ELECTRICAL MACHINES

An electrical machine consumes electrical energy to do a specific work or it converts

electrical energy to other forms like mechanical energy, light energy, heat etc. In this module,
we will be discussing the principle, working, construction, application, merits and demerits of
various electrical machines used in our day to day life. The following are the various
machines which we will be dealing with:

 Transformer
o Principle of Operation
o Construction
o EMF Equation and Transformation Ratio
o Losses in a Transformer
o Efficiency
 DC Machines
o Construction
o Principle of Operation and Working of DC Motor
o Back EMF
o Voltage, Power and Torque of DC motor
o Necessity of a Starter
o Types of DC Motor
 Three Phase Induction Motor
o Construction
o Principle of Operation
 Single Phase Induction Motor
o Types of Single Phase Induction Motor
 Universal Motor
 Numerical Problems.
1. TRANSFORMER

Transformer is a static AC machine (i.e it contains no moving parts) which is used to increase or
decrease the AC voltage without changing the frequency. It consist of 2 windings – primary
winding and secondary winding- which are wound on same magnetic core as shown below.

Simple representation of a transformer

1.1 Principle of Operation

The working principle of transformer is Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. The

two windings; primary and secondary, are electrically separated but wound on same magnetic
core. When AC voltage is applied to primary winding, it creates alternating magnetic flux
(ϕm) which links with the secondary winding. This alternating magnetic flux will induce an
EMF in the secondary winding. The magnitude of induced EMF in the secondary can be
increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing the number of turns.

The transformer which increases the voltage is called step up transformer.

For a step up transformer; N1<N2 and V1<V2
The transformer which decreases the voltage is called step down
transformer For a step down transformer; N1>N2 and V1>V2

Where N1 : Number of turns in primary winding

N2 : Number of turns in secondary winding

V1 : Voltage at primary winding
V2: Voltage at secondary winding
1.2 Construction of a Transformer

The main parts of a transformer are:

 Core : The core is made of laminated silicon steel. Each laminations have a
thickness of 0.35mm to 0.5mm and is coated with thin layer of varnish. Several
number of such laminations are pressed together to form the core. The function of
core is to provide low reluctance path to the magnetic flux. Based on the type of
core, the transformer is of two types : core type and shell type.
In core type transformer, the windings are wound on the side limbs of the core as
shown in figure below. In core type transformer the high voltage winding (HV) is
wound over the low voltage winding (LV).

Core type transformer

In shell type transformer, both the LV and HV windings are wound on the central
limb in sandwich pattern as shown below.

Shell type transformer

  Windings : These are made of enamelled copper wire. Each turn of the winding is
insulated from each other.
 Transformer Tank : This tank stores the oil needed for cooling and insulation of
transformer. It is mounted on the top of the transformer.
 Conservator Tank : This is a small tank connected to the main tank. This tank
accommodates the change is oil levels during the heating and cooling of transformer
oil.
 Terminal Bushings : These are used to insulate the output terminals of the
transformer.
 Breather : The breather provides the passage of air in to the transformer during
contraction of oil during cooling. The breather consist of silica gel, through which
the air is passed. The silica gel absorbs the moisture content in the air.

1.3 EMF Equation of Transformer

Let an alternating voltage V1 with frequency F be applied to primary winding of the

transformer as shown in figure above. Let the number of turns in the primary be N 1. The
alternating voltage will set up a flux given by

Φ = Φm Sin ωt

Where; Φm is the maximum value of flux.

ω=2Πf

dΦ
By Faradays Law, induced EMF, e1 = -N1
dt

d
e1 = -N1 dt (Φm Sin ωt)
 i.e e1 = -N1 ω Φm cos ωt

= -N1 2πF Φm cos ωt

e1 = N1 2πF Φm sin (ωt – 90)

in the above equation e1 attains maximum value when sin (ωt – 90) = 1.Therefore the
maximum value E1 is given by

E1 = N1 2πF Φm

i.e E1 = 4.44 N1 F Φm

Similarly E2 = 4.44 N2 F Φm
2. DC MACHINE

A transformer works on alternating current, while a DC machine works on Direct Current. A

DC machine can be a DC motor or a DC generator. It has two main parts :

Stator – It is the stationary part. It does not move or rotate.

