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h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t
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Article history: This research examines the strength and durability properties of concrete containing up to 50% ground
Received 8 May 2015 bagasse ash (GBA) replacing ordinary Portland cement (OPC) by weight of binder. The setting times, com-
Received in revised form 25 September pressive strength, modulus of elasticity, chloride resistance, and expansion due to a 5% Na2SO4 solution of
2015
concretes containing ground bagasse ash were investigated. The results showed that concrete with 50% of
Accepted 18 October 2015
GBA produced at least 90% compressive strength as compared to control concrete (CT concrete) at the age
of 28 days. The rapid chloride ion penetration in term of charge passed (Coulombs) was at a very low level
when 20–50% of GBA was used to replace OPC in the concrete. Moreover, the same trend of chloride pen-
Keywords:
Bagasse ash
etration depth was found by the immersion test, i.e., the chloride resistance increased with the increase
High strength concrete of GBA replacement. The results suggest that the use of GBA of up to 50% to replace OPC by weight of
Chloride resistance binder can increase the durability properties of concrete, especially its chloride penetration resistance.
Expansion Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.10.140
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
984 A. Rerkpiboon et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 983–989
son for the search for a solution that will reduce the production of From previous research, they showed that GBA was a good poz-
Portland cement while not reducing the world’s concrete supply. zolanic material that can likely be used at more than 30% by weight
Bagasse ash, a combustion byproduct of sugar cane bagasse in of binder to replace OPC in concrete. Because the volume of
sugar mill industries, has been accepted as a pozzolanic material bagasse ash has increased every year, it would be beneficial to be
to partially replace Portland cement in concrete [2–6]. From statis- able to increase the amount of GBA used to replace OPC in con-
tics, the amounts of sugar-cane bagasse produced in Thailand from crete. It was also found that there are very few studies on this sub-
the 2008/2009, 2009/2010, 2010/2011, 2011/2012 and 2012/2013 ject. This research puts an emphasis on the strength and durability
harvest seasons are 66.4, 68.4, 95.3, 97.9 and 100.0 million tons per properties of GBA concrete. GBA was used as a partial replacement
year, respectively [7]. After burning, approximately 0.62% of sugar- of OPC up to 50% at rates of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% by weight
cane bagasse is bagasse ash [8]. Approximately 410,000 to 620,000 of binder. Two experiments on rapid chloride ion penetration and
tons per year of bagasse ash is currently produced, and this pro- chloride penetration depth by immersion were used to evaluate
duction trend will increase sharply every year because sugarcane and confirm the chloride resistance of GBA concrete. The expan-
is one of the primary agricultural crops and is a major raw material sions due to a 5% NaSO4 solution, setting time, compressive
used in the production of ethanol. Fig. 1 shows landfills of bagasse strength and modulus of elasticity of GBA concretes were evalu-
ash from the sugar mill industry in Thailand. Utilization of bagasse ated. Additionally, this study will also be beneficial for the environ-
ash is minimal and unmanageable; some applications of bagasse ment by reducing the volume of bagasse ash disposed of in
ash are as a low value material for backfill or fertilizers which is landfills.
very little as compared to its quantity. Thus, most of the bagasse
ash is still disposed of as wastes in landfills causing environmental 2. Experimental study
and other problems.
Most previous researchers studied the effects of GBA on com- 2.1. Materials
pressive strength and most of the studies used GBA to replace 2.1.1. Cement
10–30% of OPC by weight of binder. Ganesan et al. [2] used 5 to Ordinary Portland cement type I (OPC) used in this study had the physical prop-
30% of GBA to partially replace cement in concretes. They found erties and chemical compositions as shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The par-
that at 20% of GBA in binder could develop early and later compres- ticle shapes of OPC are also shown in Fig. 2.
sive strength, there was decreased water permeability and
increased chloride resistance in terms of charge passed (Coulombs) 2.1.2. Bagasse ash
Bagasse ash from a sugar factory in Lopburi province was obtained and was
and chloride diffusion coefficient of concretes. Guilherme et al. [3] then ground using a ball mill until the particles retained on a No. 325 sieve (with
reported that use of 10%, 15%, and 20% of GBA in conventional and openings of 45 lm) were 0.42% and was assigned as GBA. The physical properties
high-performance concretes have slightly effect on compressive and chemical composition of the GBA is also listed in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
strength and modulus of elasticity concretes but it could improve The particle shapes of GBA are shown in Fig. 3.
chloride ion penetration resistance of concretes. In 2009, Chusilp
2.1.3. Aggregates
et al. [4] showed that use of 20% of GBA in concrete produced
Local river sand, with a fineness modulus of 3.07 was used as a fine aggregate.
the highest compressive strength and the normalized compressive Crushed limestone was used as a coarse aggregate, with a maximum size of 20 mm.
