The Myths of The Philippines

THE MYTHS OF THE PHILIPPINES
By JEAN KARL M. GAVERZA
An Undergraduate Thesis Submitted to the
College of Social Science and Philosophy
Diliman, Quezon City
As Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
B.A. Linguistics
2014
The Myths of the Philippines
1
Acknowledgements
This is for my Thesis Advisor, Tuting Hernandez who had to put up with me during the process
of writing this.
To all my artist friends who contributed an illustration may your art always echo a smidgen of
myth.
To the Brothers Grimm who showed me that myths are not just found in books.
To Arthur Cotterell whose encyclopedia of mythology set of a spark in my young life.
To Budjette Tan who so kindly gave one of my main sources unexpectedly.
To Leandro and Elanor Geniston who helped me out along the way.
To all the myths forgotten by time.

Abstract
This Thesis deals with Philippine higher and lower mythology. Terms such as the Aswang were
semantically deconstructed to delineate between the different aspects and connotations on what
the Philippine idea of different types of halimaw can be represented by one lexical item. Themes
and motifs of Philippine myths were extracted from different mythological stories. Philippine
higher mythology was organized by ethnolinguistic group in terms of cosmogony, cosmology,
the conceptualization of the soul and the deities associated. Philippine lower mythology and the
creatures associated were given a new classification.

Table of Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... - 1 -
1.1. Myth ...................................................................................................................................... - 1 -
1.2. Myth in the Philippine Context ............................................................................................. - 2 -
1.2.1. Sacred ................................................................................................................................ - 2 -
2. Review of Related Literature .................................................................................................... - 3 -
2.1.1. Philippine Folk Literature: The Myths. Damiana Eugenio (2001) ................................... - 3 -
2.1.2. Creatures of Philippine Lower Mythology. Maximo Ramos (1971) ................................ - 3 -
2.1.3. Philippine Mythology. F. Landa Jocano (1969).................................................................... - 4 -
2.1.4. The Soul Book. Francisco R. Demetrio, Gilda Cordero-Fernando & Fernando N. Zialcita
(1991) -4-
3. Semantic Deconstructions ......................................................................................................... - 5 -

3.1. Aswang ................................................................................................................................. - 5 -
3.1.1. General description ........................................................................................................... - 6 -
3.1.1.1. Aswang Names ............................................................................................................. - 7 -
3.1.1.2. Physical Aspects ........................................................................................................... - 7 -
3.1.1.3. Becoming an Aswang ................................................................................................... - 7 -
3.1.1.3.1.1. Personal Effort .......................................................................................................... - 7 -
3.1.1.3.1.2. Transmission of Supernatural Powers ....................................................................... - 8 -
3.1.1.3.1.3. Contamination ........................................................................................................... - 9 -
3.1.1.3.1.4. Heredity..................................................................................................................... - 9 -
3.1.1.3.2. Salab.............................................................................................................................. - 9 -
3.1.2. Aspects ............................................................................................................................ - 10 -
3.1.2.1. By Matter Consumed .................................................................................................. - 10 -
3.1.2.1.1. Bloodsucker – The Mandurugo................................................................................... - 10 -
3.1.2.1.2. Viscera / Fetus eater – The Wakwak........................................................................... - 12 -
3.1.2.1.3. Corpse eater – The Balbal ........................................................................................... - 14 -
3.1.2.1.4. Flesh eater – The Alok ................................................................................................ - 15 -
3.1.2.2. By Supernatural Power ............................................................................................... - 16 -
3.1.2.2.1. Shapeshifter................................................................................................................. - 16 -
3.1.2.2.2. Manananggal Like....................................................................................................... - 17 -
3.1.2.2.3. Witch like – The Osuang ............................................................................................ - 18 -
3.1.2.3. Social Aspects ............................................................................................................. - 19 -
3.1.2.3.1. Individual .................................................................................................................... - 19 -
3.1.2.3.2. Familial ....................................................................................................................... - 20 -
3.2. Buso .................................................................................................................................... - 21 -
3.2.1. General Description ........................................................................................................ - 21 -
3.2.2. Aspects ............................................................................................................................ - 22 -
3.2.2.1. Corpse Eater ................................................................................................................ - 22 -
3.2.2.2. Monstrous Humanoid.................................................................................................. - 25 -
3.2.2.3. Divine.......................................................................................................................... - 27 -
4. Themes in Philippine Myths ................................................................................................... - 28 -
4.1. The Moon Eater Myths ....................................................................................................... - 28 -
4.2. Psychopomps ...................................................................................................................... - 31 -
4.2.1. Across the river ............................................................................................................... - 31 -
4.2.2. The Priestess ................................................................................................................... - 32 -
4.2.3. The Three Brothers of the Underworld ........................................................................... - 32 -
4.3. The Low Sky ....................................................................................................................... - 33 -
4.3.1. An annoyance above ....................................................................................................... - 33 -
4.3.2. The pestle problem .......................................................................................................... - 34 -
4.3.3. To obey a woman ............................................................................................................ - 34 -
4.3.4. The lost stars ................................................................................................................... - 34 -
4.3.5. An angered god ............................................................................................................... - 35 -
4.4. Animal Myths ..................................................................................................................... - 35 -
4.4.1. Bad monkey .................................................................................................................... - 35 -
4.4.2. The crying bird ................................................................................................................ - 36 -
4.5. Cosmogony Myths .............................................................................................................. - 37 -
4.5.1. What came first? ............................................................................................................. - 37 -
4.5.2. The birds of the land ....................................................................................................... - 37 -
4.5.3. Rocks from the sky ......................................................................................................... - 38 -
4.5.4. In the path of giants......................................................................................................... - 39 -
-2-
4.5.5. The Sad God ................................................................................................................... - 39 -

5. Philippine Higher Mythology ................................................................................................. - 40 -
5.1. Luzon .................................................................................................................................. - 41 -
5.1.1. Cordilleras ....................................................................................................................... - 41 -
5.1.1.1. Ifugao .......................................................................................................................... - 42 -
5.1.1.2. Kalinga ........................................................................................................................ - 47 -
5.1.1.3. Bontok ......................................................................................................................... - 48 -
5.1.1.4. Kankanaey................................................................................................................... - 50 -
5.1.2. Tagalog ........................................................................................................................... - 51 -
5.1.3. Bikol ............................................................................................................................... - 56 -
5.1.4. Kapampangan.................................................................................................................. - 60 -
5.1.5. Ilokano ............................................................................................................................ - 61 -
5.1.6. Ibanag .............................................................................................................................. - 63 -
5.1.7. Ibaloi ............................................................................................................................... - 63 -
5.1.8. Mangyan ......................................................................................................................... - 64 -
5.1.9. Sambal............................................................................................................................. - 64 -
5.2. Visayas ................................................................................................................................ - 65 -
5.2.1. Bisaya.............................................................................................................................. - 65 -
5.2.2. Ilonggo ............................................................................................................................ - 73 -
5.2.3. Sulod ............................................................................................................................... - 74 -
5.2.4. Waray .............................................................................................................................. - 78 -
5.2.5. Tinguian .......................................................................................................................... - 78 -
5.2.6. Palaweño ......................................................................................................................... - 79 -
5.2.7. Tagbanwa ........................................................................................................................ - 80 -
5.3. Mindanao ............................................................................................................................ - 82 -
5.3.1. Bukidnon ......................................................................................................................... - 82 -
5.3.2. Manobo ........................................................................................................................... - 93 -
5.3.2.1. Manuvu ....................................................................................................................... - 96 -
5.3.3. Mandaya .......................................................................................................................... - 97 -
5.3.4. Bagobo ............................................................................................................................ - 97 -
5.3.5. T’boli............................................................................................................................. - 102 -
-3-
5.3.6. Subanon......................................................................................................................... - 104 -

5.3.7. Blaan ............................................................................................................................. - 104 -
5.3.8. Maranao ........................................................................................................................ - 105 -
6. Philippine Lower Mythology ................................................................................................ - 106 -
...................................................................................................................................................... - 106 -
6.1. The Moon Eaters ............................................................................................................... - 106 -
6.2. Celestial Beings................................................................................................................. - 111 -
6.3. Higante .............................................................................................................................. - 113 -
6.4. Creatures of the Sea .......................................................................................................... - 116 -
6.5. Spirits of the Earth ............................................................................................................ - 118 -
6.6. Spirits of the Forest ........................................................................................................... - 124 -
6.9. The Corpse Eaters ............................................................................................................. - 128 -
6.10. Manananggal ................................................................................................................. - 131 -
6.11. Kapre ............................................................................................................................. - 135 -
6.12. Pugot ............................................................................................................................. - 136 -
6.13. Tikbalang ...................................................................................................................... - 137 -
6.14. Multo ............................................................................................................................. - 140 -
6.15. Monstrous Humanoids .................................................................................................. - 144 -
6.16. Bird-like Monstrous humanoids.................................................................................... - 145 -
7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ - 146 -
8. Bibliography and Works Cited ............................................................................................. - 147 -
9. Appendix ............................................................................................................................... - 153 -
9.1.1. APPENDIX A: Interview Transcript of Aklanon Data................................................. - 154 -
9.1.2. APPENDIX B: Transcript of Interviews with Jeinfer Solana ....................................... - 156 -
9.1.3. APPENDIX C: Transcript of Interviews with Reynaldo Mapagu ................................ - 161 -
9.1.4. APPENDIX D: Transcript of Interview with Princess Pionan ..................................... - 167 -
9.1.5. APPENDIX E: Transcript of Interview with Erfel Pionan ........................................... - 169 -
9.1.6. APPENDIX F: The Story of Tinyente Gimo ................................................................ - 170 -
9.1.9.1. Supreme Gods ........................................................................................................... - 173 -
9.1.9.2. Creator Gods ............................................................................................................. - 174 -
9.1.9.3. Gods of Lightning ..................................................................................................... - 175 -
9.1.9.4. Gods of Fire .............................................................................................................. - 175 -
-4-
9.1.9.5. Sun Gods ................................................................................................................... - 175 -

