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Andrea Brigaglia
University of Cape Town (South Africa)
Andrea.Brigaglia@uct.ac.za
Abstract
This article presents the translation and analysis of two poems (the first in Arabic,
the second in Hausa) authored by one of the most famous twentieth-century Islamic
scholars and Tijānī Sufis of Kano (Nigeria), Abū Bakr al-ʿAtīq b. Khiḍr (1909–74). As
examples of two genres of Sufi poetry that are rather unusual in West Africa (the kham-
riyya or wine ode and the ghazal or love ode), these poems are important literary and
religious documents. From the literary point of view, they are vivid testimonies of the
vibrancy of the Sufi qaṣīda tradition in West Africa, and of the capacity of local au-
thors to move across its various genres. From the religious point of view, they show
the degree to which the West African Sufis mastered the Sufi tradition, both as a set of
spiritual practices and techniques and as a set of linguistic tools to speak of the inner.
Keywords
Arabic poetry – Hausa poetry – Nigeria – qaṣīda – Sufi poetry – Sufism in West Africa –
Tijāniyya
* This paper is based on research supported in part by the National Research Foundation
of South Africa (Reference number UID 85397). This paper was originally presented
with the title “Sufi Poetry in Twentieth-Century Nigeria: Two Mystical Odes by Shaykh
Abu Bakr al-ʿAtiq (Kano, d. 1974),” at the workshop on Muslim Scholars, Past and Present,
hosted by the Leiden University Centre for Islamic Studies (LUCIS) and the African
Studies Centre (ASC), Leiden, 23 April 2015. I am grateful to the audience, and in particu-
lar to Prof Louis Brenner, for their insightful comments that have helped me in sharpen-
ing my analysis. Shaykh Bashīr Bukhārī (Kano), as well as Shaykh al-ʿAbd Lāwī b. Abī
Bakr al-ʿAtīq (Dr Lawi Atiƙu Sanka) need to be acknowledged for nurturing my love for
the Tijānī literature of Nigeria, feeding it with innumerable data and insights. I would
The West African tradition of Arabic poetry dates back to at least the twelfth
century. The first record of a West African literate who composed verses in
Arabic is that of Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm b. Yaʿqūb al-Kānemī (d. 608/1211 or 609/1212
or 1213), a scholar trained in eastern Kanem and Baghirmi (today’s Chad), who
travelled to Marrakesh where he engaged in a poetic duel with the scholars
of the Almohad court.1 Over the centuries, with the growth of Islamic literacy,
the classical forms of the Arabic literary tradition became part of the estab-
lished curriculum taught in the scholarly circles of the region. The ability to
write verses, in particular, as emphasized by John O. Hunwick, “was considered
the hallmark of the accomplished scholar” in West Africa.2 Virtually all West
African Muslim scholars wrote some verses, as even a cursory look at the titles
included in the volumes of the annotated bibliography The Arabic Literature of
Africa dedicated to West and Central Africa will show.3 Nigeria does not make
exception, and “the greater number of the earlier writers of the area in the
Arabic language” composed verses, as already pointed out Adrian H. D. Bivar
and Mervyn Hiskett in one of the earliest contributions on the Nigerian Arabic
literary tradition.4 While the vast majority of the written qaṣīda production was
in Arabic,5 several African languages developed their own traditions of verse in
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Sufi Poetry in Twentieth-Century Nigeria 193
rich work, which masterfully breaks down the artificial boundary between oral
and written, popular and learned literary traditions in an Islamic (prevalent-
ly Sufi) context, showing the degree to which the popular literary cultures of
Muslim West Africa are infused with classical Sufi doctrinal themes.10
Some works on the topic have also appeared in Arabic, from the now clas-
sical (and outdated) ʿAlī Abū Bakr’s al-Thaqāfa al-ʿarabiyya fī Nījīriyā,11 to the
more recent al-Shiʿr al-ṣūfī fī Nījīriyā by ʿUthmān Kabara,12 al-Adab al-ʿarabī
al-nījīrī by Kabīr Ādam Tudun Nufawa13 and Shiʿr al-rithāʾ fī Sukutū by Bābikir
Qadramārī.14
Besides the homiletic (waʿẓ) genre,15 the bulk of Sufi poetry from West
Africa is cast within the apparently repetitive madḥ genre (panegyric ad-
dressed to the prophet or a saint). Not only, however, there is much more to
10 Christiane Seydou (ed.), La poésie mystique peule du Mali (Paris: Karthala, 2008). See also,
for a recent translation of an anthology of the Arabic poetry of the celebrated Senegalese
Shaykh Ahmadu Bamba (d. 1927), Sana Camara (editor and translator), Sheikh Ahmadu
Bamba: Selected Poems (Brill: Leiden, 2017). Another recent book by Fallou Ngom docu-
ments the role of ʿajamī Wolof literature in the establishment of the network of follow-
ers of Ahmadu Bamba (Muridiyya): Fallou Ngom, Muslims Beyond the Arab World: The
Odyssey of ʿAjamī and the Murīdiyya (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). For Hausa
ʿajamī poetry, see Mervyn Hiskett, A History of Hausa Islamic Verse (London: School of
Oriental and African Studies, 1975). Oludamini Ogunnaike has insightfully reflected on
the (cultural as well as religious) implications of the presence of the Sufi qaṣīda tradi-
tion, through recitations and performances, in the public space of a contemporary West
African Muslim city. See Oludamini Ogunnaike, “The Presence of Poetry, the Poetry of
Presence: Meditations on Arabic Sufi Poetry Performance and Ritual in Contemporary
Dakar,” Journal of Sufi Studies 5.1 (2016): 58–97.
11 ʿAlī Abū Bakr, al-Thaqāfa al-ʿarabiyya fī Nījīriyā min 1850 ilā 1960 m. ʿām al-istiqlāl (Beirut:
n.p., 1972).
12 ʿUthmān Kabara, al-Shiʿr al-ṣūfī fī Nījīriyā: dirāsa mawḍūʿiyya taḥlīliyya li-namādhuj
mukhtāra min intāj al-ʿulamāʾ al-qādiriyyīn khilāl al-qarnayn al-tāsiʿ ʿashar wa’l-ʿishrīn al-
mīlādiyya (Cairo: al-Nahār, 2004).
13 Kabīr Ādam Tudun Nufāwā, al-Adab al-ʿarabī al-nījīrī fī al-qarn al-tāsiʿ ʿashar al-mīlādī
(Kano: Dār al-Umma, 2008).
14 Bābikir Qadramārī, Shiʿr al-rithāʾ fī Sukutū khilāl al-qarn al-tāsiʿ ʿashar al-mīlādī (Kano:
Dār al-Umma, 2010).
