Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Traditional chocolate manufacturing relies largely on the experience and skill of the chocolatier. Nowa-
Received 31 March 2009 days, with the replacement of manual processes with automated equipments, it is increasingly important
Received in revised form 7 December 2009 to apply right processing conditions and controlling parameters, such as the time, the temperature, the
Accepted 11 December 2009
moisture content, the relative humidity of the surrounding air, etc. This study investigated the influences
Available online 16 December 2009
of these factors during the moulding and cooling stage of chocolate manufacturing process on the ease of
demoulding. Adhesion of chocolate to the polycarbonate mould surface was used as a measure for the
Keywords:
demoulding properties, and was determined as the force required to separate a flat mould surface from
Chocolate
Adhesion
the solidified chocolate sample. The results demonstrated that processing parameters, like temperature,
Moulding contact time, and the relative humidity of the surrounding environment, have a significant impact on
Demoulding chocolate crystallization and solidification processes and on the adhesion of chocolate to a mould surface.
Crystallization Experimental findings from this work confirmed observations made during commercial chocolate
manufacturing.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction (Walstra, 1996), and the crystallisation of the cocoa butter in the
correct polymorph (Form V). The aim of the tempering process is
The knowledge of chocolate manufacturing has evolved hugely to develop the correct polymorphic form, and in order to do so
since the introduction of plain chocolate tablets in 1847 by Joseph the chocolate is cooled from 45 °C to approximately 30 °C (depend-
Fry, the first solid milk chocolate in 1876 by Daniel Peter, and the ing on the type of chocolate, e.g. milk or dark chocolate). After the
production of smoother and better tasting chocolate in 1880 by tempering stage, the liquid chocolate is deposited into polycarbon-
Rodolphe Lindt (Beckett, 2008; Nelson, 1999). Since then, the choc- ate moulds and cooled, as is visualized in Fig. 1. Objective of this
olate manufacturing process has undergone various changes for cooling phase is the solidification the fat phase of the tempered
the purposes of either improved oral experience (flavour and tex- chocolate mass with the correct crystallization, as this will lead
ture) or increased productivity to meet increasing demands for to contraction of the chocolate and easy removal of the solidified
chocolate products. With ever increasing product output, it is chocolate from the mould during the subsequent demoulding
essentially important to have a good understanding of the influ- process.
ences of chocolate manufacturing process, as well as the process- The detrimental effects of moisture on chocolate viscosity and
ing conditions, on the quality of the final product. An important the ease of processing have been observed. In order to prevent
example in this case is the adhesion of products during processing, the chocolate taking up moisture, Beckett (2001) advised to keep
which is a substantial ongoing problem in the food industry in gen- the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) at around 35–40% during
eral. During chocolate manufacturing the process of demoulding is manufacturing. During moulding, chocolate is deposited at a tem-
particularly prone to adhesion problems, leading to surface defects, perature of approximately 30 °C and is cooled down to below 20 oC
production losses and increased processing costs due to equipment for solidification. Important for the cooling and solidification stage
cleaning. is to prevent the formation of (moisture) condense on the choco-
A basic overview of the main chocolate manufacturing process late surface, which induces sugar bloom. A general recommenda-
has been given by Beckett (2008). The critical stages of the choco- tion is to keep the cooling temperature above the dew point to
late manufacturing process are the mixing of the main ingredients prevent against moisture condensation (Beckett, 2008). Another
to form a dispersion of cocoa solids (particles) and sugar crystals in important reason to avoid too low cooling temperature is the set
a continuous fat phase, consisting of fat crystals and liquid fat of cocoa butter in the wrong crystalline form causing problems
in demoulding. The formation of a larger number of polymorphs
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 113 3432748; fax: +44 113 3432982. with a lower melting point results in a chocolate with a lower vis-
E-mail address: j.chen@food.leeds.ac.uk (J. Chen). cosity (softer) at room temperature and less contraction during
0260-8774/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.12.019
134 E.L. Keijbets et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 98 (2010) 133–140
The experimental adhesion force, Ea, is defined as the force per temperature of the air was decreased from 30 °C, the moment of
surface area, interface creation, to 15 °C in 20 min, after which the air tempera-
ture stayed unchanged. During this study the evolution of surface
adhesion force
Ea ¼ ; ð1Þ adhesion with contact time was followed from 0 to 450 min.