9.1.9.6. Moon Gods................................................................................................................ - 175 -
9.1.9.7. Psychopomps ............................................................................................................ - 176 -
9.1.9.8. Gods of the Harvest................................................................................................... - 176 -
-5-
1. Introduction
1.1. Myth
Myths evoke a time not readily remembered by people. They are a genre in folk literature
that should be differentiated from other types, like legends and other folk narratives. In this,
the words deity, god, goddess and divinity will be used interchangeably.
Bascom (1965) defines myths as prose narratives that are accepted to be historical. They are
an authority in many communities and are sacred in themselves. It is rare that a myth would
have a human protagonist, as those are usually the gods, animals, spirits or deified cultural
heroes. Myths are an account of origins of names, places, creatures and the universe. They
also recount the affairs of the divine, the love between gods, their wars and friendships. This
is contrasted against legends which are concerned with relatively more recent times whose
stories have human main characters and tell of past deeds of kings and kingdoms, of wars,
migration and treasures.
Levi-Strauss (1978) makes a claim that mythology can be approached in a manner that is
similar to linguistics that mythology can be broken down into constituent units which are
different from the constituent units of language. He calls these units Mythemes, a term he
took from the linguistic phoneme. He states that myths are the human mind trying to find
order to assert that the universe is not of chaos. He argued in the diachronic nature of myths,
that these mythemes do change over time but their synchronic aspects, which may be
archetypal in nature, are also present and should not be ignored when analyzing myths.
Myths, by their nature, are not just stories. Rather they are a reality to those that believe in
them. As Malinowski (1984) stated “This myth is to the savage, what to the fully believing
-1-
Christian is the Biblical story of Creation, the Fall, of the Redemption by Christ’s sacrifice in
the cross”.
1.2. Myth in the Philippine Context
Eugenio (2001) makes a distinction between two kinds of myths. The ‘pure’ myths of
Philippine ethnolinguistic groups are those that codify the beliefs of a group. These ‘pure’
myths are part of the daily religious life of some ethnolinguistic groups. The other kind of
myth is what she refers to as ‘mythological stories and legends’, these are from Christianized
lowland ethnolinguistic groups.
1.2.1. Sacred
There are specific objects and animals which, in the Philippine context, are described as
sacred. These include the snake as a symbol of fertility and a messenger of spirits and the
eel which, in the Cordilleras, are thought to be the reincarnations of dead relatives.
(Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991) There is also the crocodile that wards
off evil spirits, which the Tagalogs and the Bisaya call ‘nuno’ or grandfather (Scott,
1992)
Sacred plants which figure in Philippine mythology are the bamboo which makes an
appearance in most cosmogony myths and the myths relating to the genesis of human
beings and the Balete tree (Ficus Balete) a place of worship among early Filipinos that is
said to house spirits.
-2-
2. Review of Related Literature
2.1.1. Philippine Folk Literature: The Myths. Damiana Eugenio (2001)
Eugenio (2001) and her work Philippine Folk Literature: The Myths compiles English
translations of various myths from different ethnolinguistic groups. The work itself would
have benefited from some of the text being in its original language or the full text in the
original language compared to the English translation as most of the myths were
translated into English by American Anthropologists and there may have been important
context lost in the translations.
The motifs that were presented in the book leaned towards a very specific and singular
outlook and for some themes there was only one myth that supported its categorization as
a motif in Philippine myth.
2.1.2. Creatures of Philippine Lower Mythology. Maximo Ramos (1971)
Ramos’ taxonomic classification of the creatures of Philippine mythology borrowed
heavily on western notions of myth and classification which in turn clouded a lot of what
Philippine mythological creatures could be categorized in terms of indigenous thinking.
Too much is derived from foreign folklore traditions. Most of it is definitions of
European mythical creatures. While there are similar traits between European
mythological creatures and some Philippine ‘equivalents’ it seems that the gap between
-3-
the conceptualization, function and classification is too big for a categorization like this
to be commensurate in the Philippine context.
Using terms such as demon, witch or dragon already brings up a set referent that is
isolated to a Western concept. When referring to the long, antlered flying serpents of
Asian tradition the term ‘Chinese Dragon’ is used to separate it from its European
counterparts. Having such blanket terms for the classification of Philippine mythological
creatures ignores their nuance and in doing so also ignores the cultural nuances of the
ethnolinguistic groups that propagate narratives of these creatures.
2.1.3. Philippine Mythology. F. Landa Jocano (1969)
Jocano presents a collection of Philippine myths with some commentary. The divinities
and some creatures were presented sometimes without context which would make it hard
to understand why these divinities are what they are. It is an invaluable resource for
listing down gods of different Philippine pantheons though and Jocano’s commentary and
explanation of some rituals was very concise.
2.1.4. The Soul Book. Francisco R. Demetrio, Gilda Cordero-Fernando & Fernando N.
Zialcita. (1991)
The soul book does give a very appealing look into myths and mythological discussions
in the Philippine context. The pages are interspersed with illustrations to help visualize
the myths and their characters and full English translations of some mythological stories
are present in chapters that suit their topic. The organization of the book from the creation
to the Skyworld and the lower worlds made the context of the myths more apparent.
-4-
3. Semantic Deconstructions
3.1. Aswang
Aswang by Erin Locsin
-5-
3.1.1. General description
The term aswang is prolific in Philippine mythology. It may refer to a specific kind of
monster with specific traits, yet it may also be a catch-all for any kind of monster,
sometimes becoming a near synonym of the word halimaw. The term aswang is used by
various ethno-linguistic groups, with some of them having no similarities whatsoever to
the creatures they describe. Saying aswang in Bikol may have an entirely different
connotation than if you use the word in an area around Panay.
The most prevalent translations that are associated with the aswang paint it as a witch in
the western sense, where the aswang is mostly human but possesses supernatural powers
that they use to cause fear and havoc in the towns or villages they occupy. Common in all
aspects of the aswang is the social interaction it has with its community.
Linguistically ‘aswang’ may be related to the ‘keswange’ belief of ‘witches’ in the
Malaysian archipelago. The belief in aswang like creatures is seen in other Austronesian
cultures such as the burong of the Achenese and the penggalan of the Malay Peninsula
(Tan, 1987). ‘keswange’ is also a term used to refer to a witch in the Tanimbar islands in
Indonesia. (Mckinnon, 1991)
-6-
3.1.1.1. Aswang Names
Some names that refer to the aswang are onomatopoeic, referring to the sound that either
the aswang makes, or those that are heard from the animals, usually birds, that herald its
presence e.g.Tik tik/tic tic in Bikol and Kaskas / wakwak in Cebu. (Lieban, 1967)
Synonyms of aswang according to Spanish lexicons from the 16h century in the Visayas
region include alok, balbal, kakag, oko, onglo and wakwak. Tiktik is referred to as an
aswang that flies at night and tanggal is the name of an aswang that left their lower body
behind. (Scott, 1992)
3.1.1.2. Physical Aspects
The general physical aspects of an aswang include a long, hollow tongue, sharp claws,
sharp teeth, beautiful if in human form and bestial if shapeshifted.
3.1.1.3. Becoming an Aswang
Lynch (1949) describes 4 ways of becoming an aswang. Becoming an aswang in these
ways will lead to adopting bloodsucker or viscera eater aspects of the aswang.
3.1.1.3.1.1. Personal Effort
This is through the means of rituals that an individual must do to gain the powers of an
aswang.
-7-
The first ritual is to hold a fertilized chicken egg against one’s belly and then tie it in
place with a piece of cloth around the body. After a time, the chicken from the egg will
pass into the individual’s stomach by a sort of osmosis. Then the individual is able to
make the sound that the aswang makes, the ‘tic tic’ noise. The eggshell is saved and
placed in a bamboo tube alongside an ointment made from chicken droppings dissolved
in coconut water and mixed with human flesh and blood.
Another ritual is to take two fertilized eggs to the cemetery after the Good Friday
procession during evening. The individual should stand straight, look directly at the full
moon without blinking and place each egg under their armpits. After saying certain words
three times the egg disappears into their stomach, thereby turning them into an aswang.
Each year this ritual must be renewed for one’s power as an aswang to stay strong.
3.1.1.3.1.2. Transmission of Supernatural Powers
A dying aswang can transfer their powers to an initiate. The aswang cannot fully die until
it passes along its powers. The transmission happens when the dying aswang transfers the
chick that holds his powers into the mouth of an initiate by putting its mouth close to
theirs. The young bird then hops out of the body of the dying aswang and into the mouth
of the initiate, granting them the powers of the aswang.
-8-
3.1.1.3.1.3. Contamination
A human can become an aswang if an existing aswang puts any of their bodily fluids or
human flesh into something that is ingested by the human, like food or water.
3.1.1.3.1.4. Heredity
Children of aswang are aswang themselves.
3.1.1.3.2. Salab
According to Lieban (1967) In Cebu, one can become an aswang through a transmission
process started by another aswang. This process is called salab, or more frequently in
Cebu city, takod sa ongo. Ongo is another term for an aswang. While a human being
affected by the salab can turn into an aswang, the transference of the aswang’s power can
also cause that human to simply become sick or die. Here are examples of certain kinds
of salab.
An aswang may look at a person in a certain way and the victim becomes weak and his
appetite is lost. The victim’s behavior then becomes erratic, they try to fly by jumping out
of windows.
-9-
Similar to Lynch’s contamination, in one kind of salab the aswang may secrete something
from its person, sometimes described as a small bird, the liver of a sigbin or scrapings in
something that the victim will ingest.
A salab may also be hereditary.
On the verge of death, the salab becomes imperative to the aswang as it needs to pass on
its powers to another, until it does the aswang suffers torturous pain without the release of
death. The aswang typically prefers to pass on its powers to a member of its family. If the
aswang cannot pass on its powers to a family member any person who sees the aswang
suffering can touch the aswang and become and aswang themselves.
3.1.2. Aspects
3.1.2.1. By Matter Consumed
3.1.2.1.1. Bloodsucker – The Mandurugo
The aswang as a bloodsucker is reminiscent of the western notion of a vampire. This
aspect of aswang is usually described as a beautiful young woman that sucks the blood of
their victims at night, though there are also male variants. They may have the ability to
fly and they must return to their dwellings before dawn to resume their human disguise.
Similar creatures related to the Bloodsucker aspect of the aswang include the danag of
the Isneg in the Cordilleras and the mandurugo of the Tagalogs in Luzon.
- 10 -
Lynch (1949) has his informants describe the look of a blood sucking aswang, they
declared that an aswang that has freshly feasted on blood looks like a woman who is in
her eighth month of pregnancy.
Lynch also describes the aswang na layog or ‘flying aswang’ of Bikol as lying in wait on
the roof of its victim to send its ‘long threadlike tongue’ that reaches out to drink their
blood. The tongue itself is hollow and is used to suck the blood of its victim. Cries of
‘kakak’ or ‘kikik’ are heard when this aspect of the aswang is near either by a bird that
accompanies it or by the aswang itself.
This aspect of the aswang is more animal like than other aspects, other than the
animalistic tendency of killing humans to get their blood, it was described to have small
teats ‘the size of ripe cherries’ that it makes its children suck to nourish them.
Unlike a western vampire this aspect of the aswang may not necessarily be permanent.
The aswang may be a human that had rubbed magical ointment on themselves to become
a bloodsucker and may remove the ointment by bathing in a river to return themselves to
human shape. (Lynch, 1949)
- 11 -
3.1.2.1.2. Viscera / Fetus eater – The Wakwak
Similar to the blood sucker, viscera eaters are described to have a fair, almost beautiful
appearance during the day. They have fair skin and long hair and may be male or female.
They fly out during the night and suck out the entrails, liver, phlegm or fetus of their
victims. Their victims may be adults, but this aspect of the aswang also eats small
children. This aspect has many similarities to the mananaggal, as described below.
Similar creatures are the abat of the Waray in Samar, the boroka of the Ilokanos in
Northern Luzon, the iqui of the Tagalogs in Luzon, the mansalauan and balal of the
Cebuanos in Cebu, the mangalok of the Illongos in Panay, the silagan of Catanduanes
and the manananggal and its variants throughout the Philippine archipelago.
This aspect of the aswang may also live in the deep jungles and forests as well as in
regular society as the other aspects. This aspect is chased away by salt, vinegar, light and
daggers. If mananaggal-like the aswang can be destroyed by sprinkling salt and vinegar
on the lower half of the body that was detached. There is a notion that this aspect of
aswang is accompanied by a foul odor (Cruz, 1933)
This subspecies of aswang is described by Lynch (1949) as a special kind of asuwang na
layog or ‘flying aswang’, it is called the anananggal (lit. detached) which is a cognate of
mananaggal. He described these aswang as having hunched shoulders and looking
- 12 -
continually tired, while still beautiful. He adds that the long hair of the anananggal helps
propel it in flight.
The viscera eater, like the bloodsucker may be aided by a bird companion. In Eastern
Visayas this is called a ‘tic tic’, from the sound that the bird makes. The viscera eater
aspect of the aswang is blamed as the cause of sickness and disease. This was a prevalent
belief in pre-Hispanic times when aswang or creatures related to the viscera eater aspect
of the aswang were said to slowly feed on the liver or intestines of the ill person. This
belief is still in existence in some rural communities in the Philippines. In the Visayan
region ‘kiniban ang atay’ – ‘the liver is being chipped away’ is an expression used for
people who are ill, referring to the practice of the aswang to eat at a person’s liver.
(Ramos, 1971)
- 13 -
3.1.2.1.3. Corpse eater – The Balbal
This aspect of the aswang feed on the dead bodies of humans. The corpse eater listens for
the sounds of death from great distances as a signal for their food and may be frightened
by noise or light.
Creatures that are similar to this aspect of the aswang and that are said to be cognate with
them are the balbal of the Tagbanwas in Palawan, the buso of the Bagobos (the corpse
eater aspects of the creature, described below) in Eastern Mindanao, the calag and tic tic
of the Illongos in Panay, the ebwa of the Itnegs in Abra the segben in the Visayas and the
wir-wir of the Isneg in the Cordilleras.
The Bikol ‘asuwang na lakaw’ or walking aswang puts their ear to the rice mortar and
listens to sounds of funeral mourners, by standing on their head, resting in a shallow hole
on the ground or removing the cover of a specially made listening well. This is so that
they may find corpses that they eat on. (Lynch, 1949)
In Albay their version of the walking aswang is said to be alternately an eater of living
flesh or a corpse-thief that prefers freshly dead food. This particular type of aswang has
the ability to change the stolen corpse into that of a pig and then takes it home to feed its
family. (Ramos, 1971)
- 14 -
This aspect of the aswang is chased away during Filipino vigils for the dead. The loud
noises, bright lights and celebratory behavior are used to ward off aswang that would
seek to steal the corpse of their loved ones. This can be seen in the mourning custom, the
larao of ancient Visayans as described by the Spanish friar Jose Marua y Aranguro Pavon
(as cited in Ramos, 1971 p.65). In this ritual complete fasting was observed for three
days, while intoxication was encouraged. At night those taking part in the larao would
keep vigil for an aswang would come and eat the deceased’s liver if the body was young
and the intestines if the body was of old age.
3.1.2.1.4. Flesh eater – The Alok
Aswang flesh eaters have been described as similar to the western notion of a werewolf,
where it is an individual that can change into a bestial form and stalks the night, eating
human beings. This is in contrast to the other aswang aspects where they mostly keep
their human form, or the form that they transform into is at the very least humanoid when
transforming into an aswang.
Creatures similar to aswang flesh eaters and shapeshifters (see below) are the malakat of
the Warays in Samar and an unnamed shapeshifter of the Isneg in the Cordilleras
described in Jocano (1969).
- 15 -
Plasencia (as cited in Ramos 1971), a Spanish friar describing beliefs among early
Visayans, described the ‘osuang’ as one of the ‘eight agents of the devil’, the beast was
described as one that murders men and eats their flesh.
In Cebu and Negros Oriental, the aswang typically eats the flesh of its freshly slain
victims, this is after the aswang has transformed into an animal, usually a dog, pig or a
bird. (Lieban, 1967)
3.1.2.2. By Supernatural Power
3.1.2.2.1. Shapeshifter
Aswang have been described in Ramos (1971) as having werewolf aspects. This is a
misnomer as the aswang may be able to shift into any kind of animal shape.
One of Ramos’ informants in Batangas states that the ‘walking aswang’ may appear in
any animal form but only as a male version of that form. These aswang still follow the
rule in other aspects where they do not go out during the day, but with the added caveat
that if they do not go out at night to prowl, they become sick.
When transformed the aswang takes on a bestial nature. Attacking people while dribbling
at the mouth and digging up plants in gardens ‘like a dog’.
- 16 -
The shapeshifter aspect of the aswang has a special ointment described by Lynch (1949)
that enabled him to ‘walk as swift as the wind’, but his other informants stated that the
aswang was able to do that as soon as darkness fell.
While in animal form the aswang is vulnerable to strikes directed at its tail, this is
because the aswang is said to hold its own tail while transformed. After striking the tail,
the aswang reverts back to its human form where it can be killed. The aswang should
then be cut in half and placed on opposite sides of a river so that their halves cannot
reunite.
It should be noted that the favored forms of the shapeshifter aswang are the dog, which in
some areas have the feet on backwards, and a black hog.
In Cebu the aswang can transform itself into a small bird called the kiki. (Lieban, 1967)
3.1.2.2.2. Manananggal Like
There is an overlap in the belief between the manananggal and the aswang. The
manananggal is described as a creature, usually female, that can separate her lower body
and let her upper body fly loose sowing fear and terror in the night.
- 17 -
In Panay, in the areas surrounding Iloilo the terms aswang and manananggal are
interchangeable. The aswang in these areas directly match the upper body leaving aspects
of the manananggal.
Manananggal like aswang may not necessarily part their upper and lower extremities to
fly, manananggal in Cebu are characterized by removing their heads and intestines and
flying in that manner. These aswang still have the vulnerability to salt and vinegar as
other manananggal like aspects.
3.1.2.2.3. Witch like – The Osuang
Aswang have been described in many sources as the Philippine equivalent of the witch.
The witch like aspects of the aswang are similar to that of a mangkukulam as the
mangkukulam is a human that inflicts curses, disease and death on others through the
magical means.
During the day, the witch aspect of the aswang is in contrast to other aspects by their
appearance, they are described as sickly looking with reddish eyes, this is because they
lack proper sleep as most of their activities are held at night. This aspect of the aswang is
also said to have toes that point upward and ‘a transparent throat is a characteristic of an
aswang (witch)’ (Hart & Hart, 1956)
- 18 -
When interacting with humans during the day the aswang typically avoid informal social
gatherings. They seek solitude and people usually avoid them as well. At night this aspect
of the aswang avoids all light that is not from the moon. (Ramos 1971)
While witch like aswang can be both male and female, there are more reported aswang
that are female. (Nurge, 1961)
Lynch (1949) describes these aswang as having greater auditory and visual acuity. He
also describes witch like aswang as being able to pass on their powers through heredity.
Aswang and Ongo are synonyms that refer to witches in the Negros Occidental and Cebu
area respectively. The witch like aspects of these aswang include ambushing people late
at night and suffocating them by getting its long hair in their nostrils and overcoming
them with a foul odor from an ointment that the aswang applies to itself when it attacks
people. (Lieban, 1967)
3.1.2.3. Social Aspects
3.1.2.3.1. Individual
Witch like aspects of the aswang live in human communities with human people, though
they prefer secluded areas where they can avoid contact with humans.
- 19 -
3.1.2.3.2. Familial
The ‘aswang na lakaw’ is referred to in many texts to bring its prey, either living or dead
to feed its family. The ‘flying aswang’ of Bikol, after having gorged itself on blood
returns home to its children to have them suck on her teats. (Ramos, 1971)
In stories, Aswang tend to share their meals with their families. In two separate accounts
of encounters with aswang, the intended victim is lured by a relatively younger member
of the aswang clan this can be done through an invitation or an excuse of that nature. It is
then that the aswang clan traps the victims through the means of a curse of the mind or
physical restraint before eating them and sharing them with the clan. A loud sound
emanating from the sound of the kitchen of the aswang family is a signal that the feast of
the victim draws near. (Solana, 2014)
Another story where this is illustrated is the tale of Teniente Gimo, an aswang who sent
his child to bring her two friends to their house but mistakes his child for one of her
friends and eats her whole. (Pionan, 2014)
- 20 -
3.2. Buso
3.2.1. General Description
The busao/ buso/ busaw/ taragbusao is a widespread mythological creature in the areas of
Mindanao, with stories in multiple ethnolinguistic groups such as the Bagobos, the
Maguindanaons, the Maranaos and the Mandayas. The terms can alternatively refer to
halimaw with different aspects or even specific divinities. This deconstruction will serve
to separate the different aspects of the busao.
The buso is seen as either an eater of the dead, a flesh eating halimaw and in some cases,
a god. The one thing that is common among these aspects is that it is greatly feared
among the ethnic groups that believe in it.
- 21 -
3.2.2. Aspects
Corpse eater buso by Patricia Zulueta
3.2.2.1. Corpse Eater
This aspect is generally incorporeal as opposed to the physical aspect of the monstrous
humanoid. This aspect, as it name suggests is concerned with the buso that exclusively
prey on dead bodies. This aspect of the buso is solitary, preferring to hang about
graveyards until invoked.
- 22 -
The physical description of this aspect is said to match that of a shadow in the Bagobo
belief. This aspect of the buso, different from the monstrous humanoid aspect, lives in
branching trees in a graveyard. (Ramos, 1971)
A human can turn into this aspect of the buso after death. The Bagobo people believe that
the left had soul or gimokud of a human will turn into a busaw after death. (Demetrio,
Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
This aspect digs up corpses from graveyards, though the corpses it prefers are fresh. On
the night after a person is buried the busao would dig up the body with their sharp claws,
drink the blood from the corpse and eat its flesh. The bones are the only things remained
untouched, being left after all the flesh has been eaten from the body. (Pavon, 1957)
- 23 -
This aspect of the buso may be seen if one follows a specific ritual as described below.
(Benedict, 1913)
When the coffin of the dead person is being made, one must cut some chips from it, carry
the chips to the place where the tree that was used to make the coffin was cut down and
place the chips on the stump. On the night of the funeral, at that place, one will see eight
things, ending with the buso. The buso will attempt to grab the wooden coffin chips when
it reveals itself. In order:
• A swarm of fireflies
• The intestines of the dead person
• Heads of dead people
• Arms of dead people
• Legs of dead people
• The whole body of the person passing
• Shadows around you
• The buso
- 24 -
3.2.2.2. Monstrous Humanoid
Monstrous Humanoid Buso by Patricia Zulueta
This aspect of the buso is that of halimaw that eat humans, though some varieties are
omnivorous. They are described as not being particularly intelligent and can be easily
tricked.
- 25 -
Descriptions of this aspect of the buso have one thing in common in that they are
humanoid in shape and generally bigger than a human with monstrous features. These
features include having only one eye in the middle of the forehead, one great horn made
of ivory with flames blazing from the horn (for the datu of the buso and one big red eye
and long and pointed big teeth. (Ramos, 1971)
This aspect of the buso in contrast to the corpse eater aspect may be social, which is rare
for any kind of halimaw. In Bagobo literature they are innumerable in number, and even
have their own villages complete with rice fields that they till. There is even a mention of
a large buso city. The buso’s houses are filled with iron tools and they have familial ties,
with spouses and children mentioned in Bagobo stories. In some of these stories, there
would even be a mention of a ‘Datu’ of the buso. Tigbanua varieties of the buso have this
kind of social aspect, but are differentiated by them living in trees as opposed to houses.
(Benedict 1913 as cited in Ramos 1971)
The monstrous humanoid buso that is solitary prefers to live in trees such as the Balete.
Bagobos describe the Tigbanua variety of the buso as particularly cannibalistic and
vicious. In Maguindanao tales the tarabusao lives in Mt Matatum, near Mt Apo. (Ramos,
1971)
- 26 -
3.2.2.3. Divine
In certain areas of Mindanao the early depictions of the buso were of it being a man-
eating monster that was appeased through human sacrifice. Gisbert, Clotet and Cole all
reported that offerings to the buso through either the sacrifice of a slave, food and drink
or pigs and rice would keep the buso from harming their villages. The tagamaling, a
creature in Bagobo myths was described to be a buso that eats human flesh one month
and a generous deity in the next month. (Ramos, 1971)
In the Bukidnon pantheon Busao is the god of calamity who, one of the most feared
among the gods as he sends danger and destruction to the village. This god is regularly
offered sacrifices more than most other gods in fear of the evil he can bring. In the same
pantheon Talagbusao exists, the Bukidnon god of war that has red eyes and wears red.
This deity is characterized by his demand for blood, either human or animal. (Jocano,
1969)
- 27 -
4. Themes in Philippine Myths
4.1. The Moon Eater Myths
The moon or sun being devoured or embraced by a giant animal is the way most
ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines explain the occurrence of lunar and solar
eclipses. Although they may also devour the sun, these creatures are almost always
characterized to prefer the moon it can be seen in these myths that occurrence of the
moon eating is given more importance than that of the solar eclipse.
Common in these stories is the belief of making loud noises to scare off the creature into
letting the sun be dislodged from its jaws. It is also a recurring theme in the stories that
there will be terrible things that will follow the devouring of the moon, either the creature
devouring the human race or it ushering in a world of darkness where evil spirits reign.
4.1.1. The moon as a plaything
In ‘Eclipses’ a Maranao tale translated by A.T. Madale (1966), the moon eater, a lion
named Arimaonga swallows the moon when it is in a playful mood. In a Bisaya myth the
moon eater, a giant serpent named Bakunawa believes that the moon is a bright round
ball that it can play with and thus swallows it (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita,
1991).
- 28 -
In this theme the creatures are not regarded as particularly malicious. They are
characterized as playful beasts that do not know any better, but still have to be chased
away with noise by humans.
4.1.2. World of darkness
There are a few myths that characterize the world after the moon eater is successful in its
goal of fully devouring the lunar sphere. In the Bagobo ‘Story of the Eclipse’ Translated
by Laura Benedict (1913), when the bird-like minokawa succeeds in eating the moon, it
will then move on to the earth and devour the people that are there.
The Tambanakaua, a giant tarantula that is present in Manobo lore that is named by
Garvan (1931) and appears in the story ‘The Eclipse of the Moon’, if the moon is not
freed from the clutches of the Tarantula it is believed that there will be no more dawn and
that eternal darkness will fall upon the word where evil spirits will reign and all human
apparel will be turned into snakes.
It is in these stories that the impetus for the ritual of the Filipinos where they make loud
noises to scare the moon eater is seen. There are severe consequences to the victory of the
moon eater over its intended victim that must be stopped.
- 29 -
4.1.3. Mankind as guardians
In all stories of the myth mankind has the responsibility to stop the moon eater from
fulfilling its intended goal, whether the creature’s intention was malicious or not. In the
Cebuano myth ‘The moon and the Bacunawa’ translated into English by Buyser (1913), it
fell to mankind to warn the god Bathala that the great serpent Bacunawa was about to
swallow the last of the seven moons.
In other stories mankind cannot stop the moon eater from partially devouring the moon,
but can cause the creature to spit it up by means of loud noises and firing objects at the
resulting eclipse. In ‘The Eclipse of the Moon’ from the Manobos, the yells that they
shout at Tambanakaua are ‘let loose our moon’, implying that the creature has already
started embracing its victim. The same goes in the tale of the eclipse from the Maranaos,
where gongs are used for the desired effect of making the creature disgorge the moon.
Mankind is not helpless in the face of the moon eater, because, as in real life, an eclipse is
never permanent. The moon will continue to shine its light, if only thanks to the noise
that humankind makes to save it.
- 30 -
4.2. Psychopomps
Psychopomp is a word that is derived from Greek psukhe ‘soul’, pompe ‘procession’ and
pempein ‘send’. In world mythologies they are described as guides for the souls of the dead,
which are usually accompanied to some sort of afterlife. (Emery, 2005)
The deities which exhibit psychopomp aspects can be described in terms of the following
archetypes.
4.2.1. Across the river
The most common psychopomp archetype that recurs in Philippine myth is the divinity
that ferries souls across a body of water, usually a river, but sometimes the sea. This can
be seen in Manduyapit, a Manobo divinity that is said to bring souls across a red river
(Jocano, Philippine Mythology, 1969)and Mama Guayen of Ilonggo lore, who also ferries
souls to what is said to be the end of the world. Badadum a Waray deity does not ferry
souls across a river but gathers a recently deceased person’s family to meet the new soul
along the mouth of a river. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
The Sulod pantheon’s Bangla’e first judges the souls before he ferries them across the
river the way the soul is carried depends on how the soul was in life, if they were good
according to Bangla’e he would carry them on his shoulders, if they were deemed not
desirable, they would have to be carried across the river while holding on to Bangla’e’s
pubic hair. (Jocano, 1968)
- 31 -
4.2.2. The Priestess
There are also those psychopomps that help acclimate the soul into their new home.
These psychopomps are usually female. In Bagobo belief Mebuyan is the chief priestess
of a district of the underworld wherein the soul takes a ceremonial bath that makes them
unwilling to return from the underworld (Benedict, 1916). Mebuyan is also the name of a
goddess of the underworld in Bagobo belief who takes care of the souls of dead infants,
her body is covered with breasts which she uses to nurture those souls in the afterlife.
(Casal, 1977).
4.2.3. The Three Brothers of the Underworld
Another theme to note in Philippine myth, mostly from the Bisayas region is a trio of
psychopomps. This trio is comprised of brothers who live in the underworld or a
variation thereof and are responsible for guiding the soul, in the Sulod case for that soul’s
entire life.
This can be seen in the Sulod trio of Mangganghaw, Manglaegas and Patag’aes. They
have a relationship wherein each brother is in charge of a particular time in the soul’s
lifetime, Mangganghaw watches before the soul is born and as it is conceived,
Manglaegas makes sure that the child is born alive and Patag’aes holds a conversation
with the soul of the newborn on how they want to live and die. (Jocano, 1968). While the
three brothers in Sulod myth do not follow the traditional method of psychopomps i.e.
- 32 -
guiding the soul after it dies, their duties in guiding the soul is enough to classify them as
psychopomps.
In Bisaya mythology the psychopomp brothers’ methods are similar to those of the
ferrymen in other Philippine groups. Magyan carries the souls of the dead to the
underworld, called Kasakitan, in a boat called the balanday where there soul is taken by
his brother Sumpoy to a subsection of the underworld called Kanitu-nituhan. Both these
brothers live in the underworld while the third brother lives in the middleworld called
Kamaritaan. While Makaptan does not guide the soul as he is a god of sickness, he is the
husband of the goddess of death, Sidapa. (Jocano, 1969)
4.3. The Low Sky
In many cosmogony myths there is mention of how the level of the sky was different in the
days of yore. The sky used to be low enough to touch the heads of humans and in many
stories from different ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines there are similarities in the
myth.
4.3.1. An annoyance above
The sky is characterized as more of an annoyance by its level than anything else, though
there is an exception to this in the Bagobo version of the myth (Benedict, 1913). In that
version the sky being that low to the ground made it impossible for people to give birth
and that they rejoiced when the sky rose to the new level. In other versions of the myth
the sky is always found to be an interruption or inconvenience when doing the work of
pounding rice.
- 33 -
4.3.2. The pestle problem
Prevalent in the myths is the presence of the mortar and pestle used to pound rice. In most
myths it is this object that is the catalyst for the sky to be lifted up to its current level. The
sky is always hit by a pestle such as what happens in the Tagalog, Ilokano, Moro, Blaan,
Subanon, Manuvu and Mamanwa versions of this myth. In some versions of the myth it
is hit repeatedly before it raises itself or it is commanded to be raised to a new height.
4.3.3. To obey a woman
In most of the myths the sky is commanded to raise itself to a level that would not bother
the work of the woman pounding the rice and it is important to note the gender as it is
always a woman, sometimes old, that orders the sky to raise itself and it obeys, though in
some versions with reluctance. This can be seen in the myths of the Tiruray and Blaan
(Piang, 1931), Ilokano (Figueras, 1977), Kalinga (Wilson, 1947) and Bagobo (Benedict,
1913).
4.3.4. The lost stars
There is also an explanation attached to the celestial bodies in the low sky myths. The
celestial bodies were objects that were attached or hung on the sky that it carried with it
when it rose to the level it is today. In the Ilokano myth (Figueras, 1977) the moon and
stars were a comb that was hung. In the Isneg version of the tale (Vanoverbergh, 1955)
the moon was a comb, the stars were beads and the moon was a comb which waned
because of a cover of a jar that was carried by the sky. In some cases the loss is tragic, in
the Blaan version of the myth (Piang, 1931) an old woman forgets that she hung her
- 34 -
grandchild on the sky and after the sky ascends she is turned into a bird, forever crying at
the loss of her grandchild.
4.3.5. An angered god
In the Visayan version of the myth the sky was said to be low because it allowed the gods to
be more connected with humans. In this version of the myth a spear accidentally pierced a
god in the Skyworld which caused the god to make the sky ascend (Fansler, 1921). In the
Manuvu version of the myth (Manuel A. E., 1973) the sky was raised by the gods at the
request of the humans and there was a bridge that connected the Skyworld to the earthworld
but human indiscretion caused that bridge to be removed by angry gods.
4.4. Animal Myths
Animal origin myths are prolific in the Philippines, reflecting the biodiversity found in the
country. It would seem that among all species a certain origin is attached. These are some
recurring themes and motifs in animal origin myths.
4.4.1. Bad monkey
The monkey is characterized as being a mischievous and untrustworthy creature. It is a
recurring myth that monkeys were irreverent or unpleasant people before they became
transformed into their current shape. In ‘The Origin of the Monkey and the Crocodile’
(Lopez, 1922) the monkey was an ungrateful son that was admonished by his father, even
after the transformation the story characterizes the monkey as an untrustworthy creature.
- 35 -
Another example of a misbehaving child is in ‘The First Monkey’ (Fansler, 1922), the
story is similar in which the ungrateful son is struck on his back leading to the
characteristic slouch of the monkey. In ‘The Creation of Monkeys’ (Fansler, 1922)
monkeys are a failed creation of Lucifer giving another, albeit Christianized, unpleasant
connotation to the animal.
4.4.2. The crying bird
The sounds that birds make are attributed to the longing of something that they had lost
or were looking for when they were human. In the Ilokano myth of the origin of the Owl
(Sambrano, 1958) the distinctive noise is attributed to a mother who is calling out for her
dead son. Another mother lamenting her missing child is the kuhao, whose call is like
that of a person in sorrow. The ‘Moro Legend of the First Bird’ (Saraman, 1928)
Not all birds calls are due to a mother’s sorrow, in some myths they are attributed to a
child asking for food. This can be seen in the myth of the bahao bird in Bikol myth
(Eugenio, 2001) whose name, bahao, means the rice left over after a meal.
- 36 -
4.5. Cosmogony Myths
Cosmogony myths refer to myths regarding the creation of the world and the universe. Many
Philippine ethnolinguistic groups have different ways of how to explain the genesis of the
world, for some it is the creation of a god, for others it is due to primordial Higante. The
myths draw parallels between things that these people see in their everyday lives and their
supposed origin in a cosmic sense.
4.5.1. What came first?
In some myths there is already the presence of some form of matter in the universe before
the creation of the earth. This is usually the sea and the sky as seen in the Tagalog myth
(Cole M. C., 1916), the Bisaya myth (Quirino & Garcia, 1958) and multiple myths of the
Philippine archipelago.
4.5.2. The birds of the land
Birds feature in many cosmogony myths in the Philippines. They are the reason for why
there is land. In the Tagalog cosmogony myth a kite (probably Haliastur indus) incites
the sky to fight against the sea. This causes the sky to throw rocks at the sea which
eventually became the islands and lands of the earth. (Cole M. C., 1916) In this story the
bird is characterized as needing a place to build her nest.
- 37 -
The bird described in one version of the Bisaya cosmogony myth is continuously flying
looking for a place to rest. The rest of the story plays out the same way as in the Tagalog
version. (Quirino & Garcia, 1958)
In another version of the Bisaya myth the great bird is named as Manaul. He travels to a
mountain and takes rocks from there to drop on the gods Kaptan and Magauayan to stop
their warring. These rocks eventually become the islands of the Philippine archipelago.
(Hill, 1934)
In the Mansaka creation myth the creator god Taganlang has a helper bird that he calls
Oribig. This celestial bird flew to the far corner of the universe under the behest of his
master to get soil which became the material used to create the earth. (Magaña, 1975)
4.5.3. Rocks from the sky
In the myths, rocks that come from the sky are a recurring theme in the creation of the
islands of the Philippines. The birds that incite the sky to war, as outlined above throw
rocks at the sea that eventually turn into the Philippine islands.
- 38 -
4.5.4. In the path of giants
In some versions of the cosmogony myth, the world is created and shape by primordial
Higante.
In the Ilokano version of this myth, Anglao and Aran, two primordial Higante shaped the
world. Anglao created mountains, hills, valleys and seas. He did this at the order of an
unnamed supreme god. (Yabes, 1932)
4.5.5. The Sad God
There is a motif in some myths where a part of creation is attributed to the loneliness of
the supreme god. This can be seen in the Bisaya creation myth where the supreme god,
Tungkung Langit, made creation because his wife, Alunsina disappeared. (Jocano, 1959).
A similar event happened in the creation story of the Kapampangans wherein
Mangetchay, the supreme god, due to the grief over his daughter dying in a war of the
gods that lead to creation, created life in remembrance of his dead daughter.
- 39 -
5. Philippine Higher Mythology
Philippine Higher Mythology is the realm of the gods and goddesses, the divinities of the
worlds and the cosmological nature of the universe. Each ethnolinguistic group has its
own concept of how the world was formed and the nature of the universe and it is this
conceptualization that gives context to their divinities.
This section is organized by Philippine ethnolinguistic group. When applicable, this will
be done in terms of their cosmogony, myths on how their universe was formed,
cosmology, the description of how their universe is organized, the ethnolinguistic group’s
concept on the soul, the journey of that soul from conception until what happens to it in
the life beyond and a description on the nature of their lower worlds.
The Skyworld, Middleworld and Lower World
In most conceptualizations of Philippine ethnolinguistic groups of the world, the world is
divided into three parts: The Skyworld where most celestial divinities reside, the
middleworld where humanity exists and the Lower world where the soul takes its final
journey. When applicable, each of the three worlds will be described in detail in this
section.
- 40 -
5.1. Luzon
5.1.1. Cordilleras
Cosmology
The supreme god Lumawig created the sky, water and earth. The sun and the moon, who
were in the sky, fought which caused darkness, making the surface of the moon spotted.
The battle also caused the first eclipse. Lumawig settled the dispute by giving the sun the
day and the moon the night. (Philippine Sociological Review, 1974)
Middleworld
In some myths in the Cordilleras four huge posts hold up the earth from the underworld.
They can be seen in the land of Masiken, god of the underworld. A great pig scratching
itself on one of the posts causes an earthquake above. (Mallari & Wilson, 1958) In other
myths of the Cordilleras the Earth is flat (Cawed, 1972).
Lower World
In the Cordilleras there is a belief that by day the land of the dead looks like an ordinary
landscape with trees and rocks, at night these rocks and trees become houses in which the
spirits dwell. (Casal G. S., 1977)
- 41 -
General Deities of the Cordilleras
Deities which are common in most ethnic groups of the Cordilleras are as follows.
Kabuniyan, a god of head hunters, fire making and rice. Kabuniyan is also a title applied
to cultural heroes in the Cordilleras, as a god he is described as a warrior with a spear as
large as a tree and an axe with a blade as large as the end of the roof of the house. He
taught man how to make fire, cultivate rice and the marriage rituals. Masiken is the
Cordilleran ruler of the lower world. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
There is an unnamed cloud goddess of the Igorots in the Cordilleras whose body became
the first tobacco plant. (Barton, 1955)
5.1.1.1. Ifugao
Cosmogony
It is important to note that there is an observation by Beyer (1913) that the Ifugao have no
myths regarding the origin of the universe. They simply believe that it has always existed
and will always exist.
- 42 -
Cosmology (Beyer, 1913)
According to the Kiangan Ifugao the universe is composed of a multitude of horizontal
layers that are similar to one another. The upper face of each layer is made of earth while
the lower faces are made of a smooth blue stone called muling or buling.
Originally there were only 2 places in the mythical world of the Ifugao (before the
contact with the groups that believed in a layered sky)
Daya – east or downstream
Lagud – west or upstream
These survive in the names of the Skyworld and the Middleworld.
Skyworld – Daya
Daya is the collective name for all the four layers of the Skyworld. There is a region
above Skyworld where high ranking deities dwell, chief among them is Kabunian.
The Ifugao Skyworld has four layers (in descending order):
Hudog, Luktag, Hubulan, Kabunian (sometimes spelled as Kabunyian)
Kabunian (also the name of the high god of the Bontoks) is only inhabited by one deity,
Liddum who communicates directly with the Ifugaos on earth.
Each of the layers is horizontal and resembles the rest. The upward surface of each is
earthen and carries fields and gardens while the lower surface facing downward is made
- 43 -
of a smooth blue stone. The Kabuniyan layer hangs directly above the Earthworld and is
the sky that we see.
The divinities in the highest regions of Skyworld don’t see directly what happens in the
lower layers. It falls to Liddum to communicate with the Ifugaos on Earthworld.
The horizon is the entrance to Skyworld, the sky and earth are both solid and the horizon
only allows travel occasionally. Sometimes to be sure, travellers send their dog ahead
first. Sometimes the passage is too narrow but they can try to make it wider by placing
objects in the gaps. These objects include stones, trees and are usually crushed between
the earth and the sky but eventually the passage becomes free.
Middleworld –Luta (Beyer, 1913)
The Ifugao refer to the earth as the ‘middleworld’. The universe is a globe. If you slice it
horizontally the middleworld would have the broadest circumference. The layers of the
Skyworld and the underworld grow successively smaller as they approach the zenith and
nadir of the celestial globe.
Concept of Soul
There are two souls, one in the eyes and one in the breath. Illness is the withdrawal of the
soul in the eyes. Death is the withdrawal of the soul in the breath.
Lower World – Dalom (Beyer, 1913)
The Ifugao lower world, called Dalom, is made of an indeterminate number of layers, it is
located directly under the middleworld.
- 44 -
Souls of murdered victims go to the lowest level of Skyworld, different from the souls of
those who died of ordinary reasons.
Lands Beyond (Beyer, 1913)
There are mythical regions located in the east region called Lagud.
Ifugao Deities
The chief and most powerful deity of the Ifugao pantheon is Kabunian, who dwells in
the fifth region of the universe. Since the gods of the Skyworld are not able to see down
the lower layers, the god Liddum communicates directly with the mortals on the
earthworld. Makalun are spirits that also serve the function as messengers of the gods.
(Jocano, 1969)
The Ifugao have collective groups of deities in charge of specific aspects of the world.
These divinities are described as groups of spirits. Bulol are household divinities that are
the souls of departed ancestors, Gatui are divinities associated with practical jokes, but
they have a malevolent side that feast on souls and miscarriages were attributed to them.
Tagbayan are divinities associated with death that feast on human souls that are guarded
by two headed monsters called the kikilan, Imbayan or Lingayan guide souls after they
die and Himpugtan, an Imbayan can terminate those that displease him. (Jocano, 1969)
Munduntug are located in mountains and cause hunters to be lost and Banig are spirits of
the hillsides and caves. Mahipnat are great spirits of sacred places, Bibao are those of
ordinary places while Halupi are divinities of remembrance. Fili are divinities of
property, Dadungut dwell in graveyards and tombs and Makiubaya watch over the gates
- 45 -
of the village. Libligayu and Hibalot are spirits of sickness. Binudbud are spirits that
are invoked during feasts to quell the passions of men. (Jocano, 1969)
Kolkolibag are spirits who cause difficult labor. Indu are spirits that make omens. Hidit
give punishments to those that break taboos and Puok are a kind of Hidit that use winds
to destroy the dwellings of miners that break taboos. Hipag are spirits of war that give
soldiers courage on the field of war but are ferocious and cannibalistic.
Puok by Erika Gana
Llokesin is the god of rats who figures in the myth of the first orange tree. (Jocano, 1969)
Bumabakal, called the rejected corpse of Skyworld, whose dead body resides on the top
of mount Dukutan where fluids from his body can cause boils. (Barton, 1955)
- 46 -
The god Kabigat, married to the goddess Bugan sent a deluge to flood the earth. It
stranded his daughter Bugan and son Wigan on the earth and they became the ancestors
of the human race. (Beyer, 1913)
Dumagid a god who lived among the people of Benguet married a mortal woman named
Dugai and had a son, Ovug. Ovug was cut in half by his father, one of his halves was
reanimated in Skyworld and the other was reanimated on earth. The Ovug from
Skyworld’s voice is the cause of lightning and sharp thunder and the Ovug from
earthworld’s voice is the cause of low thunder. Dumagid was accompanied by the god
Bangan to claim Ovug from earthworld. (Beyer, 1913)
5.1.1.2. Kalinga
Cosmology
In Kalinga cosmology the universe looks like a big plate with a smaller dome resting on
it. The plate is the earth and the dome is the sky. The sky dome doesn’t meet the earth
exactly at the border because it is smaller than the earth plate. The sky dome isn’t
transparent, but opaque and solid. The rim of the sky dome is three meters thick.
(Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
Journey of the Soul
The Kalinga believe that the souls of the dead roam between 10-11 am and between 2-
3pm. The rest of the day is reserved for the living (Casal G. S., 1977)
- 47 -
5.1.1.3. Bontok
Deities
Deities of the Bontok include Chal-chal, god of the sun whose son's head was cut off by
Kabigat, goddess of the moon, but Chal-chal revived him bearing no ill will against
Kabigat. This was the origin of headhunting. (Jenks, 1905)
Kabigat by Mykie Concepcion
- 48 -
Another deity is Ob-Obanan, whose name literally means white hair. Her white hair is
inhabited by insects, ants, centipedes, all the vermin that bother man. She punished a man
for his rudeness by giving him a basket filled with all the insects and reptiles in the world.
(Almendral, 1972)
Ob-Obanan by Pamela Isleta
There are also the gods Chacha’, god of warriors and Ked-Yem, god of Blacksmiths.
Ked-Yem cut off the heads of the two sons of Chacha' because they were destroying his
work. He was challenged by Chacha' to a duel because of that. Eventually they made a
pechen (a pact between two tribes) to stop fighting. (Cawed, 1972)
- 49 -
5.1.1.4. Kankanaey
Middleworld
Four huge posts hold up the earth from the lower world. When a giant hog scratches
against one of the posts, earthquakes are formed. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, &
Zialcita, 1991)
Lower World – Aduongan
Located directly under the earth and can be dug into. Inhabited by people that act like the
people in earth, but are cannibals (Wilson, 1947)
Deities
In an older age gods walked the earth with humans.
The chief deity of the Kankanaey pantheon is Lumawig, he is the creator of the universe
and the preserver of life. His wife is Bugan and his daughters are Bangan the goddess of
Romance and Obban, goddess of reproduction. Minor divinities include Kabigat,
Balitok and Wigan who contact mankind through spirits called anito and their ancestral
spirits. (Jocano, Philippine Mythology, 1969)
The Timugan are two brother gods that feature in many tales of the Kankaney. They took
their sankah (handspades) and baskets (kayabang) and dug a hole into Aduongan (the
- 50 -
lower world). Interrupted a canao headed by Masaken. One of the brothers agreed to
marry one of his daughters. Went back to earth when they found the people of Aduongan
were cannibals. (Wilson, 1947)
5.1.2. Tagalog
Cosmogony
A kite (probably Haliastur indus) caused the sky and the sea to war. The sky threw
boulders at the sea which eventually became the islands. The kite then built a nest on the
islands and left the sky and sea in peace. (Cole 1916)
Cosmology
‘Lakan’ is put before the names of some gods, meaning prince it can be hypothesized that
these gods were deified kinglets (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
Deities dwelt in Skyworld (Kalangitan) or Underworld (Kasanaan)
Concept of Soul – ‘Kaluluwa’
The Tagalog soul, the kaluluwa can leave the body involuntarily. (Demetrio, Cordero-
Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
- 51 -
Deities
The gods of Kalangitan are many. The supreme god and
creator deity of the Tagalog pantheon is called Bathala,
Bathala Maykapal, Lumikha meaning ‘creator’ or Abba.
He is described as an enormous being with control of
thunder and lightning and heralded by flood, fire thunder
and earthquakes. He presides over other lesser deities and
uses spirits to intercede between the divinities and
mortals. There is an unnamed god of vices that is a rival
to Bathala in some tales. Bathala had three daughters
with a mortal woman, Mayari the goddess of the moon,