15 For an example of homiletic Sufi poetry from Nigeria, see Umar Abdurrahman, “Themes
of Sufism in Aliyu Na Mangi’s Poetry,” Islamic Studies 28.1 (1989): 29–38. See also Stanisław
Piłaszewicz, “The Image of Temporal World, Death and Eternal Life in Hausa Homiletic
Verse,” in Mort et rites funéraires dans le Bassin du lac Tchad, ed. Catherine Baroin, Daniel
Barreteau and Charlotte von Graffenried (Paris: ORSTOM, 1995), 279–94.
the madḥ than meets the eyes,16 but West African scholars did also experiment
with other genres, leading to remarkable literary creations. After some obser-
vations on the madḥ genre in the region, this paper will present the translation
and analysis of two examples of Sufi qaṣīda in the more unusual genres of the
wine ode (khamriyya) and the love ode (ghazal). Both poems were authored by
the Nigerian scholar Shaykh Abū Bakr al-ʿAtīq b. Khiḍr (Shehi Atiƙu; 1909–74).
These examples will demonstrate the depth of the integration of West Africa in
the poetic tradition of the Arab-Islamic qaṣīda, and of the engagement of West
African authors with the spiritual tradition of Sufism.
Focusing on the Prophet as the model of spiritual perfection, the Sufi madḥ
genre has the advantage—if compared to more lyrical genres—that it allows
the author to reveal his own spiritual stations and to disguise them at the
same time. This is the main reason why, in the traditional scholarly circles that
nurtured the literary tastes of West African authors, the madḥ was normally
preferred to the Oriental ghazal of a Rumi and a Hafez and to the khamriyya
of an Ibn al-Fāriḍ. Probably, West African Sufis, who were, for the most part,
also scholars of Islamic jurisprudence and theology, judges (qāḍī-s) or Quranic
teachers, felt that (at least part of) their public would not understand the use of
the metaphors of love and wine. Moreover, the madḥ genre, which projects all
spiritual perfection in the Prophetic model, was considered as more suitable
to the spiritual etiquette (adab) of the religious scholars, according to which
references to individual emotions have to be minimized, because subjectivity
in itself is seen as inherently problematic from the point of view of spiritual
realization. For authors like Shehi Atiƙu and many of his peers in Kano, who
either belonged to the Fulani ethnic group or participated into a culture that
was deeply imbued with a Fulani ethos, the etiquette required by the tradi-
tional Muslim scholarly culture also strongly resonated with their culturally
inherited pulaako (“Fulani decorum”), which famously emphasizes dignified
detachment rather than the expression of emotions.
This is not to mean that claims of one’s own spiritual authority were not
made by West African Sufi authors by alluding to their mystical experiences;
quite the contrary. But the fact of encoding such allusions in the poetic genre
16 For the poetic translation of a compelling Prophetic madḥ by a Senegalese Sufi, see
Rudolph Ware, “In Praise of the Intercessor: Mawāhib al-Nāfiʿ fī Madāʾiḥ al-Shāfiʿ by
Amadu Bamba Mbacké (1853–1927),” Islamic Africa 4.2 (2013): 225–48.
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Sufi Poetry in Twentieth-Century Nigeria 195
of the Prophetic madḥ had a twofold raison d’être. On one side, it allowed to
frame the Sufis’ spiritual accomplishments as the outcome of their love for
the Prophet and of their complete annihilation in his ḥaḍra (spiritual pres-
ence), which was not a matter of formal reverence to orthodoxy, but a central
aspect of their spiritual methodology.17 On the other side, it produced pieces
of literature that could be recited by the Sufis’ students and peers during the
communal events dedicated to the celebration of the Prophet’s birth (mawlid),
thereby nourishing a popular culture of devotional literacy whose consumers
extended well beyond the circles of the literate scholars, and entrenching what
Oludamini Ogunnaike has called “the presence of poetry”18 in the public life of
West African Muslim communities. The image below, (figure 1) is a perfect ex-
ample of the public presence of poetry, and in particular, of poetry of the madḥ
genre, in a West African city. The image portrays the house of Shehi Atiƙu,
whose poems will be discussed more in detail in this paper, in the Kano ward
of Sanka. Until today, forty years after his death, every year during the celebra-
tion of the Prophet’s birthday in the Islamic month of Rabīʿ al-awwal, the walls
of the house are decorated with a selection of verses from the author’s poems
in praise of the Prophet, like the following ones from his Miftāḥ al-aghlāq fī
madḥ ḥabīb al-Khallāq.
ال أ ق ُ أ ق ق ن ف
� كا � ��ي �إ طرا ��ي ؞ لا �م�ا � ��س��طره ع��لى � و ر ا � �م�د �ح�ي �ل�ه ��د
أ أ ْ
� ذ أ �ق ُ � َن ّ � � ث ن ع��ل � ظ ال خ ا ق
أ ُ
� م�ا � ا � و ل بم�� ر ب� ا لو ر ى ؞ � ��ى ي��ه ب�� ع����ِم � ��ل
د�ة �لخ ّ ق َت ْأ ت ف ُق
� ��لا ��ل �م�ا � ش����ا ��ي �م�د ح�ه �ِم� ن� ب��ع ِ�د � ن� ؞ و� فص�����ه ب��ع��بو ا
ف ت�ُ أ �غْ ق ُ ُ ُ
�ق�� �ع ب���د ه و خ���لي��ل�ه و
� ح ال� �لا ح ب����يبُ��ه ؞ و� فص��يّ���ه �هو ��ا ل
ّ �لخَ ق ل ا ق أ ُ خ ْ ُ ّ
� ك ِل ا ��ل� ب�ا ٳط�ل � �را و�ي��ر هم ؞ �هو � �ص�ل � ��هو ����سي���د ا �لر��س�ل ا �ل ك
أ آ ّ ِم
َ �ق ��سُ ال ْ �ز ق �ُق �ة ��لن ال ل �ه ��ذ � � ن �ق
� � � ا �و ر إ� ا �ي ا ل� �ي ؞ ِم�� ُ ب ِل م م ر
ا � ا
� د � �
�� �هو ��ب���ض
خ ت�ُ � ق أ ُ أ ّ ُ
ْ� ن ًّ� ن ت ُ أ ن ن
ِ �ِم�� �و ِر ه ال� كوا � طرا كو�� ؞ � �ص�ل ال� �صو ل و��ا م ا
� ل����سب���ا
17 For an insightful discussion of the Sufi practice of “annihilation in the Prophet,” re-
dressing an earlier interpretation by Valerie Hoffmann (“Annihilation in the Messenger
of God: Development of a Sufi Practice,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 31.3
[1999]: 351–69), see Oludamini Ogunnaike, “Annihilation in the Messenger Revisited:
Clarifications on a Contemporary Sufi Practice and its Precedents,” Journal of Islamic and
Muslim Studies (forthcoming). Ogunnaike’s observations are mainly drawn from contem-
porary West African examples.