surface area
The relative humidity was controlled by using compressed air
where the adhesion force is the peak separation force measured by (1 and 2) that was passed through a dry (0% RH) (3 and 5) and/
the probe pulling test and the surface area is the area of contact be- or wet column (4), where the air bubbling through distil water to
tween the polycarbonate probe surface and the chocolate surface. gain 100% RH. By using different ratios of wet and dry air, the rel-
ative humidity of the air circulation in the Peltier cabinet was con-
2.2.1. Chocolate processing conditions trolled. After mixing the air, it was passed through a copper coil
In this study effects of different processing conditions on the fully merged in a water bath (6) to obtain the designed tempera-
adhesion force were investigated under varying conditions of cool- ture, before entering the Peltier cabinet. Using the water bath the
ing temperature, probe or mould temperature, contact time and temperature of the air mixture was adjusted according to the cool-
relative humidity. The experimental set-up outlined in Fig. 3 was ing profile used to solidify the chocolate. In general, the tempera-
developed specifically for this study. A sealed cabinet (9) with a ture profiles used were comparable to those used in industry.
dimension 145 mm (W) 130 mm (D) 105 mm (H) connected The experimental set-up consisted of a 30 min pre-conditioning
with a Peltier heating/cooling unit (7) (Stable Micro Systems, Sur- or equilibrium, during which the mould surface was pre-heated
rey, UK) made it feasible to have a controlled experimental temper- to 30 °C at varying RH conditions (range: 0–100% RH). After that
ature between 0 and 50 °C. The contact between chocolate (11) and the pre-conditioned mould was placed on top of the liquid choco-
polycarbonate surface (12), i.e. the chocolate–mould interface, was late surface and the sample was solidified for 60 min using the
created at a temperature of approximately 30 °C, after which the standard cooling process with a cooling temperature of 15 °C.
temperature was normally adjusted to 15 °C using a standardized
temperature profile. The set-up was left without disturbance for 2.2.2. Chocolate and mould parameters
60 min, ensuring complete solidification of the chocolate sample. For all measurements the temperature and relative humidity in
In order to vary the cooling temperature, the temperature of the the Peltier cabinet were measured at the time of creation of the
cabinet was decreased to 20, 15, 10, 5 or 0 °C, respectively. Relative chocolate–mould interface and just before determining the exper-
humidity of the air (0% RH) and air flow rate (10 l/min) were kept imental adhesion force using a digital thermometer/hygrometer
constant. Experimental adhesion force was measured after 60 min (Fisherbrand, Loughborough, UK). Additionally, a set of parameters
of cooling at each specified cooling temperature. For variations in was measured to determine the effect of different processing con-
mould temperature the thermal equilibration step of chocolate ditions on both the chocolate and mould surface:
and mould probe of 30 min, before creating contact, was omitted.
The respective mould surface temperatures of 20, 0, 10, 20, 30 Hardness: The solidified chocolate samples were analyzed for
and 50 °C were obtained by cooling the polycarbonate mould hardness by a method described by (Liang and Hartel (2004))
probe in a fridge or freezer or heating in an oven, respectively. using the Texture Analyser (TA-XTplus, Stable Micro Systems).
The contact time refers to the time that the chocolate–mould inter- A 2-mm cylindrical stainless steel probe was used to penetrate
face was in place, i.e. from the moment of contact/interface crea- the solidified chocolate sample at a constant speed of 0.1 mm/
tion, until the time of probe separation controlled by the Texture s to a depth of 5 mm. The maximum force (N) obtained during
Analyser (13). A semi-dynamic cooling process was used, with a this penetration was taken as a measure of the hardness.
flow of cold air (0% RH) being supplied at a rate of 10 l/min. The Chocolate residue weight: The chocolate residue weight or the
left-over residues at the probe surface, expressed as the
amount of chocolate per unit surface area (mg m2), refers
to the amount of chocolate left on the mould surface after sep-
aration tests.
Contact angle: The contact angle of a water drop placed on the
mould surface after the separation tests was assessed using
the sessile drop method. For each mould surface the measure-
ment was done in duplicate. The aim of this test was to estab-
lish the change in surface character of the mould after
contacting with chocolate, e.g. due to the migration or adsorp-
tion of fat from chocolate to the mould surface.