strength of 10%, 20% and 30% of GBA was 106%, 113% and 108% The fine and coarse aggregates had specific gravities of 2.60 and 2.71, and water
compared to control concrete (use ordinary Portland cement as a absorptions of 0.87% and 0.44%, respectively.
binder) at 90 days, respectively. Moreover, it had lower water per-
meability and lower temperature rise than control concrete. High 2.1.4. Superplasticizer
Melamine Formaldehyde Condensate superplasticizer was used in this study to
strength concrete with GBA was studied by Rukzon et al. [5] who
control the slump of fresh concrete in the range of 50 to 100 mm.
showed that the compressive strength of concretes with GBA was
not lower than CT concrete (101–105% at 28 days) and the highest 2.2. Mix proportions and test specimens
compressive strength was achieved when 10% of GBA was used in
concrete. Moreover, concrete containing GBA could improve chlo- 2.2.1. Mix proportions
ride penetration resistance of concrete. GBA was used to replace OPC at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% by weight of bin-
der. The binder content and water to binder (W/B) ratio of all of concrete mixtures
were kept constants at 450 kg/m3 and 0.45, respectively. The ratio of fine to coarse
aggregate was also kept constant at 45:55 by volume. The slump of fresh concrete
was controlled in the range of 50–100 mm using superplasticizer. The mix propor-
tions of all concretes are presented in Table 3.
Table 1
Physical property of the materials.
Table 2
Chemical compositions OPC and ground bagasse ash.
mens) were within 7.8%. In addition, the modulus of elasticity of concretes was also
determined at ages of 7, 28, and 90 days, and three concrete specimens were used
to obtain an average value in each data. The modulus of elasticity of concrete was
Fig. 3. Ground bagasse ash (GBA).
also determined according to ASTM C490 [10].
2.2.3. Rapid chloride ion penetration test left to dry for 24 h before applying of epoxy coating around the cylindrical surface
For the rapid chloride ion penetration test, this test method is to determine the with the exception of the cut surface. The cut concretes were fully immersed in 3%
electrical conductance of concrete to provide the rapid indication of resistance chlo- NaCl solution when the age of concretes was 28 days as shown in Fig. 5. To deter-
ride ions penetrability of concrete. The cylindrical concretes 100 mm in diameter mine the chloride penetration depth of concrete after immersing for 90 and
and 200 mm in height were moved from the curing pond 1 day before testing 180 days, 0.1 N silver nitrate solution was sprayed on the split surface of concretes
age. They were cut by a water-cooled diamond saw at center of height for speci- and the chloride penetration depths were measured [13].
mens have 50 mm of thick slices and 100 mm of diameter. The vacuum saturation
apparatus were maintained vacuum of specimen 3 h and soak in water 18 h. After
that, the specimens were coated silicone sealant around the cylindrical surface with 2.2.5. Expansion of concrete due to a Na2SO4 solution
the exception of the cut surface and combined with two voltage cell. Full both cell To determine the expansion of concrete due to a Na2SO4 solution the concrete
one side with 3.0% NaCl solution and one side with 0.3 N NaOH solutions. The volt- specimens having a cross section of 75 75 mm2 and 285 mm of length were cast
age 60 V were used to determine the electrical conductance of concrete in cou- and removed from the molds after casting for 24 h. After being removed from the
lombs, recorded charge passed every 30 min until 6 h period to provide the rapid molds, they were immediately immersed in a 5% Na2SO4 solution. The expansions
indication of resistance chloride ions penetrability of concrete, as shown in Fig. 4. of concretes were measured after the concrete were exposed in a 5% Na2SO4 solu-
The charge passed (coulombs) values of CT and BA concretes was measured at tion for 266 days (approximately 9 months), and the expansion of concrete was per-
the ages of 28 and 90 days in accordance to ASTM C 1202 [11]. The equation to cal- formed according to ASTM C490 [14].
culate charge passed (Coulombs) is shown in Eq. (1). Three concrete specimens
were tested for each mix proportion to obtain the average data.
3. Results and discussion
Q ¼ 900ðI0 þ 2I30 þ 2I60 þ þ 2I300 þ 2I330 þ I360 Þ ð1Þ
where Q is the charge passed (coulombs), I0 is the current (amperes) immediately 3.1. Properties of fresh concrete
after voltage is applied and It is the current (amperes) at t minute after the voltage
is applied. Table 3 shows the slumps of fresh concretes which are in the
range of 70–95 mm. Control concrete (CT concrete) which did
2.2.4. Chloride penetration depth by immersion test not contain GBA in the mixture, did not require superplasticizer.
For the chloride penetration depth by immersion test, which was conducted in
However, ground bagasses ash concrete (BA concretes) with the
accordance with RTA T263 [12], the cylindrical concretes 100 mm in diameter and
200 mm in height were also used. After casting, the concretes were cured in water replacement of GBA at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% by weight of
for 26 days. Then, they were cut to have 100 mm in height. The cut concretes were binder required superplasticizer at 1.80, 3.15, 4.50, 6.30 and
9.00 kg/m3, respectively, or 0.4%, 0.7%, 1.0%, 1.4% and 2.0% by
weight of binder, respectively. It was found that increasing of
GBA in concrete resulted in increasing the amount of superplasti-
cizer. This was due to the high porosity, porous surface and irreg-
ularly shapes of GBA particles [4–6].
