallow drum rotating about its horizontal axis and
partly submerged in the liquid to be filter. The periphery of the drum serves as
filtering surface. It is divided in 24 independent sections, each occupying 15 angles
on the circumference and extending along the full length of the drum. Each of
these sections are connected individually to a vacuum system by a small middle
pipe terminating into a distribution valve called as “Trunion valve” situated at one
end of the drum and carrying three differing sectors.

36
  One with connected to the vacuum but connected to the atmosphere.
 The second connected to the chamber were the low vacuum of the order
of “6 to 12” of Hg (i.e. 150 to 300 mm of Hg) is maintained.
 The third connected the chamber were a high vacuum is maintained of
the order “15 to 20” of Hg

The exterior surface of the drum consists of a sheet of stainless steel with
very fine perforation i.e. 0.2. to 0.4 mm dia hole.

3.8 Working of R.V. Filter:

Before starting the R.V. filter the vacuum system must be checked by filling
water for possible leakage.

Necessary quantity of muddy juice should be taken from the mud box of the
clarifier in the mud bagacillo mixture.Bagacillo should be taken into the mud
bagacillo mixture by starting the air blower at the mills.

After ensuring paper mixture of mud and bagacillo, the mixture or feed
should be taken Oliver filter tray until the tray is just full. The filter drum should be
put into motion and its speed should be kept in the range 4-6 minutes/Rotation.

To begin with the vacuum pump is started and the valves connecting to the
low vacuum zone should be operated firstly on one side of the trunion valve and
secondly other side trunion valve. (When one side valve is opened half the surface
area of the filter drum is covered with filter cake).

When entire surface of the filter drum is properly conversed with filter cake
open the vacuum valve near the trunion valve pertaining to high vacuum zone
simultaneously apply wash water from atomizers and then through drip pipes.

37
 Once the desired vacuum gets established you will notice is that the wash
water properly penetrates through the filter cake and washes the cake perfectly
desugarising it to the maximum extend. (Pol% F.C. 1.5% to 2.0) Primary washing
of filter cake is accomplished by atomizers and secondly washing by drip pipes.
Adjust the water spray from the drip pipe in such a way that water does not
overflow the cake nor it washes away the cake. Vacuum gets disconnected from
the drum surface few feet before the cake come in contact with the scrapper plate.
So that the dried cake easily gets discharged into belt or screw conveyor through
which the filter cake is conveyed into weighting trolley.

CHAPTER –IV
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Analysis of lime, sulphur and phosphoric acid, CaO & phosphate content in
the mixed juice and clear juice and estimation of active Biocide in mill sanitation
chemicals were carried out in the laboratory under conditions specified.

38
 Table: 1
CaO % in lime stone
S.No CaO%
1 45.97
2 44.20
3 41.40

Table: 2
CaO content in the mixed juice and clear juice.

S.NO Mixed juice mg/ litre Clear juice mg/litre

1 820 1410
2 690 1360
3 840 1430
4 940 1340

Table: 3
P2O5 % in Phosphoric acid.

S.No P2O5 %
1 73.66
2 75.60
3 66.56

Table: 4

39
 Phosphate content in the mixed juice and clear juice.

S.NO Mixed juice mg/lit Clear juice mg/lit

Before After Before After
1 180 280 105 145
2 240 360 95 120
3 195 360 120 150
4 265 320 80 100
5 265 320 80 100

4.1 CaO
The results of the CaO % in lime stone and CaO content in the mixed juice
and clear juice are given in table 1 and 2.

CaO % in given sample (lime stone) = 75-85%

Amount of CaO in mixed juice = 850 to 950 mg/ lit
Amount of CaO in clear juice = 1200 to 1400 mg/ lit

Cane juice is acidic with pH of around 5.2. In the acidic medium, Sucrose is
inverted into glucose and fructose. So we added to milk of lime to cane juice
increase the pH 7.0. The aim should be to use the minimum of lime which will
give good clarification and good settling, with a pH of clarified juice close to 7.0.
Since any excessive lime is harmful and results in an increase in the content of
lime in clarified juice. The CaO content of mixed juice to clear juice should not
exceed 400 mg/lit.

4.2 P2O5
The results of the P2O5 % in phosphoric acid and phosphate content in the
mixed juice and clear juice are given in table 3 and 4.