Mayari and Laho by Javier Bermejo
Hanan goddess of the morning and Tala goddess of
stars.
- 52 -
Other deities in the Tagalog pantheon are Idianale the
goddess of labor and good deeds, sometimes also
described as the goddess of rice fields, she is married to
Dumangan the god of good harvest. They have two
children Dumakulem who is the guardian of created
mountains and Anitun Tabu the goddess of wind and
rain. Ikapati is the goddess of cultivated land and
fertility she is married to Mapulon the god of seasons.
They have a daughter, Anagolay the goddess of lost

Tala by Javier Bermejo
things. Dumakulem is married to Anagolay and they have two children
Apolake the god of the sun and warriors and Dian Masalanta the goddess of lovers.
(Jocano, 1969)
- 53 -
Amanikable is the god of the sea who was
spurned by the first mortal woman (Jocano,
1969). He is also described in some sources
as the god of hunters. Lakan-bakod is the
god of the fruits of the earths who dwells in
certain plants. Sidapa is a god of war who
settles disputes among mortals.
Amansinaya is the goddess of fisherman.
(Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita,
1991)
Amanikable by Javier Bermejo
- 54 -
The gods of Kasanaan are ruled by Sitan, torturer of
souls in the lower world. He has many lower divinities
that do his bidding. These divinities include the divinity
Mangaguay who spreads disease and suffering and she
roams the mortal world to induce maladies with her
charms, Manisilat she who makes broken homes by
turning husband and wife against each other,
Mangkukulam who pretends to be a doctor and emits
fire and Hukloban who can change into any form she
desires. (Jocano, 1969)
Anagolay by Tara Singson
Other agents of the Tagalog divinities are priests and they include Silangan, Sonat,
Pangtahuyan, Bayugin, Magtatangal, Asuan and Mangagayuma. (Jocano, 1969)
Among the Tagalogs of Bulacan there exists
the myth of Bayani and Maria Sinukan.
Bayani was less powerful than Maria Sinukan
and he was her lover. He failed to complete a
bridge set as a task by Maria Sinukan. In her
Anitun Tabu by Therese Valmonte wrath she caused a stream to engulf the bridge
and Bayani. That stream is now Pampanga River. (Fansler, 1922)
- 55 -
In another version of the creation myth, three gods are responsible for the creation of the
coconut tree. These are Bathala, Ulilangkalulua and Galangkalulua. Ulilangkalulua, a
giant snake that could fly and Bathala a giant human were enemies. Bathala killed
Ulilangkalulua in combat. Many years later, Galangkalulua took ill. To repay the
kindness of Bathala while he was ill, Galangkalulua told Bathala to bury his head in
Ulilangkalulua's grave. A coconut tree sprang from the grave which Bathala created the
first humans out of. (Fansler, 1921)
5.1.3. Bikol
Cosmogony
Only water and sky were in existence in the universe in the times before. The grandsons
of the god of the sky, Languit, sought to attack the sky kingdom to gain more power. This
was led by the god Daga, who controlled the winds. Languit struck them all with
lightning and killed them all. Bitoon, their sister sought to find them and was also struck
by Languit’s lightning. Languit’s anger was pacified by Tubigan, the other grandfather of
the would-be usurpers. They each gave a light to the bodies of their dead grandchildren.
The body of Bulan became the moon, the body of Aldao became the sun, the body of
Bitoon became the stars and the body of Daga, who was not given light, became the
earth. (Beyer, 1923)
- 56 -
In another Cosmogony myth, two brothers Bulan and Aldao were quarreling. Aldao
struck Bulan’s arm, which flattened it and cut it off with a bolo and Bulan cried with
pain. The fallen arm became the earth and Bulan’s tears became the rivers and the seas.
(Beyer, 1923)
Cosmology
There is a belief in an unnamed giant that supports the world. Whenever he moves his
fingers he causes earthquakes. A small earthquake is caused by his index finger and a
stronger one is caused by his third finger. If this giant moves his whole body then it is
believed that the earth will be destroyed. (Beyer, 1923)
Deities
The supreme god of the Bikol pantheon is called Gugurang. When displeased he causes
the pit of Mayon Volcano to rumble. He cut Mt. Malinao in half with a thunderbolt. It is
said by some sources to be brother of Asuang. He would not give fire to Asuang and
subsequently vanquished him, but not completely. Asuang is an evil god he wanted
Gugurang's fire for his own. He gathered evil spirits and advisers and caused immorality
and crime to reign. He was vanquished by Gugurang but his influence still lingers.
Gugurang had two assistants Linti, who controlled lightning and Dalodog who controlled
thunder. (Vibal, 1923)
- 57 -
In a creation story there was the god of the sky Languit and the god of the water
Tubigan whose children Dagat, goddess of the Sea and Paros, god of the Wind were
married. Their sons Daga, who inherited his father’s control of the wind, Aldao and
Bulan unsuccessfully tried to usurp their grandfather Languit but failed. Their sister
Bitoon was also killed in Languit’s rage. In remembrance of them Lanuit and Tubigan
gave their bodies light, Aldao’s bod became the sun, Bulan’s body became the moon and
Bitoon’s body became the stars. Daga who instigated the rebellion was not given light
and his body became the earth. (Beyer, 1923)
In another creation myth, two brothers named Aldao and Bulan existed. Bulan, who was
jelous of his brother fought with Aldao but had his arm cut off and his eye hit. He fled
from Aldao after he realized his defeat. His flattened arm became the earth and his tears
became the rivers and seas. (Arcilla, 1923)
- 58 -
In one myth an unnamed sun god’s son fell in love with the mortal woman, Rosa. He
refused to light the world until his father consented to their marriage. But he forgot to
remove his powers over fire when visiting Rosa, her whole village and her was set on fire
until nothing but hot springs remained. (Buenabora, 1975)
Son of the Sun God by Anna Rodriguez-DelaCruz
- 59 -
5.1.4. Kapampangan
Cosmogony
The stars, planets, earth and sky were in existence before the land. During a war between
the gods for the beautiful daughter of the god Mangetchay, the earth was formed from the
stones thrown by those gods. The life on earth was created by Mangetchay in
remembrance of his daughter who died in the war. (Jose, 1974)
Cosmology
The gods live in different planets. The gods had a common temple which was suspended
in the air (space). It would take hundreds of years for them to travel between planets. The
gods traveled between planets by means of their chariots, whose wakes would disturb the
elements. The supreme god Mangetchay ruled the world for several millenniums with
great power. (Jose, 1974)
Deities
In the Kapampangan creation myth the supreme god and creator deity is called
Mangetchay. He has an unnamed wife and daughter who live in the moon and the planet
Venus respectively. Mangetchay lives in the sun. Mangetchay’s daughter was so
beautiful other gods fought a war for her hand. She eventually died in the battle. (Jose,
1974)
- 60 -
In another version of the creation myth Suku, or Sinukwan, a gigantic being who radiated
positive traits married Makiling, a goddess. They had three daughters: Malagu,
‘beautiful’, Mahinhin ‘modest’ and Matimtiman ‘Charming’, all of whom married
mortal men. (Mallari J. C., 2009)
5.1.5. Ilokano
Cosmogony
In Ilokano myth two primordial giants, were responsible for the creation of the world. At
the behest of an unnamed supreme god Anglao dug the earth and made the mountains, he
urinated into holes in the earth and made the rivers and seas, he then put up the sky, the
sun, the moon and arranged the stars. (Yabes, 1932)
Concept of Soul - ‘Kadkadduwa’
The word for soul, kadkadduwa is from kadduwa ‘companion’. The reduplication of kad
is an intensifier which gives the meaning ‘constant companion/inseparable partner’
(Manuel A. , 1982)
The Ilokano have a four soul system. In addition to the kadkadduwa there are three other
souls, described below. (Llanes, 1956)
- 61 -
Kararma is the name of the second soul. It can leave the physical body when one is
frightened, or may be stolen. If this soul fails to return the owner becomes insane,
sacrificial ceremonies may be held to lure back a lost karkarma. Karkarma stands for
natural vigor, mind and reason.
Aniwaas is the name of the third soul. It can leave the body during sleep and visits places
familiar to the body. If one wakes up while the aniwaas is visiting these places, they may
lose the aniwaas and become insane.
Araria is the name of the fourth soul. This is the liberated soul of the dead, the soul that
visits relatives and friends in the earthworld asking them to pray for it or perform a duty
it failed to do in life. Its presence can be heralded by the howling of dogs. This soul can
make sounds and manipulate physical objects usually relating to what it did in life.
Deities
Deities of the Ilokano pantheon include Abra, a seemingly old man who controls the
weather, Lady Makiling, and their daughter Cabuyaran. Cabuyaran who was the
goddess of healing loved Anianihan the god of the harvest and ran away from her home
causing Abra grief as he much preferred Saguday, god of the wind or Revenador, god of
thunder and lightning to have Cabuyaran’s hand. Bulan is the god of peace while
Amman is the god of the sun, the sun is his eye. Maria Makiling is the granddaughter of
Lady Makiling and Lobo is a large dog guards the entrance to the underworld. (Alacacin,
1952)
- 62 -
5.1.6. Ibanag
Concept of Soul – ‘Ikaruruwa’
The Ibanag have a distinction between body (baggi) and soul (ikaruruwa). Mekararuanan
(me + kararua – to be rid of the soul) is a phenomenon where the soul can leave the body
but it is without sense. The role of the soul is to give direction and wholeness to the man,
but the body can survive without the soul, and even without the body the soul experiences
material wants and needs. (Gatan, 1981)
5.1.7. Ibaloi
Cosmogony
In the beginning there was only the Skyworld and the Underworld. Their peoples fought
and one day a man from the underworld hit the sun god with an arrow. The sun god
pushed up the Skyworld and pushed down the underworld and created the earth. (Moss,
1924)
- 63 -
5.1.8. Mangyan
Concept of Soul – ‘Karaduwa’
The Hanunoo Mangyan believe in a plurality of souls. Karaduwa tawu (human soul),
karaduwa manok (Chicken soul) Karaduwa Baboy (pig soul) karaduwa kuti (cat soul) and
karaduwa hipon (shrimp soul). An individual may possess 2-5 other souls. These other
souls are explanations for miraculous recoveries from near fatal experiences, their dream
life or natural reactions to startling sounds or movement. (Iturralde, 1973)
5.1.9. Sambal
Deities
The chief and creator deity of the Sambal pantheon is called Malayari or Apo
Mamalyari. Akasi the god of health and sickness is sometimes seen at the same level of
power as Malayari. (Jocano, 1969)
Four Sambal brother deities are in charge of the harvest of rice. Dumagan the god of
good harvest, Kalasakas the god of early ripening of rice stalks, Kalasokus the god of
turning grain yellow and dry, Damulag or Damolag the god of protecting fruiting rice
from the elements. (Jocano, 1969)
- 64 -
Other Sambal deities include Manglubar the god of peaceful living, Mangalagar the
goddess of good grace and Anitun Tauo the goddess of wind and rain who was reduced
in rank by Malayari for her conceit. (Jocano, 1969)
5.2. Visayas
Panay Cosmogony Myth
The world was formless and shapeless in the old times. The earth, sky and sea were
mixed together. Two gods appeared out of the formless mist, Tungkung Langit and
Alunsina. They were married and lived in the highest realm of eternal space. Tungkung
fought with Alunsina and he drove her away. In his loneliness following her
disappearance he created the sea and the land. He took his wife’s jewels and they became
the stars, the moon and the sun. Through all this she did not come back. (Jocano, 1959)
5.2.1. Bisaya
Cosmogony
There are two cosmogony myths that are attributed to the Bisaya.
The first is similar to the Tagalog cosmogony myth wherein a bird of prey incites the sky
and the sea to fight against each other so that it may find somewhere to land. (Quirino &
Garcia, 1958)
- 65 -
The second myth also includes a bird. The gods Kaptan and Magauayan fought each
other for eons until, tired of the war, the great bird Manaul dropped great rocks upon the
fighting divinities. These rocks became the islands of the Philippine archipelago. (Hill,
1934)
Cosmology
Bisaya cosmology has a seven layered universe. The layers are described below. (Jocano,
1969)
• First layer: the base it is uninhabited and nothing is there.
• The second layer, Tubignon is made of water. Spirits who inhabit the seas and the
oceans such as mermaids and sea fairies have their own kingdom in this layer.
• The third layer is Idalmunon, from ‘dalum’ which means ‘deep’. It is located in
the bowels of the earth and inhabited by underground spirits.
• The fourth layer Lupan-on is the earth we live in. It is inhabited by engkantos and
mankind. Engkantos are invisible thus humans take their space without realizing
it. Ailments in humans are caused by this.
• The fifth layer is Kahangian, it is the atmosphere directly above the surface of the
earth. It is inhabited by flying beings such as bentohangin and hubot.
• The sixth layer is Ibabaw-non, it is inhabited by babaylan who intercede for man
with spirits.
• The seventh layer is Langit-non it is the abode of Maka-ako, the creator of the
universe.
- 66 -
Skyworld – Kahilwayan
This realm is ruled by Kaptan. It is inhabited by the deities that assist Kaptan.
Middleworld – Kamaritaan
This realm is ruled by Sidapa and Makaptan. In this realm is the earth which is inhabited
by humans. The gods of the court of Sidapa and Makaptan make their home here.
Lower World – Kasakitan
This realm is ruled by Magyan and Sumpoy. It has a sub-realm of Kanitu-nituhan which
is ruled by the god Sisiburanen.
A soul has to pass through Kasakitan before it can be admitted to Kahilwayan if a relative
offers a sacrifice to Pandaque (messenger of Sidapa). (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, &
Zialcita, 1991)
Poor people’s souls remain forever in Kasakitan should none of their living relatives offer
sacrifices for their redemption, Sisiburanen keeps these souls in slavery and after years of
staying in kanitu-nituhan they are fed to Simuran and Siguinarugan (giants that guard the
gates of kanitu-nituhan). (Jocano, 1969)
Concept of Soul – ‘Dungan’
A soul can be captured by bad spirits (e.g. egkantu). Souls may be imprisoned in a spirit
cave guarded by old Tan Mulong whose spirit dog has one mammary gland and two
- 67 -
genitals. Sickness is the temporary loss of the soul, permanent loss is death. The soul can
be lured back by a skillful shaman. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
The dungan is ethereal, something not weighed down by the world. Before it inhabits a
human body it inhabits a region above the earth with other dungan. The dungan then
takes interest in the unborn being, usually a relative which it had chosen to inhabit.
The dungan is not located in any specific part of the body and it grows proportionately
with the person’s body. Weak at birth it is vulnerable to usug or the unintentional transfer
of disturbing vapors of a strong body to a weak one by proximity. There are many rituals
performed to protect and nurture the dungan. (Magos, 1986)
Dungan also has a secondary meaning of willpower. A stronger dungan means that the
person has a greater capacity to dominate others to their line of thought. People living
together may lead to a spiritual competition between the two dungan leading to the
weaker becoming sick. (Magos, 1986)
At death the dungan leaves the body via any of the orifices and goes with the air toward
the upper regions. There it waits until it finds another body to enter. (Magos, 1986)
- 68 -
Deities
The creator of the universe was called Maka-ako. In some versions of the creation myth
he is called Laon which means ‘old’. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
The supreme god of the Bisayas was called Laon, which means old but this is attributed
to a certain Father Chirino as a historical source. Scott (1992) notes that none of
Chirino’s contemporaries refer to any Bisaya deity by that name and speculates that Laon
may have been the goddess of mount Canlaon in Negros, but there is no other evidence of
a Laon being worshipped as a supreme god among the Bisaya.
Maguyaen by Nicole Chiu
- 69 -
In another version of the creation myth the great bird Manaul stopped a war between the
go of the sky Kaptan and the goddess of the sea Maguayen. Manaul had two helpers
Kanauay and Amihan. (Hill, 1934)
Maguyaen by by Anna Rodriguez-DelaCruz
- 70 -
The gods of Kahilwayan include the chief deity of the pantheon, called Kaptan. He
controls the wind and lightning and in some myths is married to Maguyaen, the goddess
of the winds of the sea. Under Kaptan are minor deities, these are Makilum-sa-twan the
god of plains and valleys, Makilum-sa-bagidan god of fire, Makilum-sa-tubig god of
the sea, Kasaray-sarayan-sa-silgan god of streams, Magdan-durunoon god of hidden
lakes, Sarangan-sa-bagtiw god of storms, Suklang-malaon goddess of happy homes,
Alunsina goddess of the sky and Abyang. (Jocano, 1969)
Linok is the god of earthquakes and Makabosog is a deified chieftain who provides food
for the hungry. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
The gods of Kamaritaan are ruled by Sidapa the goddess of death and Makaptan the god
of sickness. They have multiple deities that answer to them. Those deities are supervised
by the god Danapolay. These gods are Tagusirangan, Duwindihan, Dalongdongan,
Tagabititlakan-ka-adlaw, Suta, Agta and Tabukuun. (Jocano, 1969)
The deities of Kasakitan are ruled over by the god Magyan, who carries the souls of the
dead to Kasakitan on his boat called balanday. He is the brother of Makaptan and has
another brother, Sumpoy. Sumpoy takes souls from Magyan’s balanday and carries them
to a place in Kasakitan called kanitu-nituhan. (Jocano, 1969)
- 71 -
Kanitu-nituhan is ruled by the god Sisiburanen who is responsible for all souls in kanitu-
nituhan. He is assisted by two giants called kuruntang named Simuran and
Siguinarungan.
Other inhabitants of Kasakitan are Abyang Durunuun goddess of charms, Saragnayan
the god of darkness, Pinganun-pinganun god of enchanted places, Unmagad Palinti
and Sumpay Pako-Pako. Pandaque the messenger of Sidapa also lives in Kasakitan.
(Jocano, 1969)
In Bohol, Sappia is the goddess of mercy who emptied the milk from her breasts onto
weeds, giving the origin of white rice but when she ran out of milk, blood came out
giving the origin of red rice. (Malay, 1956)
- 72 -
Sappia by Pamela Isleta
5.2.2. Ilonggo
Concept of Soul – ‘Dungan’
The Ilonggo soul, the dungan is not seen by the human eye. Sometimes it goes out of the
body and takes on visible forms as insects or small animals A dungan may leave the body
voluntarily while the person is sleeping. If one sees themselves in their dreams it means
their dungan has left their physical body. A slumbering person should be waken gently to
give the soul a chance to return to the body. Whatever happens to the dungan also
- 73 -
happens to the physical body. The dungan also withdraws from the body if said body is
badly treated (Magos, 1986)
Deities
Specific deities which Ilonggo worship include Mama Guayen a god that carries the
souls of dead Ilonggos in a boat to the ends of the earth. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando,
& Zialcita, 1991)
5.2.3. Sulod
Cosmogony
In the beginning there was no land. There was only sky and a wide expanse of water
called linaw. Two primordial giants, Laki and Bayi, appeared out of nowhere and were
responsible for the creation of many things. An earthworm that was caught by Bayi, the
female giant, excreted the earth. She also gave birth to the wild animals that inhabit the
earth. (Jocano, 1967)
- 74 -
Cosmology
The Sulod divide the universe into three distinct realms. Ibabawnon is the upperworld
which is divided into two realms, one for male Diwata and the other for female Diwata.
Pagtung-an is the Middleworld where earth is and Idadalmunon is the lower world where
souls go after they die. (Jocano, 1969)
Concept of Soul – ‘umalagad’
Dying among the Sulod is said to be like passing through a narrow door. The experience
is horrible, as if the person has to pull hard to get in the door. Once one departs they
simply disappear. No trace of them is left behind. (Jocano, 1968)
This soul is watched over by three brother gods Mangganghaw, Manglaegas and
Patag’aes. Mangganghaw keeps track over man's affairs immediately after marriage. He
keeps track of pregnancy. He is also the first to come to the house of a laboring mother,
peeps in the house and sees the child being born, after which he reports to Manglaegas.
Manglaegas, after being reported to by Mangganghaw, enters the house to look for the
child to make sure the child was born alive, then reports to Patag'aes who waits until
midnight then enters the house to have a conversation with the infant. If Patag'aes
discovers anyone eavesdropping on their conversation, he chokes the child to death. The
conversation is on how long the child wants to live and how the child will eventually die.
The child gets to choose. After the child has chosen, Patag'aes takes out his measuring
stick and computes the child's life span, and then he departs. (Jocano, 1968)
- 75 -
Lower World
In Sulod lore the entrance of the underworld is marked by an anthill which is located near
the deathbed of the deceased. The soul goes around the anthill and then finds itself near a
stream called Muruburu. Evil spirits called mahikawon then try to devour it but if
relatives have prepared sacrifices for these spirits, they will leave the soul alone. In
Muruburu the soul removes its funeral vestments and bathes in the lake to remove the
smell of the kamangyan, the native incense. After the soul changes its clothes from its
funeral wear, the soul then journeys to a place called Lima’awen. (Jocano, 1968)
In Lim’awaen, a deep lake they must face Bangla’e who ferries the souls across
Lim’awaen. Bangla’e asks the soul how many spouses it had on earth. The soul cannot lie
as the tuma, or body louse, an incarnation of the soul’s conscience is summoned. If the
soul is male it is praised if it answers it had more than one wife, the soul is ridiculed if it
answers ‘only one’ and if the soul did not have a wife at all it is made to swim in sticky
black waters while hanging on to Bangla’e’s pubic hair. If the soul is female it is
ridiculed if it had more than one husband. (Jocano, 1968)
After, the soul moves on to another stream called the Himbarawen, which has a bridge
guarded by Balagu. As with Bangla’e, Balagu questions the soul on how many spouses it
had in life. (Jocano, 1968)
- 76 -
The soul then finds itself at the entrance of Mt. Madyaas and it reaches a cockpit. Its
relative them welcome the soul. The soul then bets on one of the roosters, then a feast is
prepared. At this feast the soul must be properly dressed, if the soul finds itself
underdressed it haunts its living relatives for their negligence after which the soul is
brought to a rest house where it waits for a ritual to restore its body. (Demetrio, Cordero-
Deities
The divinities in the Sulod pantheon are called Diwata.
The main deity of the Sulod pantheon is Tungkung Langit, described as the most
powerful of the male Diwata. In Sulod myths he is said to have an unknown origin,
coming from somewhere foreign to the other beings of the Sulod pantheon. Tungkung
Langit is assisted by other gods such as Bangun Bangun god of universal time who
regulates cosmic movements, Pahulangkug god of seasons that changes seasons and
Ribung Linti. (Jocano, 1969)
In the underworld souls are questioned by the god Bangla’e, a god that judges souls by
asking them questions about their spouses. There is another god that also asks the souls
questions but they are unnamed. (Jocano, 1968)
As mentioned above Mangganghaw, Manglaegas and Patag’aes are three brother gods
who keep track of people’s souls.
- 77 -
5.2.4. Waray
Deities
The supreme deity of the Waray has both a male and female aspect. The Male aspect is
called Makapatag whose name means ‘leveler’. As his name suggests, he is fearful and
destructive. In contrast the Female aspect is called Malaon whose name means ‘the
ancient one’, she is an understanding goddess. Another god mentioned is Badadum, a
guide of the dead, who gathers the souls of the newly dead to meet their relatives at the
mouth of a river in the lower world. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
5.2.5. Tinguian
Deities
The supreme god of the Tinguian pantheon is referred to as the Great Anito. He made
Gomayen conceive 3 daughters, Mabaca, Binongan and Adasin who would later found
the 3 clans of the Tinguian. He also had a servant Emlang. (Peraren, 1966)
- 78 -
Init-init a god of the sun married the mortal woman Aponibolinayen. During the day he
leaves his house to shine light on the world. (Cole M. C., 1916)
The star goddess Gaygayoma lowered a basket from heaven to fetch a mortal,
Aponitolau who she wanted to marry despite him being married already. Gaygayoma
father is Bagbagak and her mother is Sinang. She and Aponitolau have a child,
Takyayen who popped out between Gaygayoma last two fingers after she asked
Aponitolau to prick there. (Cole M. C., 1916)
Other deities which the Tinguians worship include Makaboteng, a god of deer and wild
hogs who is their guardian. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
5.2.6. Palaweño
Cosmology
In Palaweño belief the earthly world is composed of seven plates, one on top of the other
with a center pole connecting them. Mankind lives in the middle of the fourth plate.
(Beyer, 1913)
Deities
- 79 -
Deities in Palawan include Neguno, the god of the sea that cursed a selfish man by
turning him into the first shark. (Malay, 1957)
Neguno by Pamela Isleta
5.2.7. Tagbanwa
Concept of Soul – ‘Kiyaraluwa’ and others
A Tagbanwa has one ‘true soul’ the kiyaraluwa and five secondary souls. The kiyaraluwa
s given to each infant by the god Magindusa as the nose of the child emerges from the
vulva. (Fox, 1982)
- 80 -
The secondary souls are located in the extremities of both hands and feet and in the head
just below the air whorl (puyo). The souls of the feet protect one while walking and from
injuries to the feet, the same functions to those in the hands. The secondary soul located
by the puyo is not fixed in young children and may cause illness if not properly aligned,
some shamans specialize in realigning the soul to its proper place. This soul is said to
have a material form like a round white stone (Fox, 1982)
Journey of the Dead
The soul at death enters a cave and follows a road that leads into the bowels of the earth.
At the first level he meets the chief god of the underworld Taliyakud who is tending a fire
between two tree trunks. Taliyakud then questions the soul and the soul finds that it is
impossible for it to lie because a louse on the soul, what is its conscience, answers for it.
If the soul was wicked it is pitched into Taliyakud and burned, if it was good the soul
passes on to a happier place where food is abundant (Fox, 1977)
The soul may also die seven times in the underworld. Each death causes the soul to go
deeper into the underworld. The soul’s spirit relatives bury it after the first death, but all
burials after are performed by insects and small animals. Souls that undergo this journey
are no longer questioned by Taliyakud. After the seven deaths in the underworld, the soul
is then reincarnated in the world in the form of an insect, usually a fly, dragonfly or dung
beetle, if the insect is killed it is presumed that the soul disappears into oblivion. (Fox,
1982)
- 81 -
Lower World
Life in the underworld is opposite of life in the earthworld. Day in this world is night in
the underworld and vice versa. Rivers flow backwards from the sea to the mountains and
rice is eaten cold (Fox, 1977)
Deities
Deities worshipped by the Tagbanwa include Magindusa who gives humans their true
souls, the kyaraluwa at birth. This is done as the nose of the baby emerges from the
vulva. (Fox, 1982)
5.3. Mindanao
5.3.1. Bukidnon
Cosmogony
The supreme god Magbabaya created the earth after he saw there was only a hole, there
was no sky or soil. He first made eight elements, Tumbaga (Bronze), Bulawan (gold),
- 82 -
salapi (coins), bato (rock), gabon (clouds), ulan (rain), puthaw (iron), tubig (water). From
these eight elements he created the sea, the sky the moon and the stars. (Unabia, 1986)
In the beginning there was only one small circular space that was intensely bright (called
the banting). It was surrounded by a rainbow and there were only three beings there.
Two of them faced each other in the narrow banting, one was good and the other evil.
The supreme planner that looked like a man was Diwata na Magbabaya “Pure god who
wills all things.” The being that represented evil had a human body but he had 10 heads
that continuously drooled sticky sliva – his name Dadanhayan ha Sugay “lord from
whom permission is asked”
These two beings were held up by a third being suspended above them – it had a hawk-
like head, wings and a human body. The hawk-being was continuously flapping its wings
in order to maintain the balance of the banting because Diwata na Magbabaya and
Dadanhayan ha Sugay were constantly bickering. The beating of his wings produced the
wind.
The being, Agtayabun, meaning “Adviser” or “Peace Maker”, was the only one who
could temper their head.
One day Diwata na Magbabaya had a thought of enlarging the banting. To steady it he
created the earth, the banting was in the sky – this was done so that Agtayabun could rest.
Diwata na Magbabaya knew that he would need the soil on which Dadanhayan ha Sugay
sat. The ten-headed being was difficult to convince and Agtayabun saw the problem,
swiftly the winged god scooped some soil from under Dadanhayan ha Sugay.
- 83 -
Dadanhayan ha Sugay was angered at the way the soil was taken without his permission.
Diwata na Magbabaya told him of the plan in which the banting would be enlarged with
the use of the soil. There would be enough space to stretch their legs and walk around.
The earth was thus created and Agtayabun could rest his wings.
The soil that was used soon became very dry. Diwata na Magbabaya looked at the sticky
saliva of Dadanhayan ha Suga. The planner god asked to use the saliva so he could
beautify the earth. The ten headed god agreed, flattered to be part of the beautification.
Diwata na Magbabaya took some of the saliva and mixed it with the soil. There came a
great rain that fell for many days. After which the three beings saw that various shapes
had been created – mountains, hills, valleys. Enough water remained for streams and
rivers which flowed into the ocean. Grass and trees surrounded the earth, indeed it had
become beautiful.
The three beings named the place Haldan ta Paraiso – “Garden of Paradise”
Diwata na Magbabaya had another thought to create beings to watch over the earth,
Agtayabun thought it was a great idea and Dadanhayan ha Sugay begrudgingly agreed.
The three gathered earth to serve as flesh, water to serve as blood. They cut fine rattan to
serve as veins and arteries, and the soft white wood of the andalugung tree to serve as the
bones. The three moistened the earth with water to form the figures, but the soil kept
crumbling.
Diwata na Magbabaya asked Dadanhayan ha Sugay for saliva to mold the figures and the
ten headed god agreed.
The planner god stood and told Dadanhayan ha Sugay to follow him exactly. Seven
figures, with one head and no drooling saliva were finished by the ten-headed god. The
- 84 -
three beings, pleased with the result. The planner god put the figures side by side and told
the other two to leave them alone for a while while he went to the sky to think about how
to perfect them.
Once Diwata na Magbabaya left Dadanhayan ha Sugay worked on the figures on his
own. The planner god happened to look down from the banting and saw that six of the
seven figures began to move.
The two gods fought, with the planner god saying that it was in his image that the figures
were made while the ten-headed being countered by saying that all the materials used
were his.
As usual, it was Agtayabun who had to serve as judge. Since neither god would give in, it
was agreed that there was to be a duel, the victor would decide what to do with the
figures.
The two gods released their swords and battled, going around the world. The flashing
blades produced lightning and the winged god declared a recess for them to check on
their wounds but neither had as much as a scratch.
The fight continued. When either being feet landed on the ground, a loud thunderclap was
produced. They circled the world seven times.
After the seventh round the three rested in the Haldan ta Paraiso to once again examine
their wounds, and yet again they were both unscathed. The swords and metal scabbards
on their belts had all melted, these sank into the ground and became the metals found
under the earth.
- 85 -
Since they reached a stalemate, they decided to settle the matter amicably. The good god
let the 10 headed being finish work on the six figures and asked to work on the remaining
one.
The six figures became incantus or guardian spirits.
These were the Talagbugta that look after the soil, the Ibabagsuk that take care of nature
and grow plants, the Bulalakaw that guards the water and all the creatures living in it, the
Mamelig that watch over the forest, the Lalawig that watch over the bees and honey and
the Mamahandi that guards over the material wealth that men acquire.
These incantus contain both good and evil qualities, but they take care of nature and will
give its fruits. They expect respect in the form of prayers and sacrifices. If they are
offended they send drought, flood, pestilence or sickness to those that do not ask their
permission to build a house or harvest a field, or cut the first slice of meat.
Diwata na Magbabaya finished his figure and endowed it with intelligence. This was the
first human. The good god entrusted the Haldan ta Paraiso to humans.
The bits of clay that were cut off from the seven Diwata became other creatures. Those
scooped from the armpits became birds, insects and other flying creatures. The clay from
the backs of the figures became the food that had to be carried on one’s back, like deer
and wild pice. The ones cut off between the fingers became water creatures. And those
cut from the crotch became animals that one has to ride astride such as horses, cows and
carabaos. (Unabia, 1986)
Bukidnon Cosmology
- 86 -
Skyworld (Unabia, 1986)
The Banting is a small circular space of immense brightness extant in the beginning,
surrounded by a rainbow. The Haldan ta Paraiso “Garden of Paradise” was created by
Diwta na Magbabaya from materials provided by Dadanhayan ha Sugay this is where
Agtayabun rests his wings.
Men are made from: Earth as flesh, water as blood, fine rattan as veins and arteries, soft
white wood of the andalugung tree as bones.
The Bukidnon sky is divided into seven tiers and the world below the earth’s surface also
has seven tiers, but only three of the earth’s tiers were identifiable.
Middleworld
Earth is shaped like a saucer, as is the sky but with the concavity towards the earth. The
Magbabaya (gods of the universe) Live at the points where concavities meet.
In the Bukidnon epic, there exists the Intumbangol, a pair of serpent Deities who support
the earth from the underworld. One is male while the other is female and they lie,
forming a cross, their mouths below the water at the horizon. When the Intumbangol
move they cause earthquakes, when they breathe they cause winds when they pant they
cause violent storms. They do not fall off the world because they are held up by the god
Magbabaya. (Cole F. C., 1956) Agyu, the hero of the epic has to subdue the Intumbangol.
- 87 -
Concept of Soul – ‘Makatu’ and ‘Pipitu ha makatu’
The makatu, their world for soul, exists before a child’s birth but it is separate from the
body. There is a ritual in which a miniature cradle is hung over the pregnant mother in a
place where the mother sleeps. The small cradle is where the soul of the unborn baby will
sleep before it joins the infant at birth. The makatu is breathed into man at birth by
Miyaw-Biyaw. If all are present in an individual, they are healthy, if one or more wanders
away from the body then Illness, irritability and sadness follow. If all makatu leave the
body at the same time, the individual dies. (Unabia, 1986)
The Bukidnon also believe in seven souls called the ‘pipitu ha makatu’. One jumps off
the cliff, one swims in the water, one puts its hand in snake holes, one sits under a tree,
one is always walking around, one is awake in the day and one is awake at night (Casal
G. S., 1977)
Journey of the Dead
The seven souls combine into one. This one soul journeys to Mt. Balatucan for its final
judgment. This journey of the soul is arduous, the relatives of the soul hang a small sack
of rice over the grave of the deceased to provide it with sustenance (Demetrio, Cordero-
Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991).
The soul first travels through liyang, a huge rock, then it goes to Binagbasan where the
Tree of Record grows. The soul makes a mark on the tree to show that it has arrived. At
Pinagsayawan the soul dances a ritualistic dance where it sweats in atonement for its
faults and errors then it has to go to Panamparan where it has to get a haircut. After it
goes to Kumbirahan where there is a banquet for the individual. The god Andalapit then
- 88 -
leads the soul to the foot of mount Balatucan where the gods of the dead are assembled to
judge the soul. Good souls are sent to Dunkituhan, the cloud capped stairway that leds
into heaven at the summit of Mt. Balatucan. If evil the soul is sent to a river to do
penance, the punishment it receives at the river is not permanent and only lasts until the
soul has been forgiven. Souls being punished in the river sweat blood, giving the river a
red color and a fishy smell (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
Lower World
The Bukidnon underworld has seven tiers as the Skyworld. (Demetrio, Cordero-
If one dies poor then they will remain poor forever in the underworld (Jocano 1975).
These souls are kept imprisoned and are fed to the giants guarding the gates of the
underworld.
Bukidnon Deities
The gods of the universe are referred to as the Magbabaya. Magbabaya is also the name
of the highest ranking and creator deity of the pantheon. He holds up the Intumbangol
the pair of snake deities that hold the earth together. Magbabaya has a brother named
Mangilala with whom he created humans from clay, though Mangilala breathed into the
clay figures of humans which caused them to be tempted to evil. Mangilala is also known
as a god of temptation that haunts the seventh tier of the underworld. (Demetrio, Cordero-
- 89 -
Intumbangol by Nadine Cabe
- 90 -
As above in the cosmogony myth Magbabaya, called Diwata na Magbabaya known as
the ‘pure god who wills all things’ has the form of a human that created the world with
the god Dadanhayan ha Sugay the ‘lord from whom permission is asked’ that is a
human body with ten heads continuously drooling saliva. Agtayabun, ‘the peacemaker’,
who has a human body, a hawk like head and wings is the guardian of Diwata na
Magbabaya and Dadanhayan ha Sugay. He continuously flaps his wings to keep the
balance among the two other gods. Diwata na Magbabaya and Dadanhayan ha Sugay,
before making humans created six minor divinities called ‘incantus’, guardian spirits that
contain good and evil qualities that can send calamity if angered. These six minor
divinities are the Talagbugta that look after the soil, the Ibabagsuk that take care of
nature and grow plants, the Bulalakaw that guards the water and all the creatures living
in it, the Mamelig that watch over the forest, the Lalawig that watch over the bees and
honey and the Mamahandi that guards over the material wealth that men acquire.
(Unabia, 1986)
Magbabaya has many lesser deities that assist him. These include the gods of the winds,
Domalongdong god of the north wind, Ognaaling god of the south wind,
Tagaloambung god of the east wind and Magbaya god of the west wind. Other gods
that are agents of Magbabaya are Tagumbanwa the guardian of the fields, Ibabasag
goddess of pregnant women, Ipamahandi goddess of accidents, Pamahandi the
protector of carabaos and horses, Tao-sa-sulup god of material goods, Tigbas god of
good government, Busao, god of calamity and Talagbusao bloodthirsty god of war.
(Jocano, 1969)
- 91 -
Ibabasag by Nicole Chiu
Miyaw-Biyaw and Andalapit as stated above are concerned with the souls of the
Bukidnon.
- 92 -
5.3.2. Manobo
Cosmogony
There are three versions of the cosmogony myth among the Manobos. The first, centered
around Talakogon in Agusan valley, attributes the creation of the world to the supreme
god Makalindung. Who set up the world on iron posts. The other version noted in the
Manobos of the Argawan and Hibung rivers, attributes the creation of the world to
Dagau, a goddess. The third version of the cosmogony myth, which is said by Manobos
in the upper Agusan the world is shaped like a giant mushroom and deities shake its core
when angered by humans. (Garvan, 1931)
Cosmology
The World is on iron posts created by Makalindung. He lives in the center with a python.
The sky is believed to be round and that it ends are at the limits of the sea. Near these
limits is an enormous hole called the ‘navel of the sea’ through which waters ascend and
descend. This is an explanation for the rise and fall of tides. (Garvan, 1931)
Lower world
The Manobo land of the dead is ruled by a goddess, Ibu. There are no worries or troubles
and souls work eat and even marry. (Garvan, 1931)
The land of the dead is below the pillars of the earth, it is divided into different
subsections where each nation is assigned a place. There are different sections for other
tribes and even for foreign peoples.
- 93 -
Deities
The chief deity of the Manobo pantheon is called Tagbusan, he rules over the destinies
of all other gods and mortals. The god of creation is called Makadilug. (Jocano, 1969)
In an alternate creation myth, Dagau, a goddess who lives at the four pillars of the world
is credited with creation. When human blood is spilled upon the face of the earth she
makes the python wrap itself around the pillars of the earth to shake it. When she is
angered she diminishes the supply of rice, either by cursing the soil or taking it from a
granary. (Garvan, 1931)
The Manobo have separate groups of divinities in charge of specific aspects of life. The
Diwata are a group of divinities that Manobo priests call to for signs of the future. Umli
assist mortals with help from the Diwata. War is under the purview of the Pamdiya who
initiate wars, madness under the Panaiyung who force madness upon men and sexual
excess under the Agkui. (Jocano, 1969)
Individual gods in the pantheon include Tagbayaw the goddess that incites incest and
adultery in mortals, Sugudun or Sugujun the god of hunters and trappers, Apila god of
wrestling and sports, Kakiadan goddess of rice, Taphagan goddess of the harvest who