1. air supply
Gloss: The gloss or light reflection of both chocolate and
2. pressure valve
mould surfaces was measured at 3 angles, 20, 60 and 85° using
3. dry column a Tri-GLOSSmaster (Sheen Instruments, Surrey, UK). The gloss-
4. water column master measures specular reflection, which is the capacity of a
5. valve surface to reflect light. The aim of this test was to determine
6. water bath the deposition of (fat) residues on the mould surface, as well
as possible changes in chocolate gloss.
7. cooling/heating unit
8. ventilator
9. Peltier chamber 2.3. Determination of moisture uptake
10. sample holder
11. chocolate sample cell Moisture uptake by the polycarbonate mould surface at varying
12. adhesion probe RH was determined using a Cisorp water sorption analyser (CI Elec-
tronics Ltd., Salisbury, UK). The method of analysis of the Cisorp can
Fig. 3. Experimental set-up to measure the effect of processing conditions on the be defined as a gravimetric method at an ambient pressure. Basi-
surface adhesion force. cally, it consists of three separate chambers: a weighing chamber,
136 E.L. Keijbets et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 98 (2010) 133–140
Hardness [N]
30
In industry, liquid tempered chocolate (28–32 °C) is deposited 300
25
into pre-heated polycarbonate moulds (25 °C), which are subse- 250
quently placed in a cooling tunnel. These cooling tunnels can be di- 20
200
vided into different sections, enabling the use of temperature 15
150
profiles. The first section uses gentle cooling conditions, to quickly 10
100
set the chocolate. Whilst the chocolate matrix is still liquid, there is
the possibility of cocoa butter migrating to the surface, resulting in 50 surface adhesion hardness 5
the presence of fat bloom on the surface of the chocolate bar. Sec- 0 0
tion 2 applies the coldest air flow (12–13 °C), resulting in the larg- 0 100 200 300 400 500
est amount of latent heat being removed. The 3rd and final section Contact time [min]
applies again a relatively gentle cooling, to limit the temperature
Fig. 4. (A). Surface adhesion of dark chocolate (j) and the amount of residues after
difference between the chocolate sample and the air in the packag- probe separation (s) as a function of contact time. (B) Surface adhesion of dark
ing area. A cold chocolate surface may otherwise result in the con- chocolate (j) and the hardness of the solidified chocolate samples (s) as a function
densation of water vapour, causing the formation of blemishes of contact time.
and/or sugar bloom. On average, it takes 40 min for a chocolate
sample to set, if a cooler with a constant air flow and a temperature
of 10–15 °C is used. work so that the chocolate will be cohesive enough to withstand
Fig. 4A indicates that, at t0 (zero contact time), the surface adhe- the separation force of demoulding. In general, crystallization
sion is zero, but the chocolate residue weight is high. Due to the li- and solidification are very important factors in the surface adhe-
quid character of the chocolate at this time, the chocolate should sion and demoulding. However, one may conclude that there is
be in close contact with the probe or mould surface and may form probably no need to wait for a complete solidification at the time
a bridge during separation. With time the liquid character of the of demoulding.
chocolate declines, as crystallization and solidification processes In addition to tempering and the type and thickness of the choc-
continue, resulting in a clean separation after approximately olate coating in the case of enrobing, several other parameters are
60 min. The adhesion force, meanwhile, increases linearly with known to affect the cooling time (Nelson, 1999). If a chocolate
time until a contact time of about 90 min, after which the adhesion sample is properly tempered, the cooling time will depend purely
force appears to become stabilised at around 430 kPa (kN m2). on the type of chocolate. Tscheuschner and Markov (1989) ob-
In Fig. 4B a plot is shown of the probe separation force together served significant texture changes of chocolates within the first
with the hardness of chocolate samples at respective contact times. six weeks of storage, which they described as after-crystallization.