18 I borrow the term from Ogunnaike, “The Presence of Poetry, the Poetry of Presence.”
The master of all noble messengers and the best from among them
He is the origin of all creatures, without exception
Everything, without exception, was brought into being from his light
The origin of all origins, the seal of those who have come before23
19 See Qur’an 68:4, “truly you [Muḥammad], have an exalted character.”
20 This verse is reminiscent of a similar one by al-Buṣayrī in his al-Burda: “avoid what the
ٔى ّ �ن
� � ب�م�ا � �ش� �� ت� �م�د ح�ا ف�ي���ه وا
حت�� ك )د �م�ا ا د �عت���ه ا � ن�ل����ص�ا ر �ى ب����بي����ه� ؞ وا ح ك.
Christians have claimed about their prophet / and give praise as you want, and be judi-
cious” (�
م م م ع
21 The reference here is to the invocation of blessings on the Prophet, Ṣalāt al-fātiḥ li-mā
ughliqa, “Invocation of blessings on the one who opened what was previously locked.”
This prayer plays a central role in the daily litanies of the Tijāniyya.
22 Reference to the text of a hadith where the Prophet describes God as the Giver (al-muʿṭī)
and himself as the distributor (al-qāsim).
23 Reference to another phrase in the Ṣalāt al-fātiḥ: al-khātim li-mā sabaqa (“the one who
has sealed what had come before him”).
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Sufi Poetry in Twentieth-Century Nigeria 197
Verses of prophetic madḥ like the ones above serve to give expression to the
doctrines associated with the idea of the Muḥammadan reality (al-ḥaqīqa al-
muḥammadiyya), here intended as the primordial prophetic principle and as
the first theophany of God. This idea is the cornerstone of the spiritual prac-
tices of the Tijāniyya Atiƙu adhered to, as well as of many other Sufi orders.
A good madḥ is usually one in which there is a continuous movement back and
forth from the historical Muḥammad (with references to his life or to his words
reported in hadiths) to the metaphysical Muḥammad (with references to the
ḥaqīqa muḥammadiyya).
24 Reference to the “verse of Light”: “God is the Light of the heavens and the earth. His Light
is as follows: there is a niche, and in it a lamp, the lamp inside a glass, a glass like a glit-
tering star, fueled from a blessed olive tree from neither east nor west, whose oil almost
gives light even when no fire touches it. Light upon Light, and God guides whomever He
wishes to His Light. God draws such comparisons for people and God has full knowledge
of everything” (Qur’an 24:35). The rhetorical device of referring in verse to the text of a
Quranic verse or hadith is known in Arabic as taḍmīn.
25 The text is in Muḥammad al-Amīn ʿUmar, al-Shaykh Abū Bakr ʿAtīq wa-dīwānuhu hadiyyat
al-aḥbāb wa’l-khillān (Kano: Zāwiyat Ahl al-Fayḍa al-Tijāniyya, 1988), 169. The translation
is mine.
26 The Ṣalāt al-fātiḥ also describes the Prophet as al-hādī ilā ṣirāṭika al-mustaqīm,
“the one who guides on Your straight path,” words which, in turn, refer to a verse
in the sūrat al-Fātiḥa in the Qur’an. The poet’s use of the word ḍalāl, in the sec-
ond hemistich, are also a reference to the Qur’anic wa-lā l-ḍāllīn, and are thus an-
other example of the poet’s use of taḍmīn. The same is also true of the word al-māḥī
ف أ
(“the eraser”), from the words in the hadith “I am the eraser by whom God erases
ا �ل ك
unbelief” (�����ر ���)� ن�ا �ل���م�ا �ح �ي���م.
� حو ا �ل�ل�ه
ب�ي �ي
The master of the madḥ genre in contemporary West Africa is probably the
Senegalese Shaykh Ibrāhīm Niasse (1900–75), of whom Atiƙu was one of
the main representatives in Nigeria. Niasse’s six dīwān-s (al-Dawāwīn al-sitt)
have become by far the most widely used pieces of devotional Islamic verse in
contemporary West Africa, partly superseding celebrated classical precedents
like al-Būṣīrī’s al-Burda and al-Fazāzī’s ʿIshriniyyāt. From the literary point of
view, the special appeal of Niasse’s verses lies in the creative use of imagery
drawn from pre-Islamic poetry. The influence of pre-Islamic poetry (whose
study and memorization constitutes an important part of the training of tra-
ditional West African scholars), is visible from the very beginning of the most
famous of Niasse’s six dīwāns, Nuzhat al-asmāʾ waʾl-afkār fī madīḥ al-Amīn wa-
maʿānī al-Mukhtār, which opens with the verse:
ّ ُ ّ نَ ُ ّ حَ فَ �غ ُْ ّ أ ن أ
� ب�ى ا �ل��ق���ل� ب� �إ لا � � ي� ك
��م�هي�ما �و � �م��تي�ما ؞ ��لي�� � راٍم ب�ا �ل��ن�ب�ي
All that my heart could do was to fall enslaved (to love)
Sworn to a passion, infatuated with the Prophet27
All that people could do was to say “the two of them! The two of them!”
But had it been in my power, [death] would have occurred to someone
else28
By starting his prophetic praise with a verse that echoes a pre-existing one,
known to his audience and drawn from a mother’s lamentation, Niasse inten-
tionally creates a sort of effect of musical reverberation, thanks to which his
love for the Prophet is “attuned with,” and resonates of, the love of a mourning
mother for her two sons.
The appeal of Niasse’s madḥ poetry, however, does not reside only in its liter-
ary quality, but also in the depth of its religious content. In particular, it seems
27 Ibrāhīm b. ʿAbdullāh [Niasse] al-Kawlakhī, al-Dawāwīn al-sitt (Kano: ʿAbdullāh al-Yassār,
n.d.), 6.
28 For the text, translation and commentary of this early Arabic elegy, see Alan Jones, Early
Arabic Poetry: Selected Poems (Reading: Ithaca Press, 2011), 66. My translation is slightly
different than Jones’.
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Sufi Poetry in Twentieth-Century Nigeria 199
Like someone who tries to reach the moon with his fingers
Or someone who wants yesterday to come again today
Like someone who tries to insert the word ayḍan (in a poem)—many
have tried!
But they had to leave a place for a patch in the garment (to be patched
by me)29
does not usually sound well in poetry, while the words ghādarū mutaraddamā
(“they have left a place for a patch in the garment”) are a reference to the open-
ing verse of a qaṣīda by the famous pre-Islamic poet ʿAntara, hal ghādara al-
shuʿarāʾu min mutaraddamin, “have the poets left a place for a patch in the
garment (to be patched by me)?” The implication is that the pre-eminence of
Ibrāhīm Niasse among the lovers of the Prophet is similar to the pre-eminence
of ʽAntara among the Arab poets of old.30
An analytical study of Ibrāhīm Niasse’s dīwāns or, more generally, of the
madḥ genre in contemporary West Africa, from both a literary and religious
point of view, is still to be made. After these preliminary observation on the
central role of madḥ in West African Sufi literature, and on the complexities
of the Sufi doctrines embedded in the madḥ verse, I will now move to the two
examples of works by a West African Sufi author that represent a less common
Figure 1 The house in Sanka (Kano) where Shehi Atiƙu lived. On the walls, some verses from
the author’s qaṣīda ending in qāf in praise of the Prophet.