guards rice in the granary, Anit or Anitan, guardian of the thunderbolt, Inaiyau god of
storms, Tagbanua god of rain, Umouiri, god of clouds, Libtakan god of the sunrise,
sunset and good weather, Yumud the god of water. (Jocano, 1969)
- 94 -
The underworld is ruled by the goddess Ibu. Manduyapit is the god who ferries departed
souls across the red river before going to the afterworld. (Jocano, 1969)
Ibu by Anna Orlina
- 95 -
5.3.2.1. Manuvu
Cosmogony
In the beginning there was nothing but a formless void. There was no sky or earth.
The deity Manama or Sigalungan created the diwatas to assist him in creation. He
took two steel bars and used them as a frame. He scraped off his fingernails and
molded it into a mass which eventually became the earth. (Manuel A. E., 1973)
Deities
The Manuvu creator god is Manama, who is brother to Ogassi. Ogassi
Incorporated white abaca strands into the clay that would become humans,
causing their mortality. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
Another name for Manama is Sigalungan which means all seeing. He created
beings to assist in creation. Manama gave them katusan, precognition and power.
They were Pammaong na Diwata, Paong na Katusan, Panayangan, Tumanud
and Anitu. Their bodies were like fingernails, smooth and shiny and only their
joints have skin. (Manuel A. E., 1973)
- 96 -
5.3.3. Mandaya
Middleworld
The Mandaya believe that the Earth was flat but pressed into mountains by a mythical
woman. It rests on the back of a great eel whose movements cause earthquakes, if crabs
and small animals annoy it. It shakes the earth so violently that whole mountains fall off,
(Cole F. C., 1956)
5.3.4. Bagobo
Cosmogony
The world was created by Pamulak Manobo. He made the land and the sea and the first
humans. The rain is caused by him throwing water from the sky, the showers are his spit.
The white clouds are smoke from the fire of the gods and the sun creates yellow clouds
that make the colors of the rainbow. (Benedict, 1913)
Cosmology
Skyworld
Deities live in skyrealms divided, each realm is ruled by a lesser divinity. (Benedict,
1916)
- 97 -
Entrance to Skyworld
The horizon is sharp, like a kampilan sword. And the edges of the horizon come together
like jaws whenever one tries to jump through. If one gets cut by the horizon then parts of
their body become stones or grains of sand. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita,
1991)
After Jumping through the horizon you will see many wondrous things. These include
many kampilan swords standing alone and fighting without any hands holding them.
Lower World
Gimokudan is the realm of the bad dead. Spirits with heavy misdeeds are engulfed in
flames. Spirits with little misdeeds aren’t in flames but, with their bodies covered in
sores, they lay in an acid that burns like lemon juice. (Jocano, 1969)
Banua Mebuyan ‘Mebuyan’s Town’ is a special place reserved for children who died at
their mother’s breast, these souls are nourished by the goddess Mebuyan. When they no
longer need to be nursed by the goddess they go to another district in the underworld to
join those souls that dies of disease. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
All souls pass through Banua Mebuyan before going to Gimokudan. They must wash
their joints and the tops of their heads in the black river that runs through the place. The
bathing is called pamalugu and it is so the souls would not look back and their own
- 98 -
bodies and return. If a soul reunites with its body it would return to life. (Demetrio,
Those slain by sword or by spear are in a special underworld district where they carry the
scars of the wounds inflicted upon them and where plants are the color of blood.
(Casal G. S., 1977)
Rice in the afterworld is dazzlingly white, and the food is of bigger size, rice as big as
corn kernels, sweet potatoes as big as pots and sugar canes as big as coconut trees. The
sun travels daily around the flat earth and continues to shine in the underworld beneath,
so if it is day in the earthworld, it is night in the underworld (Casal G. S., 1977)
Concept of Soul – ‘Gimokud’
There are two souls called gimokud. Right hand gimokud is the good soul that manifests
as a shadow on the right hand side of the path while the left hand gimokud is the bad soul
that manifests as a shadow on the left side of the path. (Benedict, 1916)
The right hand is associated with life, health, activity and joy, remaining in the body
throughout life. When death causes the right hand gimokud to leave the body, it gives
notice by visiting in the form of an insect. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita,
1991)
- 99 -
The left hand soul is the cause of lethargy, pain and illness. The left hand soul also leaves
the body at night and risks various dangers, if it visits the sea the sleeping person feels
shivers, the behavior it engages in leaves a physical effect on the body. After death the
gimokud becomes a busaw (digging up dead bodies) (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, &
Zialcita, 1991)
When the throbbing of the skull cap stops, the soul exits through what used to be the
fontanel (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
All larger animals have two souls each (Benedict, 1916)while smaller birds bees and
insects only have one soul. Inanimate objects have a single soul which goes to the
underworld so they can serve their owners.
Journey of the Dead
On the way to the place of the dead first passes by the land of the black river. Mebuyan
the chief priestess of the place directs the soul to partake in a ceremonial bath of head and
joints. The bath readies the soul into the world of spirits so that they feel rested, contented
and they feel unwilling to go back to the earthworld (Benedict, 1916)
In another version of the story Mebuyan is a goddess in the underworld. In her town the
souls undergo the ceremonial bath which is the same as above.
Deities
- 100 -
Bagobo deities are called Diwata.
The creator god of the Bagobo pantheon is called Pamulak Manobo who controls good
harvest, rain and wind, life and death. He lives in the last realm of the sky and has other
divinities that assist him. In some myths the chief deity of the Skyworld is simply called
Diwata and is male. Assistants of Pamulak Manobo include Tigyama the god of
protection, Malaki t’ohu A’wig the hero who destroyed sickness, Tarabumo for whom
the rice ceremony is held, Panayaga the god of brass casters, Abog god of hunters and
Tonamaling who may be benevolent or malevolent. Lumbat is a divinity in Skyworld
that became a diwata when the chief deity cut out his intestines. He eventually became
the greatest of all Diwata. (Jocano, 1969)
Mandarangan and Darago are the married gods of warriors. Mandarangan is said to
reside at the summit of Mt Apo. Human slaves are scarified to him in a special ritual and
he rewards those sacrifices by granting health, valor in war and success in the pursuit of
wealth. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
Taragomi is the god of crops, Tolus ka Gomanan is the god of smiths and Bait Pandi is
the goddess of weavers who taught women weaving. (Jocano, 1969)
In one version of the creation of humans, the creator god of humans is called Melu. He
created humans along with his brother the god Fun Tao Tana. Fun Tao Tana put on the
noses of humans upside down which Melu had to correct. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando,
& Zialcita, 1991)
- 101 -
Minor Diwata include Salamiwan, Ubnuling, Tiun, Biat’odan, Biakapusad-an-Langit,
Kadeyuna, Makali Lunson, and Tolus ka balakat, the dweller of the ritual hanger.
(Jocano, 1969)
In the underworld Mebuyan is the goddess who takes cares of the souls of dead infants.
Her entire body is covered with nipples and breasts. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, &
Zialcita, 1991)
5.3.5. T’boli
Cosmology
There are seven layers in the sky. The last layer is the dwelling place of the supreme god-
couple Kadaw La Sambad and Bulon La Mogoaw. Their children S’fedat and Bong
Libun who were married and who could not conceive children of their own drove them to
lose hope. S’fedat asks Bong Libun to kill him and his body becomes the land. This land
was placed on the sea by D’wata, their brother but only after D’wata agrees to let Bong
Libun choose one of his sons as a future husband. (Casal G. S., 1977)
Lower World
There are different Afterworlds depending on the circumstances of death. (Casal G. S.,
1977)
- 102 -
Kayong is where a soul goes to if it is killed by the sword either in battle or murder. In
Kayong the sun shines red. There the soul is welcomed with continual music from the
agon, kulintang, higalong (a two stringed guitar) and s’ludoy (Bamboo violin). Mogul is
where a soul goes if dies a natural death. It has everything the soul desires. (Demetrio,
Deities
The supreme deities of T’boli myth are a pair of married gods, Kadaw La Sambad and
Bulon La Mogoaw. They had 14 children, Cumucul who married his Sister Boi’Kafil,
Bong Libun who married her brother S’fedat, D’wata who married his sisters Sedek We
and Hyu We, Blotik who married his sister S’lel, B’lomi who married her brother Mule,
Loos K’lagan who married his sister La Fun and Datu B’noling. Cumucul, being the
eldest has a cohort of fire, a sword and shield. D’wata and Hyu We begat seven children:
L’tik, B’langa, Temo Lus, T’dolok, Ginton, L’mugot M’ngay and Fun Bulol. D’wata
and Sedek We Begat six children Kayung, Slew, S’mbleng, Nagwawang, Nga Hule and
S’ntan. S’fedat and Bong Libun could not bear children so S’fedat asked Bong Libun to
kill him. His body became the land on which plants sprouted. (Casal G. , 1978)
- 103 -
5.3.6. Subanon
Deities
The chief deity of the Subanon pantheon is called Diwata-sa-Langit. Divinities in the
Subanon pantheon include Tagma-sa-Dagat the god of the sea, Tagma-sa-Yuta god of
the Earth, Tagma-sa-Manguabungud the god of the woods, Tagma-sa-uba god of the
rivers and Tagma-sa-langit the god who protects the sick. (Jocano, 1969)
5.3.7. Blaan
Cosmogony
The god Melu constantly rubbed his skin so that he may be pure white. The accumulated
dead skin became an annoyance to him so he used it to create the earth. (Cole M. C.,
1916)
Deities
The creator deity of the Blaan is Melu, whose teeth are pure gold and whose skin his pure
white. He created humans with the god Tau Tana who put people’s noses on upside
down, Melu corrected that mistake. Melu lives in the sky while Tau Tana lives below the
earth. This myth is similar to one of the creation myths of the Bagobos. (Demetrio,
- 104 -
In another myth on the creation of humans Tasu Weh created humans. These humans
had both male and female sexual organs, the penis on one knee and the vagina on the
other. Fiu Weh created the humans that we know today by separating the sexual organs.
(Lutero, 1986)
5.3.8. Maranao
Cosmology
The world is divided into seven layers. The earth and sky are also divided into seven
layers. The earth layers that have a description are as follows:
The layer of humans
The layer of the karibangs (see lower mythology section)
The layer under the sea which is inhabited by ‘nymphs’
The sky layers each have a door that is guarded by mythical birds called garoda. The
seventh layer of the sky is heaven. Here there exists the tree of life where each leaf has
the name of every living person on earth. As soon as a leaf ripens or dries and falls, the
person whose name is on it also dies. In one section of heaven jars containing the souls of
every person alive exists. It is guarded by a fearsome creature called the Walo. (Madale,
1966)
- 105 -
6. Philippine Lower Mythology
Lower mythology is described as beings which are not objectively real, but are regarded
in folk traditions to actually exist. It is termed lower mythology because due to the nature
of these creatures, they rank below beings associated with higher mythology e.g.
Divinities, ancestral spirits, angels, etc. (Ramos, 1971)
The creatures described below are organized in a way that is inspired by western
traditions of classifying mythical creatures, but also takes into account the Philippine
context and is organized and named in such a way that most beings would not be clouded
by association with seeming counterparts from western mythological traditions.
6.1. The Moon Eaters
Lunar and solar eclipses are explained by most Philippine
mythologies by a giant creature that either devours or
embraces the moon or the sun. The animal is different
among the ethnolinguistic groups of the archipelago. In
some of the myth eater myths there is an explanation why
the creature devours the moon, in others no reason is given
and it is just the creature’s nature to devour the celestial
Baua by Nicole Chiu
- 106 -
Body. The moon eaters are arranged by the animal or in some cases mythological
equivalent that they represent.
Bird
The Baua of the Ilonggos is a giant bird like creature that lives near Negros Island in an
area above the sky called calunlundan. When food is scarce, twice or thrice a year, the
baua flies and devours the moon, if music is played while this is happening, it will release
the moon from its jaws. (Ramos, 1971)
The Minokawa of the Bagobos is also a bird like creature that is as big as the islands of
Negros and Bohol. Its beak and talons are made of steel, its feathers are sharp as swords
and its eyes are mirrors. It lies in wait for the moon in the eastern horizon and tries to
capture the moon in its jaws. If the minokawa swallows both the sun and the moon it is
feared that it will descend to the earth and devour humans (Ramos, 1971)
Snake, Serpent or ‘Dragon’
In Bisaya myth the Bakunawa is a large snake or serpent that believes the moon is a
bright round ball and tries to play with it. The Bakunawa would then swallow the moon,
but finding it too big, vomits it out. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
In an alternate Cebuano myth, the Bacunawa seeks to possess all the moons by
swallowing them. There were once seven moons in the sky, but having devoured six of
- 107 -
them he found that each moon melted away. The Bakunawa would have devoured the last
moon if Bathala had not stopped him. (Buyser, 1913)
Bakunawa by Bettina Dimaculangan
In contrast the Bakunawa in Kinaray-a belief is a kind of ‘dragon’ with either a
transparent or thick walled stomach. There is more than one Bakunawa. If a Bakunawa
with a thin walled stomach swallows the moon then it causes a partial eclipse whereas if a
Bakunawa with a thick walled stomach does so it causes a total eclipse. (Demetrio,
In some Tagalog myths the Laho is a giant dragon that devours the moon. (Demetrio,
In other Tagalog lore and in the myths of the Ati of Panay, Sawa is a giant serpent that
swallows the sun and causes eclipses. (Ramos 1971)
- 108 -
Fish
The Baconaua is a shark like creature with a lake sized mouth from the Ilonggos. It has a
red tongue with big whiskers and enormous ash-gray wings that allow it to fly. It has gills
and smaller wings at its side. It hides the sun and moon when it swallows them. (Ramos,
1971)
Baconaua by Patricia de Vera
- 109 -
Crab
The Tambanakaua is one of the many offspring left in the wake of the quarrels of the
sun and moon in Mandaya myth. It seeks to devour its mother, the moon.
There is a similar belief in a crab moon eater in Bukidnon lore. The crab is also said to
have crawled from the mountains, descended into the sea and plugged the world’s navel
causing a great flood. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
Lion
The Maranaos believe in Arimaonga a gigantic mythical lion. Arimoanga seeks to
devour the moon and during an eclipse, if people want to stop it, they must tub their
fingernails furiously against each other or make loud noise as to deafen Arimoanga.
(Madale, 1966)The Arimaonga in its playful nature thinks the moon is something to be
played with so it swallows the moon, making an eclipse.
Tarantula or Scorpion
- 110 -
In Manobo myth the Tambanakaua is a huge tarantula or a scorpion that attacks the
moon and slowly encompasses it in an embrace (as an eclipse). The menfolk of the
village would rush out shout, shoot arrows at the moon, slash at trees with their bolos,
play the drum and gongs, beat tin cans, etc. The women keep sticking needles or pointed
sticks in the wall of the house in the direction of the enemy that is trying to envelop the
moon. If ever the Tambanakaua is not stopped eternal darkness would fall on the world
and evil spirits will reign. (Garvan, 1931)
Tambanakaua by Leandro Geniston
6.2. Celestial Beings
- 111 -
Celestial beings are inhabitants of the Skyworld. They all have wings and are at least
partly avian in form.
Bentohangin, a flying hose that is half human and hubot a huge bird that looks like an
umbrella flying both inhabit the Bisayan Kahangian, the fifth layer of the universe.
Garoda is the name that Maranaos give to huge birds that guard the doors of each of the
seven layers of the sky. (Madale, 1966)
- 112 -
Oribig is the Mansaka celestial bird. At the behest of the supreme god Taganlag it went to the
ends of the universe to get soil which eventually became the earth. (Magaña, 1975)
Oribig by Jul Yan Espeleta
6.3. Higante
- 113 -
Higante are gigantic, man-like beings. Higante are separated into two categories, the
primordial Higante and the mundane Higante. It should be noted that most Higante have
proper names.
Primordial Higante
The primordial Higante are almost Divinities in their own right. Some guard celestial or
infernal layers of the universe while others are responsible for the creation of parts of the
world. These Higante may be larger than the mundane Higante with some reaching to the
sky.
Among the Ilokanos Anganglao is a Higante whose head reaches the sky that was credited
with the creation of the world, though he is afraid of ants. (Ramos, 1971) He is also called
Anglao and has a wife named Aran. (Yabes, 1932)
Other Primordial Higante responsible for the creation of parts of the world include Ilohaylo
and Necrosamo who the Ilonggo credit with the creation of the Gigantes Islands. (Deza,
1931)
There are primordial Higante that work under the behest of Divinities. Among the Bisaya
Simuran and Siguinarugan guard the gates of Kasakitan, the Bisaya underworld. They eat
souls fed to them by the god Sisiburanen. (Jocano, 1969)
The kikilan a two headed monster are protectors of the Ifugao gods of death and practical
jokes. (Jocano, 1969)
- 114 -
Another guardian, though this time of the celestial realms is Walo. In Maranao belief this
Higante with eight hairy heads and a thousand eyes guards a section of heaven where the
souls of all humans are located. (Madale, 1966)
Mundane Higante
Mundane Higante are generally manlike giants, they bother humans when the humans
encroach on their homes. They may live in houses in the forest. There are both male and
female Higante and some Higante are married to each other.
Examples of married Higante include Bekat and Surab, Sappaw and Gugnay, who are also
siblings and Sorab and Sibbarayungan/Sibbarayonna of the Isneg. (Ramos, 1971)
Solitary Higante include Bekat, a female Higante who has a keen sense of smell,
Gisurab/Gisorab that possesses fire, Kalapao/Kalapaw and Berberoca who can change
size at will and can be slain by mortal means. All of these Higante are in Isneg Folklore.
Other Higante include Binonaan of the Ifugao who has a voice like thunder, Sumarang of
the Ilokano whose eyes are as big as plates and various unnamed Higante from Ilocos,
Pampanga and Zamboanga. (Ramos, 1971) Mandayangan, a harmless Higante is mentioned
in Manobo folklore. (Jocano, 1969)
There are certain mundane Higante that deviate from the expected look of a gigantic human.
Bungisngis in Tagalog myth has an upper lip so large that it can cover his face if it is thrown
back. Buringcantada of the Bikols has one eye in the middle of his forehead and has two
long tusks that are projected at the sides of his mouth. Gawigawen in Tinguian myth has six
heads and possesses an oversized spear and headaxe. (Ramos, 1971)
- 115 -
Among the mundane Higante only the ikugan are said to be a kind of species. They are
simian in form and have skin covered in long, soft hair. They have huge hand and feet and a
tail that they use to fight. They hate humans and hang by their tails in their trees and wait for
unsuspecting victims to overpower. (Ramos, 1971)
6.4. Creatures of the Sea
Creatures of the sea in Philippine myth are separated into two categories: the people of
the water and sea beasts.
People of the Water
People of the water in Philippine folklore have the same general form. They are usually
female with human features on half of their body.
The catao of Cebuano and Ilonggo folklore are described as fish that have features of a
woman on half of their bodies. They have captivating voices and can marry humans.
They are dangerous in nature. They lead boats to sink by holding out a light that lures
sailors. (Ramos, 1971)
The sirena is one of the most well-known people of the water in Philippine myth,
documented by various ethno-linguistic groups. They have the likeness of a female
human her body is covered with fish scales from the waist down, with a fish tail. They
may have a servant in the form of a golden centipede. They live on the sea floor or caves
- 116 -
behind waterfalls. In stories they always possess great treasures, usually gold. They have
an affinity with fish and magical control of water. They can be stopped by stabbing the
water with a steel instrument. Though their appearance is that of a beautiful woman, they
are not kind creatures. They may seek tribute, this is usually in the form of a sacrifice of a
small child. They prefer ambush tactics when capturing their prey. (Ramos, 1971)
In Waray folklore the ugkoy are people of the water that live in fresh water. They are
seen in rivers during floods. They hunt people and drag down their victims by the feet to
the bottom of the river. (Ramos, 1971)
In Iloilo there exists the tale of the dugong a creature that is like a sirena but bigger. It is
said to guard a large oyster with a pearl that is so bright at night mariners mistake its
brightness for that of a light house and drown.
Sea Beasts
The Hiligaynon mameleu is a giant serpent that lives in the depths of the ocean in
secluded places where boats had sunk in the water. Its body is as large as a carabao and
thirty fathoms long. It has two torch like eyes that gleam like fire and its head is as large
as a carabao's with two white horns, long tusks and long teeth. It has plate sized scales
that are hard and resistant. It ejects green spittle when it is angry. (Ramos, 1971)
The kasili and the kayumang of Bagobo folklore are a giant eel and a giant crab
respectively. Kasili is wound around the world and when bitten by kayumang its
wriggling produces earthquakes. (Benedict, 1913)
- 117 -
The Kagang of Mindanao is also a giant crab and is similar to kayumang in that a
gigantic eel is believed to be wound around the world like a belt. Kagang bites its tail,
causing earthquakes. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
The Gaki of the Bontoks is the overseer of the god Lumawig and can cause the earth to
flood. (Padua, 1962)
6.5. Spirits of the Earth
The spirits of the earth are small mythical creatures the size of three year old humans.
They possess the faces of old men and are usually found in subterranean locations.
Tiyanak
Tiyanak like creatures all look like naked, newborn babies. They are said to be spirits of
newborns who died. The patianak of the Mandayas live in woods and fields, they are the
spirit of a newborn whose mother died while pregnant and is born in the ground. The
muntianak of the Bagobos likewise have the characteristics stated above. (Ramos, 1971)
- 118 -
Tiyanak by Patricia Zulueta
The Tagalog tiyanak has an additional description, they may also have long ears,
grasshopper legs, goatlike hooves, and they are described as satyr-like. When held the
tiyanak, in its infant form, changes into a little old man with an old man's face wrinkled
skin and a moustache. It has a flat nose and eyes the size of coins and its right leg is much
shorter than the other, causing it to leap. These tiyanak take delight in misdirecting
travelers but they are outwitted if the victim turns their clothes inside out. (Ramos, 1971)
- 119 -
Dwende
Dwende fit the description of spirits of the earth more closely than the tiyanak. Dwarfish
in form and aged in appearance, they have a particular affinity for the spaces in the
ground. The dwende of Tagalog myth is described as a pygmy with only one eye that is
situated in the middle of its forehead and a large nose with only one nostril. The Tagalog
dwende may give money to its human friends. (Ramos, 1971)
The karibang of the Maranao live in the second layer of the earth. They are short, plump
and long haired. They possess magical powers and are invisible to the human eye.
(Madale, 1966)
Many spirits of the earth prefer to make their homes in termite mounds. The Tagalog
matanda sa punso and nuno and the Ilokano lakay. The matanda sa punso is a
mischievous though not necessarily malevolent spirit of the earth. It is said to kidnap a
pretty girl while she is singing near her mother's stove at suppertime. It gives her strange
food and plays siklot and sungka with her. The matanda sa punso lets her go when she
becomes homesick and gives 'rubies and pearls' as a parting gift. When the girl is found
she discovers she is holding goat dung. The lakay is similar in temperament. It becomes
angry when stepped on, tugs at offender's big toe and the toe grows twice as long
overnight. (Ramos, 1971)
- 120 -
Some dwende live in empty patches of the earth. These include the laman lupa of
Tagalog folklore and the tawong-lupa of Mindoro and Marinduqe myth.
Rice fields and farmland are another habitat of the dwende. The caranget of the Gaddang
is one of those dwende. It can turn into four forms, the siloit that makes a whizzing sound
is one of them. The Mandya omayan or kalaloa nang omay which means ‘spirit of
omay’ is a rice field inhabiting dwende. (Ramos, 1971)
The lampong of the Ilongots are different from other spirits of the earth in being
shepherds of wild animals. They are described as two feet high and having a long beard
that stretches to its knees. The lampong can shapeshifter. They transform into whatever
animal it is that makes up its flock to keep a watchful eye over them. It assumes the form
of a white deer and when it is wounded in that form, it transforms into its dwarfish
countenance. (Ramos, 1971)
- 121 -
Lampong by Nicole Chiu
Dwende can be malicious in nature. The sagay of Surigao live in gold mines. They
exchange the gold from their mines for the blood of children. They are also said to steal
children in the dead of night. (Ramos, 1971)
Other dwende include the calanget of the Ifugao and the carango of the Ibanag.
(Ramos, 1971)
- 122 -
Idaemonon
The idaemonon of Aklanon folklore does not match the general description of spirits of
the earth, though they live underneath the ground. They have long fingers and they poke
their fingers through the ground every 6am and 6pm. If a human steps on one of their
fingers, the human gets sick. When they decide to come out of the ground, they tend to
hide human belongings. (Ruiz-Mesina, 2014)
- 123 -
6.6. Spirits of the Forest
The spirits of the forest of Philippine myth are diminutive, usually tree dwelling creatures
that resent the encroachment of man into their homes. Among the creatures of lower
mythology these have the most chance of being beneficent, but they have the same
capacity to harm as any other halimaw.
Engcanto, engkanto, or engcantada
in various ethnolinguistic groups are
described as having a fair
complexion, high bridged noses and
as being taller than ordinary humans.
The Agusan believe them to be
blond, fair skinned and having no
philtrum (the vertical groove
between the base of the nose and the
border of the upper lip). They live in
large trees, sometimes Balete trees.
They make their presence known by
exuding the scent of malvarosa
(alcea rosea). They come out of their
Palasekan by Patricia de Vera homes during moonlit nights and
appear to humans. (Ramos, 1971)
- 124 -
The Palasekan of the Ilongots are diminutive creatures that are usually invisible. They
can tell future events and cannot be fooled. Ilongots believe that they each have a
personal palasekan. (Ramos, 1971)
The male mahomanay and the female tahamaling are counterpart creatures in Bagobo
folklore. The mahomanay is said to have a fair complexion while the tahamaling has a
red one. They both live in Balete trees. The mahomanay is beneficient in nature but the
tahamaling may turn maleficent. The tahamaling is offered food or betel nuts by hunters
to gain her goodwill before hunting. Both spirits look after the animals in their domains.
(Ramos, 1971)
Mahomanay by Jul Yan Espeleta Tahamaling by Jul Yan Espeleta
- 125 -
In Ilokano myth the kibaan are
creatures as small as two year old
children. They are fair skinned, have
gold teeth and feet that are backwards.
Their hair is long and reaches down to
their feet. They live in Bangar trees
(steroulia foetida). The creatures are
industrious, the ground under their
tree homes is always found well
swept. They may give magic items as
bribes to protect their trees from being cut down. They are mischievous and they sing in
Kibaan by Erin Locsin
small groups and strum small guitars.
Another kind of spirit of the forest of Ilokanos is the mangmangkit, who live in trees.
(Ramos, 1971)
The magtititma are Bukidnon creatures that are usually invisible. They live in Balete
trees and do not allow humans to cut wood. They require sacrifices in the form of white
fowls or they bring sickness. (Ramos, 1971)
- 126 -
In Waray myth the aghoy are said to be fair haired, handsome creatures that resemble
twenty year old humans. They are barefoot and dress like ordinary villagers. They live in
forests and farms far away from towns. They are friendly to people and are useful guides
for those looking for lost things. (Ramos, 1971)
The Ibanag annani by contrast are not so friendly. When they are offended they must be
offered a fat hog, the uncooked head of a carabao, rice cakes, coconut milk, sugar,
bibingka, basi, cigars and a fee of a dozen betels. (Ramos, 1971)
6.7. Serpents
The serpents of Philippine myth are giant, snake life beings.
There is the buwaya, a creature in Tagalog folklore that is described as a saurian being.
There is an unnamed Ilonggo seven headed ‘dragon’ that made the earth tremble when it
walked out of its lair. (Ramos, 1971)
The marcupo or macupo of Hiligaynon tradition is a large snake with a red crest. It has a
long tongue with thornlike hairs and sharp tusks with a forked tail. IT expels a poison that
kills on contact. It resides in the highest mountains of the ancient province of Bulgas,
between Marapara and Canlaon. It sings sonorously on calm days. (Ramos, 1971)
- 127 -
6.8. Blood Drinkers
Philippine blood drinkers appear in human guises. As their name implies they subsist
mainly on the blood of human beings. The blood drinker aspect of the aswang is included
in this category.
The mandurugo of Tagalog folklore appear as beautiful females. Their victims are
unaware of their true nature. (Ramos, 1971)
The danag of the Isneg appear as humans but have a taste for blood. (Ramos, 1971)
6.9. The Corpse Eaters
The corpse eaters of Philippine myth, as the name implies subsist on dead human flesh.
Most functions of corpse eaters are attributed to the corpse eater aspects of the aswang
(see chapter 2). Pre-Hispanic Filipinos believed that when a person dies one must light
fires outside the house and to keep watch over the coffin of the deceased to ward away
the corpse eaters. (Loarca 1582 as cited in Ramos 1971)
Included in this category are the corpse eater aspects of the aswang and buso as
previously outlined.
- 128 -
The wir-wir of the Isneg takes items from the graves it digs up. It eats the corpses and is
said to be able to be placated by priests and the calag of the Ilonggos eats corpses.
(Ramos, 1971)
The Tinguians believe that the ebwa is kept at bay by fire or candlelight. It lingers near
newly dead corpses before it eats them. (Ramos, 1971)
The amaeanhig of the Aklanons are corpses that walk. Any person can turn into one if
they die without being baptized or if no family member claims their bodies. (Ruiz-
Mesina, 2014)
Amaeanhig by Jul Yan Espeleta
- 129 -
The balbal of the Tagbanuas is a man-like creature that can sail through the air in the
same manner as a flying squirrel. The balbal has curved nails and a long tongue. It uses
that elongated tongue to lick the corpse up, like a dog would. (Ramos, 1971)) It shares
some similarity with manananggal like creatures, though its preferred meals are not alive.
The segben or sigben of various Visayan groups are goat-like creatures that are hornless
and have wide, prominent ears. They are constantly surrounded by an unpleasant smell
that hastens the death of the sick. A person is said to die if the segben bites them or their
shadow. They also linger near newly dead corpses. (Ramos, 1971)
- 130 -
6.10. Manananggal
Manananggal by Jul Yan Espeleta
The manananggal are creatures that are usually female and that fly by leaving the lower half
of their bodies behind. They share some similarities with the viscera / fetus eater aswang
aspects.
- 131 -
The manananggal of Tagalog folklore is described as a beautiful, fair woman that can
detach the upper part of her body. Has wings and is capable of flight. A croaking flock of
crows signals its presence. Flies with or without the aid of magical ointments (chicken
droppings dissolved in coconut and mixed with human flesh and blood, kept in a bamboo
tube or in clay known as tibor/tibod.) This shares many similarities with aswang. They also
feed on the heart and liver of their victims and reside in houses and human communities. The
Bikol version of this creature is called the anananggal, also called the flying aswang. During
flight only its head and internal organs take to the air, while leaving the rest of the body on
the ground. (Ramos, 1971)
The Waray have two manananggal creatures that are described in the same way. The abat
and the awok fly with only the upper part of their body and have big, red, bulging eyes,
disheveled hair and long bony and clawed fingers they may fly with only their head and
hands. (Ramos, 1971)
Not all manananggal are exclusively female. The iqui of the Tagalog is described as a man
who can fly at night leaving half his body on the ground at his home and he has a long
tongue. He feeds on the livers of his victims, waits on the roofs of their houses and kills
sickly people through the means of a long tongue which penetrates the bowels, causing death.
(Ramos, 1971)
- 132 -
These creatures may also have bird like aspects. The boroka of the Ilokanos has wings like a
bird, the head of a woman or alternately a beautiful woman that can detach the lower portion
of her body. She can transform into a bird. She cannot reattach her body if ashes and a
mixture of salt and vinegar is placed on her lower half. She eats the hearts and livers of her
victims and prefers human children and is fond of their livers. She may abduct young humans
and keep them as housekeepers, feeding them flesh and liver. The mansalauan of Cebu is
described as a bird the size of an exceedingly large bat. Its eyes resemble red jewels and its
head that of a lizard while its tail had long hair like a human woman's. It has large wings and
a sharp tongue and large feet like a man and hands like a monkey's. (Ramos, 1971)
Boroka by Patricia Zulueta
- 133 -
Manananggal are blamed for the sudden death of sick people. The mangalos is said to eat the
entrails and organs of people. Those that are young that die from disease are said to be
victims of mangalos. The mangalok of the Ilonggos on the other hand has a special way of
getting their victims. They get their victims by waiting under the house where the sickly
patient is. They prefer sickly victims though babies and young children taste better to them.
The liver and rectum are their favorite parts. The female private organ is poison to them. If a
bedridden patient suddenly dies it is attributed to the mangalok. It comes in at night and pulls
out its victims entrails. The mangalok then transforms a banana stalk into the likeness of its
victims corpse and then perches on top of its victims coffin while bearers are carrying it,
laughing invisibly and nibbling on the liver of its victim. (Ramos, 1971)
The silagan of Catanduanes attack people clothed n white. They tear out the liver and eat it
and it tears the entrails through the anus. The wak-wak of Surigao feeds on the fetus of
pregnant women and drools at the sight of pregnant women. (Ramos, 1971)
- 134 -
6.11. Kapre
The Kapre are usually described as large, hairy men that live in Balete trees and smoke cigars.
There are a few variations on the creature in parts of the Philippines.
In Luzon the Kapre is described as a black creature with glassy eyes as large as plates. It lives in
Balete trees and can change size to be small or as large as a church tower. It chirps like a bird
and smokes a large cigar. (Ramos, 1971)
In the Visayas the ungo and bawo are both described as a large muscular man dressed only in a
loincloth. They punish by giving one big latik on the head or steal the firewood and basket of
clothes of their intended victim. They also smoke large pipes. (Ramos, 1971)
The Agta in Eastern Visayas is a black creature that is twice as tall as a normal man. It lives in
Santol trees, mangroves and swampy places. It also smokes. (Ramos, 1971)
Agta by Patricia Zulueta
- 135 -
6.12. Pugot
Pugot in Tagalog means one with his head cut off. This subset of halimaw deals with creatures of
this description.
The Pugot of the Ilokanos and Kapampangans is a black being that can assume different shoapes
and sizes. This can range to being as small as a baby or as large as an acacia tree. They are founf
in large deserted houses or trees, specifically the Santol, Dubat (Eugenia Cumini) and
Kalumpang (Sterculia foetida)trees. These creatures are not usually harmful. (Ramos, 1971)
Awan-ulo-na is literally translated as ‘headless one’ from Ilokano and is a headless humanoid
whose neck-stump bubbles and froths as he dances. It usually stays in trees and can change
shape. There is a creature with an identical description in Ifugao folklore called Numputul who
figures in the folktale Tulud Numputul: The Self Beheaded. (Ramos, 1971)
- 136 -
6.13. Tikbalang
The Tikbalang are equine shaped halimaw that are usually very dangerous to humans.
Tikbalang by Leandro Geniston
The Tikbalang of the Tagalog have human bodies but horse heads, long limbed, when
they sit their knees reach above their heads. They are also described as a 'tall thin black
man with a horse's head and terrible teeth'. They usually reside in nipa groves and lead
- 137 -
travelers astray by causing confusion or blindness. They can assume the shape of an old
man, a horse or a monster. They bring sickness and may kill humans. (Ramos, 1971)
The binangunan or binangenang of the Dumagat is a horse like creature with fire on its
back from head to tail. It lives in Balete trees or Sterculia foetida. They bring danger
sickness and death as punishment and are sighted around Mt. Pinatubo. Also sighted in
Mt. Pinatubo is the tulung or tuwung of the Zambales Negrito. They are horse like in
shape but they have clawed feet, long hair and large testicles. (Ramos, 1971)
Binangenang by Neil Lim
- 138 -
The bawa of Aklanon folklore is described as half man and half horse. It is attracted to
ueang (freshwater shrimp). It stalks people and if you sense you are being followed by
one, you must cross a body of water like a river or stream and it will stop following you.
(Ruiz-Mesina, 2014)
Bawa by Nica Mapeso
- 139 -
The mantabungal of Tagbanua myth has a cowlike body and voice but no horns. It has
shaggy coats of hair that hang to the ground. It has a monstrous mouth with tusk like incisors,
two on the top of its mouth and two below. (Ramos, 1971)
6.14. Multo
Multo are corporeal spirits much like the spirits of the forest or the Pugot, their forms are
different from each other and don’t have much in common except that they are described as
spirits that walk the earth.
In Zamboanga, among the Subanons there is the Thalon. There are two kinds the
Mhenamed Thalon and the Thamad Thalon. Both are dog-like creatures with the feet of a
human. Their 4 human feet point backwards and they walk the way a normal dog would, but
with those feet. Their fur is always black and their faces can range from human to beast-like.
Their appearance is the same whether male or female. The Mhenamad Thalon is the male
thalon and it does not necessarily harm its victims and it can be scared away with shouts. The
Thamad Thalon is the female Thalon, it is dangerous and may eat humans. (Gaverza, 2014)
The batibat in Ilokano folktales is a huge, fat woman that lives in large trees or posts. It is
sometimes called the ‘lady of the post’. It is seen in nightmares. (Ramos, 1971)
- 140 -
A Santelmo appears as a giant ball of moving fire that may change color. In Iloilo it is
described as coming from freshly spilled blood that is exposed to sunlight. Though it is made
of fire, it is still solid enough to be hit physically. (Solana, 2014)
White Ladies are one of the more prolific multo in contemporary Philippine folklore. They
are described as ghosts that have the form of women dressed in all white. In Ilocos they are
referred to as a kind of amang or ghost. In the Cagayan region they appear mostly on bridges
and cause trouble if no signal is given e.g. the blowing of the horn when a vehicle is passing.
(Mapagu, 2014)
Tan Mulong and his spirit dog are an old man and a dog with one mammary gland and two
sets of genitals in Bisaya belief. Tan Mulong is described as a bad spirit that captures souls
and puts them in a cave. (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, 1991)
- 141 -
Tan Mulong by Leandro Geniston
- 142 -
Spirit Dog of Tan Mulong by Leandro Geniston
The uko in Aklanon tales is a black creature with thick lips that are inside out that lives in
guava trees. (Ruiz-Mesina, 2014)
The dawendi’s height varies with the tree or building it inhabits. It goes about at night in
its home of Leyte. (Ramos, 1971)
- 143 -
6.15. Monstrous Humanoids
Monstrous humanoids are gigantic humans that have slight deformations and cannibalistic
tendencies that separate them from mundane Higante.
Some monstrous humanoids such as the kumao of the Ilokanos and the Isneg choose their
victims. The kumao, described as a very large man, takes children and bleeds them to death
by pulling their fingernails. The kurita of Maguindanao which lives in Mount Kabalalan not
only eats humans but also exterminates all animal life near it. (Ramos, 1971)
There are monstrous humanoids that have the power
to shapeshift. The Inlabbuut of the Ifugao can
transform himself into the shape of a handsome
youth to trick people is one of them. The Sir’ing of
the Bagobos, whose form is described as an ugly
man that has long nails and curly hair can appear in
different human forms. (Ramos, 1971)
These creatures are easily tricked and can be
defeated through mundane means. An unnamed
Kapampangan monstrous humanoid in the story
‘Suac and his Adventures’ could be killed by singing
his beard in a fire. The Binobaan of the Ifogao who
has a voice like thunder is easily tricked and can be