Rotor – It is the rotating part of the machine.

2.1 Construction of a DC Machine

The mains parts of a DC machine are

 Yoke : It is the outermost part of a DC motor or a DC generator. It is made of cast iron or

cast steel. It act as a supporting frame to hold the machine and to protect the machine
from mechanical injury. It also serves as the low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
 Poles : These are made of steel laminations. The main purpose is to hold the field
windings into position. The end portion of the pole is called pole shoe. The pole and
the field windings together act as an electromagnet.
 Field Windings : They are enamelled copper wires wound around the poles. It consist of
several turns which are insulated from each other. When current passes through these
windings they form an electromagnet with alternate north and south poles.
 Armature : This is the rotating part of the machine. It is a cylindrical structure with
slots around its outer periphery. Several turns of copper wire are wound through these
slots. When current is passed through the armature windings, it begins to rotate.
 Commutator : The commutator is attached to the same shaft of the armature. It consist
of several copper segments insulated by mica. The armature winding is connected to the
commutator segments. The commutator converts DC to AC and AC to DC.
 Brushes : The brushes are sliding contacts which are used to give and collect current
from the armature through the commutator.

The yoke, poles and field windings form the stator.

The armature and commutator forms the rotor.

 DC Machine

2.2 DC Motor

DC motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. The armature of the DC motor
starts rotating when a DC current is applied to it. The working principle of DC motor is that
when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical
force whose direction is given by Fleming's Left-hand rule and whose magnitude is given by

Force, F = B.I.L newton

2
Where B is the magnetic field in weber/m .
I is the current in amperes
L is the length of the coil in meter.

The force, current and the magnetic field are all in different directions.

Fleming's Left Hand Rule: If we stretch our index finger, middle finger and thumb of our
left hand to be perpendicular to each other AND direction of magnetic field is represented by
the index finger, direction of the current is represented by middle finger then the thumb
represents the direction of the force experienced by the current carrying conductor.
2.3 Working of DC motor.

In the above figure, the direction of field is from N to S. The direction of current through the
conductor under N pole is out of the paper and the direction of current under S pole is into the
paper. So if we apply Flemings Left Hand Rule under N pole, we can see that the direction of
force is downwards. Similarly if we apply Flemings Left Hand Rule under S pole, we can see
that the direction of force is upwards. This downwards and upwards force will rotate the
armature and thus the motor rotates.
2.4 Emf Equation of a DC Generator:
As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In the case of a generator, the emf
of rotation is called the Generated emf or Armature emfand is denoted as Er = Eg. In the
case of a motor, the emf of rotation is known as Back emf or Counter emf and represented
as Er = Eb.The expression for emf is same for both the operations. I.e., for Generator as well
as for Motor.
Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor
Let,
 P – Number of poles of the machine
 ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
  Z – Total number of armature conductors.
 N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
 A – Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is given as

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be

Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get

The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature terminals is
given by the equation shown below.

Where n is the speed in revolution per second (r.p.s) and given as

For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductors per parallel path
(Z/A) are constant. Hence, the equation (5) can be written as

Where, K is a constant and given as

Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as

Where K1 is another constant and hence induced emf equation can be written as

Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as

Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole.
The polarity of induced emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field and the
direction of rotation. If either of the two is reverse the polarity changes, but if two are
reversed the polarity remains unchanged.
This induced emf is a fundamental phenomenon for all the DC Machines whether they are
working as a generator or motor.
If the machine DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the
equation shown below.

Where Eg is the Generated Emf

If the machine DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the equation
shown below.

In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it acts opposite to the supply
voltage.

2.5 Different Types of DC Motors.

DC Motors are classified into Series, Shunt and Compound motors depending upon the
connection of field windings.