It is obvious that both parameters follow the same trend. The crys- According to Liang and Hartel (2004) the packing arrangement of
tallisation taking place during cooling is basically a transformation the dispersed phases in chocolate influences the mechanical prop-
of a significant part of the liquid fat into solid fat crystals. Depend- erties, such as hardness, of the solidified chocolate. As described by
ing on the stage of crystallisation, there are different quantities of Afoakwa et al. (2007) the Form IV polymorph crystallizes in a dou-
solid and liquid fat present, which are responsible for the differ- ble chain, whereas the Form V polymorph crystallizes in a triple-
ences in hardness observed during this study. The results indicate chain, consequently enabling closer packing and probably a denser
that with the cooling conditions used during this study a contact and harder end product. During the early stages of the cooling pro-
time of 60 min is required to form a relatively strong crystal net- cess a limited number of crystals are formed, resulting in a low
E.L. Keijbets et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 98 (2010) 133–140 137
adhesion force and soft, liquid-like, product. Increasing the contact the cooling air at a low cooling temperature, e.g. 0 °C, a much faster
time at a cooling condition will enable further crystallization, and heat transfer occurs between the chocolate and the air or a much
the formation of an enhanced fat crystal network. The packing faster heat removal. Consequently, a larger amount of crystals is
arrangement of this network will depend on the cooling tempera- formed within the same length of time. This indicates that a large
ture, temper of the chocolate and the presence of Form V seeding amount of small fat crystals with a dense packing could be formed
crystals. These factors, in combination with the amount of liquid at low cooling temperatures. On the other hand, higher cooling
cocoa butter fat present, are expected to determine the porosity temperatures promote the formation of significantly larger crystals
of the final chocolate product. because of the faster growth of crystals in relation to the rate of
crystal nucleation. Due to the dense and more compact packing
arrangement of the crystals at low air temperatures, the chocolate
3.2. Cooling temperature
sample becomes harder (see Fig. 5). The penetration force was al-
most four times higher for the chocolate solidified at below 5 oC
As described in Section 3.1, the air temperature used in commer-
than that formed at 20 oC.
cial cooling tunnels during chocolate manufacturing is usually
Tewkesbury et al. (2000) developed a model to predict the tem-
10–15 °C. The provision of cold air flow is to remove both sensible
perature distribution within a cooling chocolate and applied the
and latent heat from the liquid chocolate sample, so that a solid
model to compare the cooling curve of tempered chocolate versus
product could be formed for easy handling during packaging. On
that of untempered chocolate. They demonstrated that different
average, a temperature decrease of 10 °C is required. Assuming
polymorphic forms formed during the chocolate solidification
the specific heat capacity of chocolate to be about 1.6 kJ kg–1 °C1,
and crystallization process were a result of different cooling paths.
and the latent heat to be 45 kJ kg–1 (Beckett, 2008), a total of 60 J
As can be seen from the hardness curve in Fig. 5, the chocolate is
needs to be removed to cool and solidify each gram of chocolate.
relatively less hard when cooled at a temperature of 20 °C. These
The time required for cooling and solidification depends on the rate
results indicate that solidification may take a much longer time
of heat transfer from the chocolate product to the air, which in turn
at higher cooling temperatures. Therefore, the use of appropriate
depends on the temperature and flow rate of the cooling air. As
cooling times and temperatures is essential to ensure that the cor-
described by Nelson (1999), the cooling process should not be too
rect crystallization and solidification process are pursued.
short in order to prevent against poor chocolate quality. At a low
air temperature, there is an increased risk of sugar bloom and a dull
3.3. Probe (mould) temperature
finish on the chocolate surface, due to moisture condensation on
chocolate surface. A low air temperature may also affect the crystal-
The manufacturing of tablets of chocolate requires the liquid,
lization of the cocoa butter into the correct polymorphic form, con-
tempered chocolate (28–32 °C) to be deposited into pre-condi-
sequently decreasing the volume-reduction or contraction desired
tioned moulds, which are subsequently passed over a vibrator, to
for easy demoulding (Beckett, 2008).