Sir'ing by Leandro Geniston
slain by weapons. (Ramos, 1971)
- 144 -
The ta-awi of the Maranao is described as being able to create a noise as loud as thunder
from its forest home. It also has supernatural speed that is said to be faster than the wind.
When killed, the undigested eyes of its victims can be cut out of its belly to restore its
victims to life. (Ramos, 1971)
Other monstrous humanoids include the tagamaling of the Bagobos that switches
between beneficient deity and man-eating monster it turns monstrous between the full
moon and the new moon, the tarabusao of the Maguindanao and Maranao that lives in
mount Matutum, the tigbanua of the Bagobo and the burikay or buriay of the Isneg.
(Ramos, 1971)
6.16. Bird-like Monstrous humanoids
- 145 -
As their name implies, these mythological creatures have the general form of humans
with bird like characteristics or birds with human like characteristics.
The bannog, ban-og or banog of Tinguian, Isneg and Ilokano groups in northern Luzon
is a bird shaped creature. They are large creatures, large enough to darken the sky when
they fly overhead. Their young are as large as an adult human. They live in large trees or
on cliffsides. They are strong enough to lift a carabao, but they are easily outwitted. They
are very protective of their young. They are dangerous creatures, said to eat people.
(Ramos, 1971)
The garuda of the Maranao, derived from the Indian avatar of Vishnu, is a gigantic half-
man, half-bird with a golden body, white face and red wings. It has the ability to
transform into a full human form or a full bird form. The garuda is an enemy of serpents.
While it is intelligent and can be reasoned with or flattered, it is a hunter and eater of
human beings. It has a keen sense of smell that it uses to hunt less attractive human
beings for sport or for meals. In Maranao folklore the garuda lives in either an underwater
realm or in a magnificent house in a cave on the summit of a mountain. In these stories
the usual activity of the garuda is to steal Maranao princesses. (Ramos, 1971)
7. Conclusion
- 146 -
The presentation of Philippine myths and the organization of Philippine mythological
creatures presented here is meant more as a reference so that others may find a source
that would show the complexity of Philippine mythology.
As seen in the semantic deconstructions, there are many outside influences that affect a
mythological creature. The Aswang, in its bloodsucking aspect is a carryover of
European vampires while in its viscera eater aspect it recalls pre-Hispanic myth.
The myths of the Philippines are still changing, new halimaw such as the white lady
continues to add to the annals of mythological creatures. Christianized versions of myths
also add a new dimension to indigenous folklore.
Philippine higher mythology has an incredibly detailed and complex method of imparting
the myth, and all facets of the reality that the myth was a part of needs to be understood
to get the context of the divine.
Philippine lower mythology was organized in a way which hopefully took into account
the nuances present in the Philippine context.
8. Bibliography and Works Cited
- 147 -
(1974). Philippine Sociological Review, pp. 91-116.
Alacacin, C. (1952). The Gods and Goddesses. Historical and Cultural Data of Provinces.
Almendral, E. C. (1972). Talubin Folklore, Bontoc, Mountain Province. Baguio City: Lyceum of
Baguio.
Arcilla, A. M. (1923). The Origin of Earth and of Man. Ethnography of the Bikol People, vii.
Barton, R. F. (1955, December). A Collection of Igorot Legends. Sagada Social Studies.
Bascom, W. (1965). The Forms of Folklore: Prose Narrative. Journal of American Folklore(78),
3-20.
Benedict, L. W. (1913). Bagobo Myths. Journal of American Folklore, pp. 26 (99): 13-63.
Benedict, L. W. (1916). A Study of Bagobo Ceremonial Magic and Myth . Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences, XXV.
Bermejo, J. (n.d.). Amanikable.
Bermejo, J. (n.d.). Idla.
Bermejo, J. (n.d.). Mayari and Laho.
Beyer, H. O. (1913). Origin Myths Among the Mountain Peoples of the Philippines. Philippine
Journal of Science, 85-117.
Beyer, H. O. (1923). Ethnogrphy of the Bikol People. vii.
Buenabora, N. P. (1975). Pag-aaral at Pagsalin sa Pilipino ng mga Kaalamang-Bayan ng Bikol