 Series Motor.
The figure above shows a DC series motor. Here the field winding is connected in series with
the armature winding. The series field winding will have low resistance. Series motor have
high starting torque, dangerously high speed at no load. These motors are used in electric
locomotives, rolling mills, cranes, hoists, valve operation etc.

The applied voltage is given by

V = EB + IA.( RSE + RA)

Where RSE is the resistance of series field winding.

 Shunt Motor.

The figure above shows a DC shunt motor. Here the field winding is connected in shunt
(parallel) with the armature winding. The shunt field winding will have high resistance. Shunt
motor have medium torque, constant speed throughout. These motors are used in lathes,
vacuum cleaners, compressors, reciprocating pumps, textile mills etc.

The applied voltage is given by

V = EB + IA.RA
 Compound Motor.

The figure above shows a DC compound motor. Here the motor consist of two field
windings, one series winding and one shunt (parallel) winding. The shunt field winding will
have high resistance and series winding will have low resistance. Compound motor have
high starting torque and varying speed within limits. These motors are used in rolling
mills, stamping machines, rotary presses, door lifts, pressure blowers, shearing mills etc.

The applied voltage is given by

V = EB + I.RSE + IA.RA

It is of two types :
 Long shunt compound motors

 Short shunt compound motors

3. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Three phase induction motor works three phase with alternating supply. The working
principle behind three phase induction motor is Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
An induction motor consist of 2 main parts :

Stator – It is the stationary part. It does not move or rotate.

Rotor – It is the rotating part of the machine.

The three phase supply is given to the stator.

3.1 Construction of a 3 Phase Induction Machine

The mains parts of an induction machine are

 Yoke : It is the outermost part of a motor. It is made of cast iron or cast steel. It act as
a supporting frame to hold the machine and to protect the machine from mechanical
injury. It also serves as the low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
 Stator : It is made of laminated silicon steel. It contains several slots to which the
three phase windings are wound. The 3 phase windings are wound for desired number
of poles.
 Rotor : They are of two types: Squirrel cage and Wound rotor.
Squirrel Cage rotors have copper or aluminium bars placed in the form of cylinder
which are shorted at ends by end rings. The entire rotor resembles the shape of
squirrel cage and hence the name. 90% of induction motors have squirrel cage rotors.
Wound Rotor has three phase star connected windings. These are used in high torque
applications.
3.2 Principle of Operation

The working principle behind three phase induction motor is Faradays Law of
Electromagnetic Induction. When three phase supply is given to stator, it creates a rotating
magnetic field. This rotating magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed (NS) given by

120 F
NS =
P

This rotating field will cut the conductors of rotor and induces an EMF in the rotor. The
direction of induced EMF will be to oppose the cause. That is to minimize the change in flux.
So the rotor will begin to rotate in the direction of magnetic field.

3.2 Slip

It is the difference between synchronous speed (NS) and actual speed of motor (N).

N = NS (1-S)

3.3 Frequency of Rotor Current

F’ = S.F

3.5 Application and Features

 Induction motors have nearly constant speed.

 They have poor starting torque
 The maintenance cost is less.
 Simple and rugged construction.
 Power factor between 0.75 to 0.9 lagging
 Used in water pumps, drills, lathes, elevators, compressors, washing machines,
blowers etc.
4. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

The construction is same as that of three phase induction motor except that the stator has
distributed single phase windings. The rotor is of squirrel cage type as shown below.

A single phase induction motor is not self-starting as there is no rotating magnetic field. To
make rotating magnetic field and to make it self-starting and additional winding called
auxiliary winding (also called starting winding) is placed on the stator. The starting winding
has high resistance and low reactance. The main winding has low resistance and high
inductive reactance. So the current through these 2 windings will be 90 degree out of phase,
resulting in rotating magnetic field.

During starting the centrifugal switch will be ON and both the windings will be connected to
the supply. The 2 windings will create rotating magnetic field and the motor starts to rotate.
When the motor attains 70% to 80% of rated speed, the centrifugal switch turns OFF. Now
the motor runs on main winding.

Single phase induction motors are used in fans, blowers, wind pressure, conveyer, toys and
small fans.