30 For an insightful analysis of the continuity between pre-Islamic and Islamic madḥ po-
etry, see Suzanne Stetkevych, “Pre-Islamic Panegyric and the Poetics of Redemption:
Mufaḍḍaliyyah 119 of ʿAlqamah and Bānat Suʿād of Kaʿb ibn Zuhayr,” in Reorientations/Arabic
and Persian Poetry, ed. Suzanne Stetkevych (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994):
1–56. Stetkevych’s analysis focuses on the function of madḥ poetry as a ritual of exchange.
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Sufi Poetry in Twentieth-Century Nigeria 201
(but not less significant) incursion by a Sufi of the region in the genres of
khamriyya and ghazal, so as to originally re-work the classical Oriental Sufi
metaphors of drunkenness (poem 1) and sensual love (poem 2).
Abū Bakr al-ʿAtīq b. Khiḍr b. Abī Bakr b. Mūsā al-Kashināwī (or al-Kashinī;
better known in Hausa as Shehi Atiƙu Sanka), was one of the leading Muslim
scholars of Kano (Nigeria) in the twentieth century.31 Born in Katsina in
1909, Shehi Atiƙu was raised in Kano, the demographic and commercial hub
of northern Nigeria, by a sister of his grandmother called Raḥma, who was
a devout Sufi. In Kano, he grew up in the ward of Sanka, just a few hundred
meters from the house of Muḥammad Salga (1871/2–1939), the most famous
scholar of Mālikī jurisprudence of his generation in Kano and probably, in
the whole northern Nigeria. Starting from the late 1920s, Muḥammad Salga
animated a dynamic network of reform-minded students of Mālikī law known
in Hausa as the Salgawa.32 The Salgawa became known to the wider public
for their polemical engagement with the Madabawa, the established school
of Mālikī law in Kano at the time, located in the nearby neighbourhood of
Madabo, where Muḥammad Salga himself had studied for several years under
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Suyūṭī (d. ca. 1910).33 While the public engagement of the
two groups focused on the permissibility of certain traditional funerary prac-
tices, which the Madabawa endorsed and the Salgawa denied,34 the rift be-
tween them also reflected two different, broader attitudes to the Mālikī corpus
31 In providing an outline of Atiƙu’s life and writings, I have drawn from (and expanded) my
previous article Andrea Brigaglia, “Abū Bakr al-ʿAtīq,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE,
2014–1 (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 6–8.
32 On the Salgawa, see John Paden, Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Evanston:
Northwestern University Press, 1973), 86–94, and Sani Y. Adam, “The Life and Career of
Malam Muhammadu Salga (1869–1938), a Pioneer of the Most Extensive Tijani Network
in Northern Nigeria,” Annual Review of Islam in Africa (ARIA) 13 (2015–16): 158–65.
33 On the Madabawa, see John W. Chamberlin, “The Development of Islamic Education in
Kano City, Nigeria, with Emphasis on Legal Education in the 19th and 20th Centuries”
(PhD diss., Columbia University, 1975), esp. 84–127 and 193–200. See also a detailed his-
tory in two volumes published in Hausa: Suyudi M. Hassan na Babban Malami Madabo,
Madabo Jami’ar Musulunci Kano-Najiriya, na Daya ([Kano]: n.p., 1998); Suyudi M. Hassan
na Babban Malami Madabo, Madabo Jami’ar Musulunci Kano-Najiriya, na Biyu ([Kano]:
n.p., 2007).
34 Ādam b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Suyūṭī wrote Ḥujaj ʿulamāʾ al-madabuwiyyīn (Hunwick,
Arabic Literature of Africa, 2:283).
35 For a list of Mijinyawa’s works, see Hunwick, Arabic Literature of Africa, 2:269–71.
36 On Mahḥmūd na-Salga, see Hunwick, Arabic Literature of Africa, 2:269.
37 Two excellent monographs on Ibrāhīm Niasse and his fayḍa are Rüdiger Seesemann,
The Divine Flood: Ibrahiim Niasse and the Roots of a Twentieth-Century Sufi Revival
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010) and Zachary V. Wright, Living Knowledge in West
African Islam: The Sufi Community of Ibrāhīm Niasse (Leiden: Brill, 2015). See also Andrea
Brigaglia, “The Fayḍa Tijāniyya of Ibrāhīm Niasse: Genesis and Implications of a Sufi
Doctrine,” Islam et Sociétés au Sud du Sahara 14–15 (2000–1): 41–56.
38 Hunwick, Arabic Literature of Africa, 2:276–83.
39 Ibid., 2:284–6.
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53 Ṭarāʾiq al-wuṣūl ilā ḥaḍrat Allāh wa-l-Rasūl (ʿUmar, al-Shaykh Abū Bakr ʿAtīq, 146–7) and
Hadhayān al-shārib li-ḥumayyā ḥubb muʿṭī al-raghāʾib (ʿUmar, al-Shaykh Abū Bakr ʿAtīq
214). A translation of the second of these two, from a manuscript containing a slightly dif-
ferent version than the one published by ʿUmar, is provided below in the present article.
54 Jawāhir al-kalim fī kayfiyyāt istikhrāj al-ism (ʿUmar, al-Shaykh Abū Bakr ʿAtīq, 119–120);
al-Durr al-munaẓẓam fī kayfiyyāt istikhrāj ism Allāh al-aʿẓam (ʿUmar, al-Shaykh Abū Bakr
ʿAtīq, 130–3); al-Sirr al-maṣūn fī kayfiyyāt istikhrāj ism Allāh al-maṣūn (ʿUmar, al-Shaykh
Abū Bakr ʿAtīq, 137–42).
55 Irsāl al-aʿinna fī naẓm asmāʾ wa-tārīkh salāṭīn Kashina (ʿUmar, al-Shaykh Abū Bakr ʿAtīq,
48–52).
56 Tazyīn al-sulūk bi-tārīkh mā li-ḥiṣn Kanū min al-mulūk (ʿUmar, al-Shaykh Abū Bakr ʿAtīq,
90–105).
57 Al-khanjar al-rabbānī fī dhabḥ aʿdāʾ ṭarīqat al-Tijānī (ʿUmar, al-Shaykh Abū Bakr ʿAtīq, 126–
9). See Andrea Brigaglia, “The Outburst of Rage and The Divine Dagger: Invective Poetry
and Inter-Ṭarīqa Conflict in Northern Nigeria, 1949,” Journal for Islamic Studies (forthcom-
ing in 36 [2017]).