at ang Kahalagahan ng mga Ito sa Pagtuturo ng Pilipino sa Bagong Lipunan. National
Teacher's College.
Buyser, F. A. (1913). Mga Sugilanong Karaan. Tomo I. Pinasidaanan ni Vicente R. Rama , p. 39.
Cabe, N. (n.d.). Intumbangol.
Casal, G. (1978). The T'boli Creation Myth and Religion. T'boli Art: in its Socio-Cultural
Context, pp. 122-123.
Casal, G. S. (1977). Folk Heavens. Filipino Heritage, II.
Cawed, C. (1972). The Culture of the Bontoc Igorot. Manila: MCS Enterprises .
Chiu, N. (n.d.). Baua.
- 148 -
Chiu, N. (n.d.). Ibabasag.
Chiu, N. (n.d.). Lampong.
Chiu, N. (n.d.). Maguyaen.
Cole, F. C. (1956). The Bukidnon of Mindanao. Fieldiana Anthropology, XLVII.
Cole, M. C. (1916). Philippine Folk Tales . Chicago: A.C. McClurg and Co. .
Concepcion, M. (n.d.). Kabigat.
Cruz, E. C. (1933, January). Philippine Ogres and Fairies. Philippine Magazine, XXIX, pp. 349-
50, 374 .
De Vera, P. (n.d.). Baconaua.
De Vera, P. (n.d.). Palasekan.
Demetrio, F. R., Cordero-Fernando, G., & Zialcita, F. N. (1991). The Soul Book. Quezon City:
GCF Books.
Deza, H. (1931). How the Islands of Zapotes, Pan de Azucar, Paragua, Gigantes and Siete
Pecados Originated. Philippine Journal of Education(14), 270.
Dimaculangan, B. (n.d.). Bakunawa.
Emery, L. (2005, June 5). The Splitting of Religion and Magic . Retrieved December 13, 2014,
from mytho-logos.net:
http://concurrentbeing.net/pdf/Split%20Religion_Magic%20%20Science%202_14_07.pd
f
Espeleta, J. Y. (n.d.). Amaenhig.
Espeleta, J. Y. (n.d.). Mahomanay.
Espeleta, J. Y. (n.d.). Manananggal.
Espeleta, J. Y. (n.d.). Oribig.
Espeleta, J. Y. (n.d.). Tahamaling.
Eugenio, D. L. (2001). Philippine Folk Literature: The Myths. Quezon City: The University of
The Philippines Press.
Fansler, D. S. (1921). 1965 Filipino Popular Tales. Hatboro, Pennsylvania: Folklore Assosciates
Inc. .
- 149 -
Fansler, D. S. (1922). Manuscript Collection on Philippine Folktakes.
Figueras, A. (1977). Iloko Folk Literature. M.A. Thesis UP.
Fox, R. B. (1977). Tagbanua Heaven. Filipino Heritage, II.
Fox, R. B. (1982). Religion and Society Among the Tagbanuas of Palawan Island, Philippines.
Manila: National Museum .
Gana, E. (n.d.). Puok.
Garvan, J. M. (1931). The Manobos of Mindanao. Memoirs of the National Academy of Science,
23.
Gatan, R. M. (1981). Ibanag Indigenous Religious Beliefs . Manila: Centro Escolar University
Research and Development Center.
Gaverza, J. K. (2014). The Terror of the Thalon. Retrieved 2014, from