The initial and final setting times of CT and BA concretes are
also shown in Table 3. CT concrete had initial and final setting
times of 240 min and 335 min, respectively. Concretes containing
10–50% of GBA by weight of binder (BA10, BA20, BA30, BA40 and
BA50 concrete) had initial setting times of 245, 240, 225, 220
and 210 min, respectively, and had final setting times of 340,
335, 340, 330 and 335 min, respectively. The results indicated that
use of GBA to replace OPC by up to 50% by weight of binder had a
slight effect on the initial and final setting times of BA concrete,
especially the initial setting time of concrete. These results were
different from using fly ash in concrete. For fly ash concrete, the
initial and final setting time of concrete increased with the increase
of the fly ash content [15]. Because the particles of fly ash are
spherical and solid, the particles could not absorb water into the
particles, but the particles of GBA had a high porosity, porous sur-
Fig. 2. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC). face and were irregularly shaped; thus, the GBA absorbed mixing
986 A. Rerkpiboon et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 983–989
Table 3
Concrete mix proportions.
Mix Mix proportion (kg/m3) Initial setting time (minutes) Final setting time (minutes) Slump (mm)
a
Cement GBA Sand Stone Water SP W/B
CT 450 0 750 955 202.5 0.00 0.45 240 335 70
BA10 405 45 740 945 202.5 1.80 0.45 245 340 90
BA20 360 90 735 935 202.5 3.15 0.45 240 335 90
BA30 315 135 730 925 202.5 4.50 0.45 225 340 70
BA40 270 180 720 915 202.5 6.30 0.45 220 330 70
BA50 225 225 710 905 202.5 9.00 0.45 210 335 95
a
Superplasticizer was assumed to have 50% water by weight.
Table 4
Compressive strength of the CT and BA concretes.
Fig. 7. Relationship between the modulus of elasticity and the square root of the
compressive strength of concrete. Fig. 9. Chloride penetration depth of CT and BA concretes.
988 A. Rerkpiboon et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 983–989
Fig. 10. Chloride penetration depths of concretes when 0.1 N silver nitrate was applied on the split surface at 180 days.
Fig. 12 shows the expansion test results of CT and GBA concrete 4. Conclusions
bars immersed in a 5% Na2SO4 solution for up to 266 days (approx-
imately 9 months). At 266 days, the expansion of the CT concrete Based on the experimental results of this study, the following
bar was 0.0361%, while those of BA10, BA20, BA30, BA40 and conclusions can be drawn:
BA50 concretes were 0.0315%, 0.0268%, 0.0220%, 0.0188% and
0.0167%, respectively. It is seen that the expansion of concrete bars 1. For concrete with the same slump, the higher the replacement
decreased with the increase of GBA replacement. Moreover, the of OPC by GBA, the greater the amount of superplasticizer that
is required. Moreover, the initial and final setting times of the
concretes are slightly affected when GBA is used to replace
OPC at between 10% and 50% by weight of binder.
2. The highest compressive strength of BA concrete was obtained
when the replacement of OPC by GBA was 20% by weight of bin-
der. This compressive strength means that BA20 concrete could
be considered to be high strength concrete at the ages of
90 days, because the strength of the BA concrete was more than
55 MPa.
3. The use of GBA to replace OPC at up to 50% by weight of binder
in concrete did not have any effect on the modulus of elasticity
of the concrete. The modulus of elasticity of GBA concrete
depends on its compressive strength and is similar to that of
conventional concrete.
4. From the results of the rapid chloride ion penetration test and
the chloride penetration depth by immersion test, GBA can be
used effectively to increase the chloride resistance of concrete.
Moreover, the replacement of GBA (10–50%) is more important [14] ASTM C490/C490M-11: Standard practice for use of apparatus for the
determination of length change of hardened cement paste, mortar, and
in increasing the chloride resistance of concrete rather than in
concrete, 2011.
increasing the compressive strength of concrete. [15] Chung-Ho Huang, Shu-Ken Lin, Chao-Shun Chang, How-Ji Chen, Mix
5. The expansion of BA concrete bars due to Na2SO4 attack was proportions and mechanical properties of concrete containing very high-
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the Thailand Research Fund (TRF) under TRF Senior Research Scho- 4287–4293.
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