58 ʿAybat al-fuqarāʾ fī madḥ khātim al-awliyāʾ (Hunwick, Arabic Literature of Africa, 2:299).
59 Munjiyat al-niswān wa-l-wildān min al-wuqūʿ fī l-nīrān (Hunwick, Arabic Literature of
Africa, 2:299).
60 Ruqā duʿāʾ (Hunwick, Arabic Literature of Africa, 2:300).
61 The manuscript was kindly made available to me by the author’s son, Lawi Atiƙu Sanka
(al-ʿAbd Lāwī b. Abī Bakr al-ʿAtīq).
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ت
�ذ ف
� و �ل� ا � ن����ی� ت63 حی��ر ��ي � ل���ر� ع� ّلا ب��ع�د ن���ه� ؞ ف��ز ا د
ّ� ت ش
ل و �زد � ا � ب
�ذ ق ذ ت ق ف ن ت �ذ ش
�� ب�ا � ؞ ب��ه �إ � �م�ا ر و ی� ت� �ل� ا ب�������ی� ت �����ی�� ب� ا ا �ل���را ب� و�صر
ن
� لم�ا �م��ی� ت65ط��� �م ن���ه ؞ �ل لا ا �ل�ع�� ش64� ع ْ�د �م�ا ح��قّ��ً�ا �ص ت
� �ل���ر ب ف��ل لا ا � ش
وو ر و
ت ق ت ن ت �ن ق ن خ ت خ
66��ح�تی ا ����س������ی � ح�ا ب��ه ��� ؞ ��د ی� �ص
� �د ��ل�� �ل��ا � ��س�ا �ی���ه و �ک
م
�ذ ت ق فق
������ ّرب��ن�ي �م�دی�ر�هم �إ ��لی��ه ؞ و ن�ا د �م�ن�ي ا ��لن��د ی�م �ل� ا ا ر �������ی� ت
ح ت �� ّ ت ّ ف ؞ �ل��ذ ا ك ا �ل67 ی�ه� ر ق�ی��ً�ا ق
���� �� � ت� �م ا
ق
� �ی�م�ن�ي �ر68�ح� ب أر �ی أ ّ�إلی ر م
ف ق ت ّ ف
���ن�ي ���إ �ن�ي �م�ا ا �مت���ل��ی� ت ؞ ود ا ر ک69���� لا ی�ا � ی���ه�ا ا �ل��س�ا ��ي ��ع��ط
ق ق ّأ ً ق ف��زد � ذ� ا ا � ش
�� ��ی� ت
ل���را ب� و �لو ���لی��لا ؞ و�إلا � ی���ه�ا ا �ل��س�ا ��ي ����ض ن�ي
ن �ت ق ت ت ن
����ب�ه�ا �
�ا ����ه�� �ا ��ل�ه�ا ب��ل��س�ا ��ه و �ک
� �ع��ت�� ق نن أ
�ی� ا �لت�����ج��ا ن�ي ب��ب���ا ��ه � ب�و ب� ک�ر
أ
ض�ي ا �ل�ل�ه �ع ن���ه و�ع� ن� � ب�و ی��ه ��ر
�غ ق
���ل محمد �ا ر �مری��د
م
ن�ا ظ����م�ه�ا
ت
63 In ʿUmar, this word appears as ���ط �� ��ع.
ش�ي ل��� ا � �ل���ص ت ذ ش ف
64 In ʿUmar, this passage appears as � ع�د �م�ا
ف ر ���لو لا � ا ا � ر ب.
65 In ʿUmar, �ی���ه.
�ق ت
66 In ʿUmar, �
ً � �س����ی.
67 In ʿUmar, �ج �می���ع�ا.
68 In ʿUmar, �ح��بو ب ��� �ل��ذ ا ا لم.
69 This verse is reminiscent of what is probably the most quoted of all the verses of Hafezأ
ً ق
ن آ by Yazīd b. Muʿāwiya): کا ��س�ا و � ی�ه�ا ا �ل��س�ا ��ي ا د ر
�� � لا ی�ا ا
ش ت ف ن ق ش ن
(mutated from one originally composed
���ه �ع���� � ��س�ا � �مود ا و ل و لی ا ����ا د �م��� ک
����ل�ه�ا ( �ا و��ل�ه�ا ؞ کO wine-bearer, bring forth the cup and
put it onto my lips / the path of love seems easy at first but comes with hardship).
articulate his delirium. [These verses] are titled: ‘Delirium of a Drunkard, from
the Liquor (ḥumayyā) of Love of the Donor of what is Desired.’
[Prelude]
-----------
[7] If not for this drink, in reality, I would have been non-existent
And if not for this thirst for it, I would not have made any progress
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[These verses] are concluded, as uttered by the tongue and written by the fin-
gers of Abū Bakr al-ʿAtīq al-Tijānī, may God be pleased with him and his ances-
tors. Penned by Muḥammad Garo, disciple of the author.
that is transmitted to the awliyāʾ (God’s saints) and embodied in its most com-
plete form by Aḥmad al-Tijānī as the “Seal of Saints.” In the poem, the claim
of having tasted this reality is immediately adjusted by the humble statement
that the author did not authentically achieve this knowledge, for had he really
tasted it, his fanāʾ (annihilation) would have been so powerful that he would
not have found “a tongue to articulate his delirium.”
The introduction is followed by a three-verse prelude, in which the au-
thor alludes to his witnessing of a divine disclosure (tajallī) which creates
a state of eternal bliss (surūr) followed by a prayer to God to keep him in this
state (verses i-iii).
After the prelude, the actual poem begins with a reference to the Sufi prac-
tices of spiritual purification (the path of “lovers”, i.e. of the Sufis) that are to
be followed by the mystic in his journey, before reaching the point of intoxica-
tion once finally allowed to drink “of their brew” (verse 1), i.e. the brew of the
ʿārifūn, the “gnostics.”
Verse 2 contains a reference to the unlimited nature of the knowledge dis-
closed during the instantaneous achievement of maʿrifa, and to the fact that
contrary to a physical thirst, the spiritual thirst of the mystic cannot be satiat-
ed, for the object of this thirst is not subject to the laws of quantity. Thereafter,
verse 3 follows up with a reference to the spiritual “death” experienced in a
state of fanāʾ.