https://www.academia.edu/9822122/The_Terror_of_the_Thalon
Geniston, L. (n.d.). Sir'ing.
Geniston, L. (n.d.). Spirit Dog of Tan Mulong .
Geniston, L. (n.d.). Tambanakaua.
Geniston, L. (n.d.). Tan Mulong.
Geniston, L. (n.d.). Tikbalang.
Hart, D., & Hart, H. (1956). Collecting Folktales in Eastern Samar, Philippines. Silliman
Journal, III, pp. 207-236.
Hill, P. (1934). Philippine Short Stories. Manila: Oriental Commercial Company.
Isleta, P. (n.d.). Neguno.
Isleta, P. (n.d.). Ob-Obanan.
Isleta, P. (n.d.). Sappia.
Iturralde, E. (1973). The Religion of the Hanunoo Mangyans of Southern Mindanao . Manila :
University of Santo Tomas Graduate School .
Jenks, A. (1905). The Bontoc Igorot. Manila: Bureau of Printing.
Jocano, F. L. (1959, November). How the World Was Created. Philippine Independent, p. 38.
- 150 -
Jocano, F. L. (1967). The Sulod Myth of Creation. (M. Antonio, Ed.) Some Aspects of Filipino
Vernacular Literature, 292-293.
Jocano, F. L. (1968). Sulod Society. Quezon City: U.P. Press.
Jocano, F. L. (1969). Philippine Mythology. Quezon City: Capitol Publishing House Inc.
Jose, V. R. (1974). Creation and Flood Myths in Philippine Folk Literature. UP .
Levi-Strauss, C. (1978). Myth and Meaning. New York: Schocken Books .
Lieban, R. W. (1967). Cebuano Sorcery. Berkely: University of California Press .
Lim, N. (n.d.). Binangenang .
Llanes, J. (1956, January ). A Dictionary of Philippine Mythology. University of Manila Jornal

of East Asiatic Studies, V(1).
Loarca, M. d. (1582). Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas.
Locsin, E. (n.d.). Aswang.
Locsin, E. (n.d.). Kibaan.
Lopez, C. (1922). Folktales. In Fansler ms collection .
Lutero, C. D. (1986). Blaan Folk Literature. U.P. .
Lynch, F. X. (1949, December). An mga Asuwang: A Bikol Belief. Philippine Social Sciences
and Humanities Review, XIV, 401-427.
Madale, A. T. (1966). A Preliminary Study of Maranaw Folk Literature. MSU, Institute for
Philippine Culture .
Magaña, A. S. (1975). Mansaka Forms of Oral Literature. In F. Demetrio (Ed.). Cagayan de Oro
City : Xavier University .
Magos, A. (1986). The Ideological Basis and Social Context of Ma-aram Practice in Kinaray-a
Society. Quezon City: University of the Philippines .
Malay, P. C. (1956, October 26). The Rice Myth. Weekly Women's Magazine.
Malay, P. C. (1957, June 28). The First Shark. Weekly Women's Magazine.
Mallari, I., & Wilson, L. L. (1958). Tales from the Mountain Province. Manila: Philippine
Education Company.
Mallari, J. C. (2009). King Sinukwan Mythology and the Kapampangan Psyche. Coolabah, 3.
- 151 -
Manuel, A. (1982). On the Etymology of the Tagalog Word: Kaluluwa. St. Louis University
Research Journal, XIII(4).
Manuel, A. E. (1973). Origin Myth of the Manuvu. Filipino Heritage, I, 1-5.
Mapagu, T. (2014, December 3). (J. K. Gaverza, Interviewer)
Mapeso, N. (n.d.). Bawa.
Mckinnon, S. (1991). From a Shattered Sun: Hierarchy, Gender, and Alliance in the Tanimbar
Islands.
Moss, C. R. (1924). Nabaloi Tales. University of California Publications in American

Archaeology, 227-353.
Nurge, E. D. (1961, April). The Nature of the Supernatural in Four Myths from Guinhangdan,
Leyte, Philippines. Silliman Journal, VII, pp. 78-97.
Orlina, A. (n.d.). Ibu.
Padua, G. L. (1962, December 15). The Deluge. Philippine Free Press, 54.
Pavon, J. M. (1957). The Robertson Translation of the Pavon Manuscripts of 1838-1839.