spread the chocolate evenly throughout the mould without air
Fig. 5 shows the relationship between the cooling temperature
bubble incorporation. The main controlling point is the pre-condi-
and the surface adhesion force. It should be stated that, at all cool-
tioning of the polycarbonate moulds. The pre-conditioning basi-
ing temperatures, a clean surface separation was observed, indicat-
cally consists of a pre-heating of the mould to a temperature of
ing that the cohesive force of the chocolate sample exceeded
28–30 °C, in a low RH environment. The tempered chocolate is sen-
surface adhesion force and no fracture was observed at the surface
sitive to large temperature variations and as a result the tempera-
region. The surface adhesion decreases almost linearly with
ture of the mould should be as close to the temper temperature as
increasing cooling temperature until 15 °C, after which a sharp
possible when the chocolate is deposited in the moulds. A too high
drop in surface adhesion was observed for a cooling temperature
mould temperature will cause the chocolate tablets to stick to the
of 20 °C (room temperature). Similar to the adhesion force, the
mould upon demoulding. Due to the temperature of the mould
hardness of the chocolate samples also decreases with increasing
being higher than that of the chocolate, seed crystals present with-
cooling temperature. The temperature difference between the tem-
in especially the surface or interfacial layer will be melted out. This
pered chocolate (30 °C) and the cold air is expected to be responsi-
will generally lead to the formation of less form V crystals during
ble for the different surface adhesion forces. Due to the relatively
cooling, as the seed crystals are not present, and consequently
large difference in temperature between the liquid chocolate and
hinder chocolate setting. On the other hand, a too low mould tem-
perature causes a flash shock of the chocolate. The sudden temper-
600 ature drop will cause the chocolate to release excessive heat or
50
energy to the mould surface, resulting in immediate crystallization
Surface adhesion (x 1000) [N m ]
500
tallization often results in the formation of unstable polymorphic
40 forms, rather than the stable form V. Unlike form V crystal, poly-
400
morphic forms are much less closely packed and lead to little vol-
Hardness [N]
-2
Surface adhesion (x 1000) [N m ]
450 200
-2
30
plunger (temperature range 5 to 21 °C) is inserted into a liquid
[-]
10
chocolate. A better release of the plunger from the chocolate is ob-
20
served, according to the manufacturer, if the plunger is coated with
15 a very thin film of ice crystals. Under such a circumstance, the fat is
5 expected to set in the unstable crystalline form, due to the shock
10
cooling. Whether this observation is true or not requires further
5
investigation, but results from our investigation have at least con-
0 0 firmed a strong correlation between mould temperature and crys-
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 tallization behaviour. A mould temperature of 50 °C causes melting
Probe temperature [°C] contact angle of seed crystals, limiting form V crystallization, whereas a temper-
gloss ature of 0 °C or lower leads to the formation of more unstable poly-
Fig. 6. (A) Surface adhesion of dark chocolate (j) and the hardness of the solidified
morphic forms rather than form V. One may conclude that the
chocolate samples (column bar, ) as a function of probe temperature. (B) mould temperature affects surface crystallization of chocolate
Differences of contact angle (column bar, ) and surface glossiness (j) of the deposits, which in turn determines the ease of demoulding, as
polycarbonate mould surface before and after chocolate contact as a function of measured by the force required to pull a mould probe off the solid-
probe temperature.
ified chocolate.
pre-conditioning stage. The decrease in surface adhesion with 3.4. Relative humidity
increasing mould temperature is expected to be related to the crys-
tallization and solidification processes taking place at the interface, The effect of moisture at the chocolate–mould interface on the
especially the formation of unstable polymorphs and the melting demoulding has also been investigated by exposing the mould
out of seed crystals, as described previously. probe to varying relative humidity before in contact with the choc-
Fig. 6A also shows the amount of chocolate residue present on olate. Results shown in Fig. 7 indicate that the surface adhesion in-
the mould surface after demoulding. Nearly all surfaces show some creases initially with increasing RH. At approximately 25% RH the
degree of cohesiveadhesive failure, indicating that the cohesive adhesion force stabilizes forming a constant plateau till ca. 50%
strength of the chocolate sample is approximately the same as RH. The surface adhesion starts to decrease sharply once the RH
the interfacial adhesive bonding strength between mould material is higher than 50%. A similar observation has also been made in
and chocolate, resulting in a break within the chocolate sample and industry, where the adhesion of chocolate to roll-refiners increased
chocolate residues adhering to the mould surface. This behaviour significantly if the air in the factory was 20–25% RH. The assump-
can be expected, due to the formation of different polymorphic tion is made that these changes observed in surface adhesion are
forms at the chocolatemould interface as a result of the variation related to the change of surface hydrophilicity due to the adsorp-
in mould temperature. A mould temperature of 50 °C results in the tion of water vapour on the polycarbonate surface. The initial in-
melting out of seed crystals, consequently reducing the crystalliza- crease in surface adhesion coincided with an increase in
tion and solidification of the chocolate sample. The amount of cohesiveadhesive failure, i.e. the amount of chocolate sticking
chocolate residues adhering to this mould surface was large, and to the mould surface. A high RH resulted in a smaller surface adhe-
is thought to be caused by the fact that there was no extensive sion, but caused a detrimental effect on the chocolate surface gloss
crystal network present to give the chocolate the required cohesive (not shown). The moisture present at the mould surface could dis-
strength and hardness. solve some of the sugar molecules present at the chocolate inter-
The hardness of the chocolate samples (not shown) followed face, an effect known as sugar bloom. Therefore, an optimal
the same trend as the adhesion force indicating that solidification relative humidity that gives minimum surface adhesion and max-
might not be complete when mould temperature was set at above imum chocolate quality is at an as low as possible RH. However,
E.L. Keijbets et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 98 (2010) 133–140 139
-2
work is formed (Awad and Marangoni, 2006). The network forma-
Surface adhesion (x 1000) [N m ]
-2
5
Acknowledgements
0
We acknowledge the award of an Industrial CASE Studentship
to EK from BBSRC (UK) in collaboration with Nestlé (York) PTC.