Verse 4 contains an interesting allusion to the station of baqāʾ (perma-
nence). This station is manifested in an apparent exterior sobriety (ṣaḥw) but
is, in fact, the sign of a more powerful form of intoxication (sukr) and the mark
of authenticity of the Sufi’s fanāʾ. The authentic baqāʾ, in fact, is not a return to
a previous condition of veiling, but the sign of the permanency of the condi-
tion of unveiling experienced during the first annihilation. An impermanent,
unstable fanāʾ is usually manifested in excessive ecstatic utterances, but is in
fact a weaker form of unveiling, as testified by the return to a condition of veil-
ing. The authentic baqāʾ, on the contrary, is nothing less than the permanence
in a state of annihilation, and it is precisely because it has become a perma-
nent condition, that it has lesser exterior signs. This is what the author means
when he says that, as he never returned to his previous condition (of unveil-
ing), his outward behaviour did not bear the apparent marks of his experi-
ence and his acquaintances could not detect his state. The emphasis on the
Tijāniyya being a malāmatī (from Ar. malām, “blame”) order, is an old topos in
the literature of the order. Here, however, the word is intended as a strategy to
dissimulate gnosis by keeping the outward appearance of an ordinary believer.
As explained by Seesemann:
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In the Tijāniyya, the term does not refer to those who purposely attract
blame or abase themselves, but describes those who avoid blame through
discreetness. Hence, being a Malāmatī, understood as someone who con-
ceals a rank or mystical state, signifies the opposite of practicing taẓāhur,
publicly displaying ranks or secrets.70
In verse 5, the author alludes to a second fanāʾ that occurs without leaving
the previously achieved state of annihilation. In Ibrāhīm Niasse’s words, “the
knower of reality (al-ʿārif) for me (ʿindī) is someone who has been annihi-
lated (fanā) once in the essence (al-dhāt), two or three times in the attribute
(al-ṣifa), and once in the name (al-ism).”71 In Tijānī practices, the second fanāʾ
is the fanāʾ in the Muḥammadan reality and corresponds to the beginning of
the “descending arc” of spiritual realization, which follows the completion
of the “ascending arc” that had previously led the aspirant to his/her first an-
nihilation in the essence.72
Verse 6 contains another reference to the state of baqāʾ (“I drowned in that
drink and in it I persisted”), while verse 7 alludes to the ḥaqīqa muḥammadiyya,
which is the presence (ḥaḍra) the Sufi tastes after his second fanāʾ. The ḥaqīqa
muḥammadiyya is the reason and the goal of all existence as well as the magnet
that pulls the spiritual aspirant in the path to ascent: “If not for this drink, in
70 Seesemann, The Divine Flood, 106. In this sense, the implications of the word malāmatī
as it is used in Tijānī literature are very different from those that one finds in the older
Qalandarī Sufi networks studied in Ahmet Karamustafa’s God’s Unruly Friends: Dervish
Groups in the Islamic Later Middle Period, 1200–1550 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah
Press, 1994). From the point of view of spiritual psychology, in fact, acting in an unruly
way can easily turn, from an original strategy of self-purification through blame, into
a subtle trick of the nafs to attract people’s attention and create an aura of sainthood
around oneself. This is why in the Tijāniyya, the prototype of the perfect malāmatī is usu-
ally identified in the ʿārif bi-l-Lāh (knower of God) whose outward behaviour is undistin-
guishable from that of an average Muslim.
71 Ibrāhīm b. ʿAbdallāh al-Inyāsī [Niasse], Maqāmāt al-dīn al-thalāth (Kano: n.p., 1990).
Quoted and discussed in Seesemann, The Divine Flood, 67ff.
72 Here I borrow the language of René Guénon in his Perspectives on Initiation ([1946]
Sophia Perennis, 2004). The concept, however, is a much older one, as Sufis have often
seen the “two bows” mentioned by the Qur’an (53:9) in one of its most densely mystical
passages, as a reference to the journey (sayr) from creation to the Truth (min al-khalq ilā
al-Ḥaqq) and then, within the various articulations of the Truth’s theophany in the cos-
mos (tajalliyāt al-Ḥaqq). See, for example, [ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Qāshānī], Tafsīr Ibn ʿArabī
(Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, no date), 2:270–1.
reality, I would have been non-existent, and if not for this thirst for it, I would
not have made any progress.”
Verses 8–9 introduce another classical metaphor of the Sufi wine ode, that
of the sāqī or cupbearer (the Sufi master). The cupbearer here can be either a
reference to Ibrāhīm Niasse or to Aḥmad al-Tijānī. If the first is the case, “enter-
ing into the tavern of its sāqī ” would be an allusion to the author’s encounter
with and submission to the Senegalese Sufi, and/or to his trip to visit him in
Kaolack (Senegal). Similarly, “staying in the drinking buddy of his companions”
would be a specific reference to the tarbiya (spiritual training) at the hand of
the Senegalese along with his fellow Nigerian Tijānīs. Shehi Atiƙu, however,
was considered to be an accomplished ʿārif biʾl-lāh (gnostic) since before his
encounter with the Senegalese. Contrary to most of his peers from among
the Salgawa, his submission to Niasse was seen more as an acknowledgment
of the latter’s station than as a discipleship stricto sensu. Thus, the cupbearer
is, more probably, a reference to al-Tijānī and an allusion to the author’s jour-
ney in the latter’s ṭarīqa, while the “companions” refer to the various spiritual
masters of the order. In either case, the reference functions as a reminder to
the necessity of companionship (ṣuḥba) and spiritual discipleship (irāda) as a
precondition for the attainment of knowledge of reality (maʿrifa). A third pos-
sibility is that the sāqī is a reference to the Prophet, the “tavern” to the latter’s
ḥaḍra (spiritual presence), and the “companions” a generic reference to all the
gnostics among the Sufis.
Verse 10 (“I climbed to their heights”) alludes to the ascent (tarqiya) that
takes place, potentially ad infinitum, after the achievement of fanāʾ in God
which is the first goal of tarbiya. Though depending on the previous disciple-
ship and companionship, tarqiya can ultimately occur only as a consequence
of being “pulled up” (jadhb) by the spiritual energy (himma) of an accom-
plished master (“their leader drew me close to him […] so I ascended”).
Finally, verses 11–12 bring the qaṣīda to its conclusion with a dramatic invo-
cation to God, who is now the object of the sāqī (cupbearer) shifting metaphor,
to increase the author in spiritual knowledge (“Give me more of that drink […],
or else, o sāqī, I will perish”).
The second qaṣīda by Shehi Atiƙu here translated is a love poem (ghazal) in
Hausa. The poem is made of thirty-six verses rhyming in -ta, only half of which
were actually composed by Atiƙu. This poem, in fact, is a tashṭīr (lit. ‘halving’)
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73 Michael Frishkopf, “Authorship in Sufi Poetry,” Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics 23
(2003): 78–108.
74 Michele Petrone, “A note on authorship in al-Suyūṭī’s works: Observations on the ʿArf
al-wardī fī aḫbār al-Mahdī,” in Collectanea Islamica I, ed. Luca Melis and Mauro Nobili
(Rome: Aracne, 2013): 227–33.