P2O5% in Phosphoric acid = 62-64%

40
Amount of P2O5 in mixed juice
Before adding Phosphoric acid
After adding Phosphoric acid
Amount of P2O5 in clear juice
Before adding Phosphoric acid
After adding Phosphoric acid
= 250- 300 mg/ lit
= 300- 350 mg/ lit
= 75-90 mg/ lit
= 100-125 mg/ lit.

The mean phosphate content of normal juice is approximately 250 mg

P2O5 per liter. It is not sufficient for efficient clarification it is a very poor. One so
we increase the range to 300 to 350 by adding phosphoric acid. The P 2O5 increase
the juice clarification.

Role of phosphate in clarification is considered to be most important from

the point of view of clarification and further settling operations. The Tricalcium
phosphate precipitate formed by the reaction of lime with phosphoric acid which
not only removes the colloidal matter by its sweeping action but also removes the
colouring matters by adsorption. The P 2O5 content of 300 to 350 mg / lit is
essential for good clarification.

4.3 SO2
The purity of Sulphur (in sample) = 99.9%.

1. SO2 neutralizes excess quantity of lime added to produce the CaSO 3 which
adsorbs colour and colloidal particles.
2. It blocks the carbonyl group of reducing sugar which is responsible for
colour formation.
3. SO2 decreases the viscosity of juices.
4. It acts on bleaching agent and disinfectant.

41
4.4 Flocculent
Flocculent is a settling Aid.

This chemical facilitates better flocculation of the mud flocks from the
sulphited juice which increase the settling rate of mud flocks in the clarifier.

4.5 Mill Sanitation Chemicals

Active biocide in mills sanitation chemicals = 40.2%.

Since the cane juice provides ideal media for the growth of innumerable
types of microorganisms. It is pertinent to expect deterioration of cane juice in it is
passage through the milling process resulting in loss of sugars. The quantum of
sugar loss in mills due to microbial action, the microbial growth if not checked
effectively increases reducing sugars acids and non sugars at the expends of
sucrose and reducing sugar no sugars thus formed not only reduce the recoverable
sugar. But also create problems in the boiling house operation, so we are adding
mill sanitation chemical in the Imbibitions water.

CHAPTER - V
CONCLUSION

From the laboratory scale analysis the following conclusion can be drawn.

 Firstly the phosphoric acid is used to increase the phosphate level in

juice for efficient clarification.
 Secondly the milk of lime and SO 2 gas is used to maintain natural pH 7.0
of the juice. SO2 is used for another purpose to act as bleaching agent.
 Flocculent is used to increase the mud settling in clarifier.

42
 And mill sanitation chemical used to avoid microbial inversion loss in
mills.
 The amount of P2O5 and CaO is determined in mixed juice and clear
juice for good clarification.
 The percentage of CaO, P2O5 and SO2 are determined in the given
sample for judgment of required quantity.
 If we used atomization equipments, we reduce the chemical cost.

CHAPTER – VI

REFERENCES

 P. Honig., Principles of Sugar Technology, 1853.

 E. Hugot., Hand book of Cane Sugar Engineering, 1972.
 D.P.Kulkarni., Cane Sugar Manufacturing in India.
 Gullford L.Spencel., Chemical Progress in Cane – Sugar Manufacture,
Vol.15, 1923.
 Joachim R.Braasch., Peter C. Toebe., Clemens Starzinski., Cane Juice
Purification processes, 2006.

43
 Herbert . Walker., Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 1923, 15(2): 164-
165.
 K.T.K.F. Kong Win Chang., A.F.Lau Ah Wing., Cane Juice Purification
Processes, 2006.
 J.C.Keane., M.A.A McCalip., H.S. Paine., Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry, 1928, 20(4): 372-376.
 Michael Saska., Cane Juice Purification Processes, 2006.
 R.B.L.Mathur ., Hand Book of Cane Sugar Technology, 1975.
 Mullapudi Narendranath., Cane Juice Purification Processes, 2006.
 R.Thyagarajan., Vasantdata Sugar Institute, Pune Project Book.
 Mangal Singh., Efficient Management of Sugar Factories.
 S.C.Gupta., Hand Book of Cane Sugar Technology.
 N.A.Ramaiah., Processing Sugar Technology Association of India.

44