-5 Special thanks go to Prof. E. Dickinson, Drs. M. Fowler and M. Lead-
beater for constructive comments and suggestions.
-10
References
-15
0 20 40 60 80 100 Afoakwa, E.O., Paterson, A., Fowler, M., 2007. Factors influencing rheological and
textural qualities in chocolate – a review. Trends in Food Science and
Relative Humidity [%RH] Technology 18, 290–298.
Aguilera, J.M., Michel, M., Mayor, G., 2004. Fat migration in chocolate: diffusion or
Fig. 8. Moisture uptake by the polycarbonate surface as a function of environmen- capillary flow in a particulate solid? A hypothesis paper. Journal of Food Science
tal relative humidity. 69, 167–174.
140 E.L. Keijbets et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 98 (2010) 133–140
Awad, T.S., Marangoni, A.G., 2006. Ingredient interactions affecting texture and Luengo, G., Tsuchiya, M., Heuberger, M., Israelachvili, J., 1997. Thin film rheology
microstructure of confectionery chocolate. In: McPherson, A. (Ed.), Ingredient and tribology of chocolate. Journal of Food Science 62, 767–812.
Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, second ed. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Mangel, A., 2007. Cisorp Water Sorption Analyser – User Manual. CI Electronics Ltd.,
Group, London, UK, pp. 423–475. Salisbury, UK.
Baicoo, N., MacNaughtan, W., Mitchell, J.R., Farhat, I.A., 2006. A stepscan differential Mullin, J.W., 2001. Crystallization, fourth ed. Elsevier, Oxford, UK.
scanning calorimetry study of the thermal behavior of chocolate. Food Nelson, R.B., 1999. Enrobers, moulding equipment and coolers. In: Beckett, S.T. (Ed.),
Biophysics 1, 169–177. Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp. 259–
Beckett, S.T., 1999. Non-conventional machines and processes. In: Beckett, S.T. (Ed.), 286.
Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp. 405– Schantz, B., Linke, L., Rohm, H., 2005. Effects of different emulsifiers on rheological
428. and physical properties of chocolate. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International
Beckett, S.T., 2001. Milling Mixing and tempering–an engineering view of chocolate. Symposium on Food Rheology and Structure, Proceedings Lectures II, pp. 329–
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Part E. Journal of Process 333.
Mechanical Engineering 215, 1–8. Schenk, H., Peschar, R., 2004. Understanding the structure of chocolate. Radiation
Beckett, S.T., 2008. The Science of Chocolate, second ed. The Royal Society of Physics and Chemistry 71, 829–835.
Chemistry, Cambridge, UK. Tewkesbury, H., Stapley, A.G.F., Fryer, P.J., 2000. Modelling temperature
Keijbets, E.L., Chen, J., Dickinson, E., Vieira, J., 2009. Surface investigation of distributions in cooling chocolate moulds. Chemical Engineering Science 55,
chocolate adhesion to solid mould materials. Journal of Food Engineering 92, 3123–3132.
217–225. Tscheuschner, H.-D., Markov, E., 1989. Instrumental texture studies on chocolate II.
Liang, B., Hartel, R.W., 2004. Effects of milk powders in milk chocolate. Journal of Compositional factors influencing texture. Journal of Texture Studies 20, 335–
Dairy Science 87, 20–31. 345.
Loisel, C., Lecq, G., Ponchel, G., Keller, G., Ollivon, M., 1997. Fat bloom and chocolate Walstra, P., 1996. Dispersed systems: basic considerations. In: Fennema, O.R. (Ed.),
structure studied by mercury porosimetry. Journal of Food Science 62, 781–788. Food Chemistry. Marcel Dekker, New York, USA, pp. 95–156.