75 John Paden, Religion and Political Culture.
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81 Access to this manuscript was graciously accorded, once again, by Lawi Atiƙu Sanka.
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[33] {Mai sonki kin san shi, kin san ke kaɗai ya riƙa}
ba waiwaiyawa garas kuma babu jinkirta
82 I read ƙiblas-ka (“your [masc.] qibla”) as an error for ƙiblas-ki (“your [fem.] qibla”).
[6] I went after her pleading compassion, but she flew away
{High up in the sky, and I thought I would not see her again}
[9] {If I get in, she gets out—before I’m out, she’s in again}
Before I can stop, she has already run
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[25] {I’m under the spell of her beauty, I cling to her love}
With my hands and with my teeth,84 that I may succeed
[29] {You nourish the heart and you elude bodily senses}85
If I were given another in your place, I would not look at her
[33] {You know your lover, you know you’re his only one}
He will not swerve, he will not falter away
[35] {The one who loves you, knows you—then let the honest say}
“Who is like you, with whom can you be compared?”
[36] That’s why I have praised you and I say once again
{The Divine Names of Beauty, I yearned towards them}
86 My translation of this word is only tentative. Kirɓa means to “pound”, “to stab” or “to beat”,
but in Katsina (where the author is from), it can also indicate “the restlessness of a well-
fed but insufficiently exercised horse” (George P. Bargery, A Hausa-English Dictionary and
English-Hausa Vocabulary, London: Oxford University Press, 1934, searchable online at
www.maguzawa.dyndns.ws/). I take the word in this last meaning, as the protests or the
complaints of an undisciplined horse for the beating inflicted by a rider.
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In the first line, the poet declares his passionate love for Asmā’u dhāt al-
jamāl, which can be translated both as “Asmāʾu, the Beautiful” and “the Names
of the Essence of Beauty” (or perhaps, with a little grammatical stretch, “the
Divine Names of Beauty”). The poem describes the Sufi’s irresistible attrac-
tion (jadhba) to the ḥaḍrat al-lāhūt, the presence or realm of cosmic existence
where the divine names are manifested in their fullest perfection. The author
introduces and concludes the poem with the same hemistich, Asmāʾu dhāt al-
jamāl na yi begenta. In my translation, I have decided to maintain the metaphor
unresolved in the beginning of the poem, where I translate this hemistich as
“Asmāʾu, the beautiful, I fell in love with her,” and to resolve it in the final verse,
where I translate it as “the Divine Names of Beauty, I yearned towards them.”
In verses 1–2, the poet starts with the image of himself calling upon a girl
after falling in love with her. In v. 2 the use of the term dalāl (“coquetry”) echoes
a verse in the dīwān of Ibn al-Fāriḍ:
ق أ ّ ت ً فأ أ
كا �ْ ف��ا �ل
� ح����س ن� ��د � �ع��ط�ا
� حك � كا ؞ و
� �ذ
� تِ��هْ د لا لا �� ن� ت� � �ه�ل �ل� ا
م
Be proud in your coquetry for you are worthy of it
And rule, for beauty has given you the command.87
Verses 3–4 describe the mixed emotions (“cold and heat, tears and laughter,”
“distance and nearness,” “bitter and sweet”) experienced by the lover in his
longing. For the reader who has already understood one of the central meta-
phors of the poem, this is an allusion to the ineffability of the divine essence as
the coincidentia oppositorum.
Thereafter, the description of the state of separation of the poet, as in the most
classical Arabo-Islamic odes, begins. Verse 5 contains an allusion to the con-
trasting feelings of fear (of being rejected) and hope (in the eventual union
with the beloved) that the lover experiences. The interplay of fear and hope,
however, is not only a trope of the classical love ode, but a typical aspect of the
descriptions of the first stages of the seeker in the Sufi path.88
87 The Mystical Poems of Ibn al-Fāriḍ, translated and annotated by A. J. Arberry (Dublin:
Emery Walker, 1956), 66. In this and in the following quotes, my translation is slightly
more literal and less poetic than Arberry’s.
88 Of the classical Sufi manuals, al-Qushayrī’s Risāla is the one that describes the path of
spiritual ascent more systematically as a movement between opposite stations. For the
section on fear and hope, see: Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī, Sufi Book of Spiritual Ascent
(al-Risala al-Qushayriya), abridged translation by Rabia Harris, edited by Laleh Bakhtiar,
(Chicago: Kazi Publications, 1997), 51–68.
Verses 6–8 describe the behaviour of the girl object of the poet’s longing
as an unpredictable fluctuation of proud conceit (“I went after her pleading
compassion, but she flew away”) and generous care (“everything I ask for she
immediately gives,” “everything that worries me is a worry to her”). This fluc-
tuation between opposite attitudes introduces the theme of the ambivalence
between the manifestation of divine jalāl (majesty) and divine jamāl (beauty),
another classical trope of the Islamic representation of God’s manifestation
through His names—and one that is strictly linked to the psychological fear/
hope dichotomy, of which it functions as the theological counterpart.
Verses 9–10 contain one of the most effective images of the poem, describ-
ing the ineffability of God’s ipseity lying beyond His names, through the very
physical (and somewhat comic) image of the girl running out of her room to
evade the sensual encounter with her suitor, while at the same time inviting
him to step in (“If I get in, she gets out—before I’m out, she’s in again / Before I
can stop, she has already run. If I try to speed up, she stays still and says “come” /
Lest we bump into each other in her room”).
Verses 11–12 insist on the pride vs courtesy, jalāl vs jamāl dichotomy,
while verses 13–14 powerfully introduce the theme of jealousy, anger and pun-
ishment: the only way to achieve union with this girl is to please her in all that
she requires; otherwise, the penalty of banishment and distance will befall on
the lover. The path of divine love Atiƙu and al-Naffāḥ are describing in this
poem—these verses remind the reader—is not for an aspirant who is unscru-
pulous in following the divine law. Asmāʾu is “beyond all her pals” because the
divine presence is beyond all other ḥaḍarāt (cosmic presences). She is easily
angered because the divine presence, if compared to other cosmic ḥaḍarāt like
the Muḥammadan presence, is essentially a presence of jalāl.
With verses 15–20, the poem partially resolves the tension of separation that
was central to the previous ones. Here, in fact, the object of the poet’s love is
described as all-seeing and omnipresent. This allows the authors to express
in powerful verses the paradox of the condition of the spiritual seeker, who is
running after an object (God) who in fact, by being beyond the limitations of
space, is already as near as He can possibly be. Particularly effective are verses
18–19, which emphasise God’s essence as omnipresent beyond the capacity
of modern means of transport like a bicycle, a train, a motorbike, an airplane
and a car to possibly escape its presence. At the time in which the poem was
composed, these means of transport still resonated among the Nigerian pub-
lic of the powerful allure of modernity in its early stages. By asserting God’s
transcendence over the illusionary impression that modern means of trans-
port can overcome the limitations of space, the author(s) remind their readers
that the spiritual states alluded to in the poem are universal conditions of the
human spirit and that they are not contingent on a specific time and place.
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Verses 21–24 return once again to the contrasting images of majesty and
beauty, while in verses 25–26, the lover emphatically declares his complete
commitment to his beloved. In verses 27–28, we find another of the most clas-
sical images of the Sufi ghazal, that of the veil (ḥijāb). It is only because Asmāʾu
is veiled that most people do not realize her true beauty; were she to remove
her veil, everyone would fall in love. Likewise, it is only because God cloaks His
essence in His theophanies (i.e., in creation) that most people remain indiffer-
ent to the spiritual call. Were He to remove His veils, everyone would lose his
intellect. Once again, Ibn al-Fāriḍ comes to mind:
ُ ف ث ُ ّت أ �غْ تْ �غُ ّ ت غَ ّ �ة ّ
ح���ج�� ب� �لو ��سر �ى ��ي �م���ل طر��ه ؞ � � ��ن���ه � ر ��ه ا �ل��ر �ع� ن� ا �ل��سر�ج
م
�
Veiled he is; if he were to walk in a darkness the like of his horse’s forelock
The bright-gleaming blaze would suffice for light, with no need for a
lantern89
Verses 29–32 contain some of the most beautiful images of the poem. Here the
lover, in an extreme attempt to win over the heart of his beloved, proclaims
his absolute passivity and abandonment to the latter’s will: “to me, your de-
parture is like you are coming;” “whatever you do, my soul will like more than
anything.” “Fry up my heart and my flesh,” “crush my bones into pieces, spill
my blood,” in particular, are verses whose powerful effect in the Hausa original
cannot be effectively rendered in English translation. These verses are reminis-
cent of the following ones from Ibn al-Fāriḍ’s dīwān:
ُ ّ�
ف
� ��ل ب��ه ج���ع�ل� ت� ��د ا
كا كا ن� ف��ه ا ئ�ت��لا ف� ؞ ب��ك جع ف ن
� � وت�لا ��ي �إ
�ي
�خ�ت � ف �خ� �ت � � ن ف �ئ ف
� � �ا
كا � و ب�م�ا � �ش� �� ت� ��ي �هوا ك ا ����بر ن�ي ؞ ��ا � ي���ا ر �ي م�ا
كا � �ي���ه ر �ض
89
The Mystical Poems of Ibn al-Fāriḍ, 28.
90
The Mystical Poems of Ibn al-Fāriḍ, 66. Probably the most extreme and imaginative ex-
ample of a literary “prayer for illness” in an ascetic and mystical context, is to be found in
the Italian sonnet by the early Franciscan Jacopone da Todi (1230–1306). For an English
translation, see Leonard J. Bruce-Chwatt, “Jacopone da Todi’s Mystical Pathology,” British
Medical Journal, 285.6357 (1982): 1803–4. In the context of a Sufi ghazal, the images of the
beauty of the beloved soften the effect of the images of the illness and deprivation of the
lover that are so dominant in Jacopone. One has to remember, however, that (without
prejudice to the sincerity and the harshness of Jacopone’s ascetic effort), there is a touch
of irony and parody in the extreme expressions of his sonnet that by way of paroxysm,
also achieves a similar, softening effect.
91 The Mystical Poems of Ibn al-Fāriḍ, 28.
92 See Arthur J. Arberry on Ibn al-Fāriḍ: ʿUmar b. ʿAlī b. Al-Fāriḍ, The Poem of the Way:
Translated into English Verse from the Arabic of Ibn al-Fāriḍ (London: E. Walker, 1952), 87.
93 Stefan Sperl, “Qasida Form and Mystic Path in 13th Century Egypt,” in Qasida poetry in
Islamic Asia and Africa (Leiden: Brill, 1996): 65–82.
94 Ibid., 65.
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Sufi Poetry in Twentieth-Century Nigeria 231
Conclusion
The poems analysed in this article are original articulations of two of the most
classical genres of Oriental Sufi poetry in a context (West Africa) where the
khamriyya and the ghazal have never achieved the popularity they enjoyed
elsewhere in the Muslim world. The author(s) were well-known Tijānī Sufi
mystics and Arabic/Hausa literary virtuosos from Kano, but none of these
two poems was published during their lives. The fact that the Nigerian public
of the time was not accustomed with these genres and could have misunder-
stood the metaphors used by the authors is probably the main reasons behind
their choice to refrain from publishing them.
Poem (1), Delirium of a Drunkard, is the genuine expression of Atiƙu’s ex-
perience of fanāʾ (spiritual annihilation). Although it draws heavily on the
standard imagery of the classical khamriyya genre (probably mediated by the
author’s reading of Ibn al-Fāriḍ), the poem powerfully resonates of the author’s
personal experience and includes some allusions to the spiritual practices of
the Tijānī path. Poem (2), Asmaʾu, the Beautiful One, too, is dense with mystical
metaphors and rooted in the author’s knowledge and practice of Sufism. On
the whole, however, the tone is somewhat more playful than dramatic, leaving
the reader with the overall impression that this composition is the fruit of a
decision by al-Naffāḥ and Atiƙu to “play” with the erotic imagery drawn from
their extensive reading of classical Islamic poetry, in order to produce a sort of
Hausa counterpart of the Oriental ghazal. This does not, however, undermine
the literary value of the poem, nor the genuineness of the spiritual experience
it resonates of.
Hadhayān al-shārib and Asmāʾu dhāt al-jamāl are powerful witnesses of the
cultural plasticity of the qaṣīda, “one of the most perfect art forms of pre-medi-
eval times,”98 both as a flexible literary form that is able to adapt to the various
languages that enter into contact with Arabic in the process of Islamization,
and as the vessel of the universal religious message of Islam as lived and taught
by Sufis.99
98 Salma K. Jayyusi, “The Persistence of the Qasida Form,” in Qasida Poetry in Islamic Asia
and Africa, 1:1.
99 Sperl and Shackle’s collection of essays on Asian and African qaṣīdas contains many in-
sightful observations on the development of this most characteristic Arab literary form in
a variety of historical and cultural contexts. For an excellent overview of the local and the
global in the qaṣīda tradition of another major Nigerian area (the Yoruba-speaking south-
west), see Razaq D. Abubakre and Stefan Reichmuth, “Arabic Writing between Global
and Local Culture: Scholars and Poets in Yorubaland (Southwestern Nigeria),” Research
in African Literatures 28.3, Arabic Writing in Africa (1997): 183–209. See also Amidu Sanni,
“Oriental Pearls from Southern Nigeria: Arabic-Islamic Scholarship in Yorubaland: A Case
Study in Acculturation,” Islamic Studies 34.4 (1995): 427–50.
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