Chicago: University of Chicago.
Peraren, A. A. (1966). Tinguian Folklore and how it Mirrors Tinguian Culture and Folklife.
University of San Carlos .
Piang, D. G. (1931). Moro and Pagan Legends of Mindanao. Philippine Magazine , pp. 27: 734,
28: 346-47.
Pionan, E. (2014, November 12). (J. K. Gaverza, Interviewer)
Quirino, C., & Garcia, M. (Eds.). (1958). The Manners, Customs, and Beliefs of the Philippine
Inhabitants of Long Ago, being chapters of a late 16th century Manila Manuscipt.
Ramos, M. D. (1971). Creatures of Lower Philippine Mythology. Quezon City: University of the
Philippines Press .
Rodriguez-DelaCruz, A. (n.d.). Maguyaen.
Rodriguez-DelaCruz, A. (n.d.). Son of the Sun God.
Ruiz-Mesina, M. F. (2014, July 8). (J. K. Gaverza, Interviewer)
Sambrano, G. (1958). A Study of the Representative Tales of Ilocos Note. FEU.
- 152 -
Saraman, S. A.-B. (1928, October). Moro Legend of the First Bird. American Chamber of
Commerce Journal, 9.
Scott, W. H. (1992). Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino. Quezon City: New Day Publishers .
Singson, T. (n.d.). Anagolay.
Solana, J. (2014, October 13). (J. K. Gaverza, Interviewer)
Tan, M. L. (1987). Revisiting Usog, Pasama, Kulam.
Unabia, C. C. (1986). THe Bukidnon Batbatonon and Pamuhay: A Socio-Literary Study. Quezon
City : UP Press.
Valmonte, T. (n.d.). Anitun Tabu.
Vanoverbergh, m. (1955). Isneg Tales. Folklore Studies, pp. 1-148.
Vibal, H. (1923). Asuang Steals Fire from Gugurang. Ethnography of The Bikol People, ii.
Wilson, L. L. (1947). Apayao Life and Legends. Baugio City: Private.
Yabes, L. Y. (1932, January). The Tale of a Philippine Gomorrah. Philippine Magazine, p. 405.
Zulueta, P. (n.d.). Agta.
Zulueta, P. (n.d.). Boroka.
Zulueta, P. (n.d.). Corpse Eater Buso.
Zulueta, P. (n.d.). Monstrous Humanoid Buso.
Zulueta, P. (n.d.). Tiyanak.
9. Appendix
- 153 -
9.1.1. APPENDIX A: Interview Transcript of Aklanon Data
Translated to English from Aklanon by Nica Mapeso
Biodata
Name: Maria Flores Ruiz-Mesina
Age: 78 years old
L1: Aklanon
Place of Origin: Kalibo, Aklan now but she grew up in Libacao, Aklan.
TIGAYON HILL
Tigayon Hill is situated in Barangay Tigayon in Kalibo, Aklan. This hill has a cave. This is a
story of what my mother had told us. I have a beautiful cousin who disappeared while she was
still a baby. One morning, her mother left her lying in a hammock while she went to their front
yard to dig some sweet potatoes for their breakfast. When she got back to the house, her baby
was nowhere to be found. Many years later, a relative found my lost cousin in Tigayon Hill.
Many people here believe that Tigayon Hill with its cave is enchanted and that it is the home of
fairies.
One story is that, many, many years ago, fairies that live in Tigayon Hill rendered help to people
near the place. Every time there is a celebration or local gatherings nearby the people borrowed
things they needed from the fairies in Tigayon Hill, from kitchenware to table utensils and other
things. Everything that the people borrowed from the fairies are all made of gold. Some people
who borrowed these things took interest and did not return what they borrowed from the fairies.
Years later, the things that the people borrowed that they did not return to the fairies, turned into
- 154 -
charcoal and the rest into ashes.
LIBACAO
A story about how my eldest sister was lost for 24 hours. This happened in my hometown,
Libacao, Aklan when my sister was around 7 or 8 years old. Every day, at 6pm, my eldest sister
goes to our neighbor’s house which is around then meters away from ours, to get our share of
tuba wine from them. She usually returns home at around 6:30pm. But one night, my eldest sister
was not able to return home. We let the doors of our house remain open for my eldest sister to
come home at any time of the night.
Early at dawn, my parents gathered our workers to help us search for my eldest sister but she was
nowhere to be found. Most of our workers have given up looking for her when afternoon came.
But my mother never gave up, she continued looking for her and after a while, she found my
eldest sister a few meters form our house. She is trying to wash her hair under the waterfalls near
our house. My mother hugged her tightly and brought her back home. My mother kept talking to
her and asked her questions but my sister kept her mouth shut. My mother served her food and
while my mother was feeding her, my sister was sweating vigorously but she was still not
talking. My mother kept on asking her questions and never stopped talking to her. A few minutes
after she finished her food, my sister was finally able to talk. She told my mother that she was
just around the house but she couldn’t call back when everyone was calling out her name. My
mother has walked by her many times while looking for her. My sister said she just wanted to
touch my mother but she could not move. When my mother found her, she said she was trying to
wash her hair because they felt like wires. It turns out she spent the night on the big root of our
- 155 -
duhat tree a few meters away from the house.
IDAEMONON
A creature that lurks underneath the ground that pokes its fingers through the ground every 6am
and 6pm. It is believed that if you step on its finger, you could get sick. It is also believed that
sometimes, when the idaemonon decides to come out of the ground, it tends to hide some of your
things.
UKO
As a child, my grandmother climbed a guava tree by the spring in Libacao. And as she was about
to go down, she saw a black creature with really thick inside-out lips, staring up at her.
BAWA
A centaur that runs around the forest of Libacao. It is said to be attracted to ueang (fresh water
shrimp). If you sense that you are being followed by one, you must cross a body of water, like a
river or stream in order to make it stop following you.
AMAEANHIG
They are basically zombies. But it is believed that a person can turn into one after death if they
were not baptized or no family members claim the dead body.
9.1.2. APPENDIX B: Transcript of Interviews with Jeinfer Solana
- 156 -
Biodata:
Name: Jenifer Solana
Age: 35 years old
L1: Hiligaynon
Place of origin: Iloilo city
Interview 1
J: Doon sa Iloilo may isang lugar doon na tinatawag na Dueñas. Yung lugar na iyon lugar ng
isang kaklase ko noong college ako. Ininvite niya kami ng kasal ng kapatid niya, tapos [sa--]
araw ng sabado iyon pumunta kami sa kanila kasi Sunday ang kasal. Doon kami natulog. Hindi
naming alam na yung pamilya pala nila may lahi pala sila ng aswang, mayaman sila, maganda,
marami silang, malaki ang lupa nila [uh, ano] may sasakyan sila. Noong doon kami natulog,
nagulat kami parang lahat ng tao doon di natutulog, parang ang kusina nila parating may
naghihiwa-hiwa, parang may fiesta. Yung isa kong kaklase bumangon. Sabin g isa kong kaklase
na ‘punta nga ako doon, ano kaya nangyari doon sa kanila?’ pumunta siya sa labas, nagulat kami,
hindi na siya bumalik kasi natakot pala. Umalis siya, tumakbo siya, sabi namin ‘san na kaya ‘yun
‘di na siya bumalik’. Yung isa ko nanamang kaklase, lumabas. Paglabas niya nagulat siya parang
maya no daw, may tao daw na and nakita niya doon kamay ng isang tao na hiniwa-hiwa. Ayon
hindi kami naniwala lahat-lahat kami baka joke lang niya ‘yun. [Eh] Yung kinaumagahan, noong
kasal na ‘yun. Paglabas naming sabi naming ‘bakit malansa ditto? Ang lansa naman ng lahat
lahat ng mga kutsara nila. Lahat lahat malansa. Ngayon may nakipagsabi sa amin na “ay bakit
nandito kayo? “. “Bakit po?” “Eh kasi, yung pamilya nila sinasabi yan ditto sa lugar naming na
pamilya daw sila ng mga aswang”. Sabi naming “Oo Talaga?” Hindi kami naniwala, kasi nga
[magaga--] maganda sila eh, ang gaguapo, [ba’t] lahat lahat nasa kanila na eh. Tapos sabi naman
- 157 -
ng isang kaklase ko din na ‘ay ganun pala? Di ala habang ano ayoko nang kumain kasi ‘yan
narinig ko na ‘yun sabi nila aswang aswang aswang aswang. Yung nanay niya, titig ng titig sa
amin kasi iba na yung reaction namin [ganun]. Alam mo ginawa sa amin? Kinulung kami sa
isang kwarto, kinulung kaming tatlo, tatlo nalang kasi kami kasi yung isa umalis noong gabi na
iyon nung nakita niya na ay tao daw doon sa kusina na inaano nila--- hiniwa-hiwa. Ngayon,
pagkulong sa amin, hinanap naming yung kaklase namin, sabi namin ‘palabasin niyo po kami
kasi uuwi na kami’. Sabi nung nanay niya ‘Di kayo pwede lumabas dito.’ Ang ginawa ng nanay
niya parang yung nanay niya nagiba ng mukha , humaba yung buhok tapos [uhh] nakakatakot
talaga [yung ano] yung mukha ng nanay niya. Sabi namin ‘Nako nakakatakot naman talaga dito’,
sabing ganon. Eh yung isa kong kaklase sabi niya ‘uwi na po kami, tulungan niyo po kami
magpalabasin niyo lang kami dito. Nag-pause yung nanay niya humaba yung buhok, alam mo
yung buhok dito [gesturing towards arms] lumulupot na sa katawan namin, talagang ano na kami
sa katawan namin na nakapulupot na hanggang yung isang kaklase namin nandito [points to
neck] na yung buhok’. Ang ginawa ng isang kaklase namin, naalala niya yung sabi ng lola niya
na yung langis dawn g mga aswang nasa kilikili. Nahawakan niya yung nanay ng kaklase namin
ginanyan [grabbing motion] niya yung kilikili paganun, hinila. Paghila nikta yung langis na
kaunti, maliit na yung langis, maliit-liit lang doon sa kilikili. Tapos sabi ng isang kaklase ‘yung
sa singit niya, kunin mo din yung [kunin mo din yung] isang langis, diyan ‘yan’. Ayon nakuha
ng isang kaklase ko. Naging pusa yung nanay niya [naging pusa yung nanay niya]. Tapos, sabi
namin ‘Manong, manong tulungan mo kami’. Kasi may matanda na dumaan, doon kami
kinulong sa may [ano] ng palay nila eh, parang bodega. [Doon kami kinulong]. Tapos tamang-
tama may dumaan na mama sabi namin ‘manong, aswang yata ‘yan oh’. Di tinakpan siya ng
isang basket, [yung parang basket na ano tinakpan siya doon]. Pagtakip, kinumagahan na, that
- 158 -
morning na aalis na kami kasi tinulungan na kami ng mama. Pag-alis namin, sabi nung [ano] kasi
may taga na yung pusa dito, may sugat na siya. Binuksan, pagbukas nanay pala ng kaklase namin
na [na ano] nataga na nung [nataga na nung] klase namin ay yung mama na dumaan nanay niya
pala yun. Sabi niya ‘maawa po kayo, huwag niyong ipagsasabi na kami, pamilya ng isang
aswang. Kasi nakakahiya. Kilalang-kilala po kami sa lugar na ito pero walang nakakaalam na
kami ang isang pamilya ng aswang’
Ayan Karl, yun ang kwento na nagging experience ko din doon sa Iloilo na pinuntahan namin.
Interview 2
Interviewer: Ano yung full name mo?
Jenifer: aa, Jenifer, Jenifer Solana
I: Um, ano yung mother language mo?
J: ah, Ilonggo
I: um, ah, san yung lugar?
J: Doon sa Iloilo pero yung main na lugar na [na] pinuntahan naming ay Dueñas.
I: Dueñas
J: Oo, isang barrio yun doon sa lugar ng Iloilo
I : Duwenyas ?
J : Oo, parang town siya
I: Ok, [ah] San ka galling sa Iloilo, sa za-
J: Sa Iloilo talaga proper, sa city
I : Ah, sa city proper ok um, may iba ka bang alam na tawag sa aswang?
J: Meron, mga ah, Tiktik mga ganun, tapos yung--- kasi noon din noong mallit pa ako Karl may
na-experience din ako about [uh, uhhh] Santelmo
- 159 -
I: Santelmo?
J: Oo, alam mo ba yun?
I: Oo
J: Oo. Mga grade 6 ako kasi yung lupa ng lolo ko nandoon din sa bukid parang barrio. Ngayon
kaming magpipinsan na apat pupunta kami doon kasi maghaharvest kami ng mais. Sabin ng lolo
ko ‘sige punta kayo doon’ eh Friday iyon ng hapon pumunta kami doon. Eh may nadaanan kami
na lake na maraming kawayan pero malayo pa yung mga bahay kasi pumunta kami doon.
Ngayon malayo pa doon sa bandang ibabaw may nakita kami parang na gumagalaw parang
ganyan [gestures a flickering motion] akala naming may nagsusunog. Ngayon di palapit na kami
na palapit gulat kami yung ano [yung] ilaw parang [yung] ilaw parang nagging bola. Tapos iba
na yung kulay [iba iba na yung kulay]. Ngayon di palapit na nang palapit, sabi ng pinsan ko ‘ay
nako santelmo ‘yan’ di kinilabutan na talaga kami sabi ko ‘nako, ano gagawin natin dito’ sabi
niya ‘huwag lang kayo maingay dadaan lang tayo diyan. Eh medyo umuulan, umaambon-ambon,
kasi lalabas daw ‘yon sabi ng lola ko noon na lumalabas day iyon pag umaambon-ambon. Eh
iyon, pagdating talaga namin sa ‘yon, lumaki yung [ano] apoy. Lumaki yung apoy tapos ibaiba
na yung kulay niya. Sinipa ng pinsan ko. Pagsipa ng pinsan ko sabi ng apoy ‘aray’ parang
gumanon. Tumakbo kami yung isa nasa ibabaw pa ng bahay ng lola ko, ako doon sa may mga
kapetan, taniman ng kape. Wala na—nagkanuano na kami kung saan lang kani nagpunta. Tapos,
nung pag-ano, Pagdating naming sa bahay ng lola ko kasi ano pa e, walang kuryente doon e,
petromax lang. Pagdating naming, sinabi naming na may santelmo doon. Sabin g lola ko kasi
daw may binaril daw doon sa—yung may santelmo doon binaril daw noong mga two weeks ago
daw, parang yung dugo natuyuan na tapos na-arawan, kaya nagsasantelmo. Sabi ng lola ko.
Interview 3
- 160 -
I: Dogong?
J: Oo Dogong, doon sa Iloilo, yung lugar doon sa Oton
I: Oton?
J: Oo, yung Oton beach. Yun, maganda yung mga beach diyan. ‘Yang Oton na iyan may isang
ano diyan [may isang] parang beach din siya na wala—walang katao-tao kasi maraming
natatakot diyan kasi may engkanto daw diyan, ganyan may nakatira daw diyan. Kasi ang mga
barko diyan na dumadaan sa bandang lugar na iyan sa Oton parang may nakatita sila na taklobo.
Alam mo yung taklobo Karl? Yung pearl na gumaganyan [opening and closing motion] na
malaki, oo. Marami nang barko diyan na sumasyayad kasi akala nila pier na eh yun pala yung
taklobo pala, taklobo kasi yan sa Ilonggo, yung taklobo na yan, yan pala ang nagpapaliwanag sa
lugar na yan. Ngayon, sabi ng iba, may dogong daw diyan nakatira. Yung dogong yung parang
sirena, sirena din ‘yan pero ano malaking sirena yan, malaking sirena.
I: Ano yung anyo niya?
J: Uhh, malaki siya Karl na malaki ang ulo niyon eh, yung dogong na ‘yon eh.
I: Ahh, ulo ng tao, ulo ng isda?
J: Ulo ng tao siya. Pero ang kalahati niya dogong yan. Yan ang nagbabantay ng taklobo diyan na
ang laki ng perlas. Pero sa araw hindi mo makikita yan. Once lang na dadaan ung barko diyan
akala nila [ano pero maraming isda talaga diyan. Maraming tao diyan ang nalulunod kasi
kumbaga [kapalit ng] pag dumadaan ka diyan parang may kapalit ang maraming tao na
nalulunod diyan pag naliligo ka.
9.1.3. APPENDIX C: Transcript of Interviews with Reynaldo Mapagu
Biodata
Name: Reynaldo Mapagu
- 161 -
Age: 58 years Old
L1: Ibanag
Place of Origin: Tugegarao
Interview 1
Reynaldo: I am Reynaldo Battu Mapagu I’m from Tugegarao I’m 58 years old. [I uh]. I speak
Ibanag [uh] that’s my mother tongue.
Interviewer: Okay
Interview 2
Reynaldo: So I had [ah] actually three experiences on my part [uh] I’ll just [uh] take off from
what [uh] Tita Tess related a while ago [uh] yung mga existence ng mga white ladies all those
[ano uh] it’s actually if you [you] talk to drivers of those [uh plying], bus drivers I mean ha
plying Manila-Tugegarao o Cagayan or Cagayan-Manila. They would advise you always that if
you drive [uh] say even your own personal cars or vehicals na bubusina ka pag dumadaan ka sa
tulay ganyan and and nagkaroon na din ako ng experience [ah I think it’s maybe if I’m not
wrong if I’m not mistaken it’s the same bridge that your tita was saying because I was then
assigned in Isabella so I had friends there so we went to [uh] to Santiago because Santiago is the
center of [uh] nightlife in ano [in] Isabella at that time. That was [ah] I think 1983 or 84 [ah
thereabouts. So on our way home, gabi na, uh we were from Santiago to kawayan because we
were based in kawayan so dadaan ka ng Ityage. Noong we were riding a mini cruiser ha but it
was painted civilian color. So when we were [ano] when we passed the bridge sabi namin “O, o,
hindi tayo bumusina, hindi tayo nag ano ha. Baka magtampo yung ano doon.” [Ganyan, ganyan].
Alam mo huminto yung jeep namin for no apparent reason it just [ano] the engine stopped
running we don’t know what’s wrong with it. So we had to ask for [uh] somebody, a mechanic
- 162 -
from our office to rescue us, ganyan, ang tagal namin naghihintay kumbaga sa ano [uh] hindi
namin alam kung ano ‘to ha but [ah] after ano hindi malaman kung ano yung diperensya eh and
then after a long long while bigla nalang on its own noong ginanun namin ano, wala naman
kaming inanao ha, basta noong ipinandar namin biglang umandar [per--] pero noong una ayaw
talaga kahit anong ginawa namin. Ano, sabi nga namin eh, sana ano [eh] hindi tayo, hindi siya
nagtampo ganyan ganyan sabi namin noong ano, sorry nalang, ginanun namin pero [ano] tapos
umandar yung vehicle. So that’s the first [ano] I think it’s the same bridge na sinasabi ng tita mo
if I’m not mistaken kasi sa Ityage yun na yung bridge an ano eh na yun din ang sabi ng [uh] first
degree cousin ko na driver ng Pantranco bus noong araw, aircon bus, na “dito lagi kaming
bumubusina” that’s the same bridge that your tita was talking about.
Reynaldo: And then yung experience ng ano kong ito ng first degree cousin kong babae. She was
staying with us at home in Tugegarao, so we live along Zamora street in Tugegarao. So [they
were] they are from Camalaniugan which is farther north of Tugegarao [ah] so they [they] stayed
with us to study in St. Paul’s University sa Tugegarao. At that time it was still St. Paul College of
Tugagarao [uh] ano ‘to, babae tong pinsan ko elder sa akin so I was in high school? [tama ba ako
high school] and [uh] basta nagkaroon lang siya ng sakit na hindi mo maintindihan, parang she’s
[uh] out of her mind na parang ganun parang naloloko na siya so my mother was concerned, very
concerned because, she stays with us [she’s staying with us] and syempre cargo siya ng mother
ko so nahihiya ang mother ko kung mangyaring hindi maganda o masama o mangyaring
masama sa kanya eh syempre ano ng kapatid niya. Kasi ang kapatid ng mother ko yung mother
nila so my mother sensing that you know [ah] medicine, yung doctor of medicine ganun
[walang] parang hindi siya gumagaling pinuntahan niya yung lolo ko. Ang lolo ko is [ah]
actually lolo ko in the sense na kapatid siya ng [uh] paternal grandfather ko ano ‘to magaling
- 163 -
mag- [mag-ah] maggamot ang story naman ng lolo ko na ‘yon, just to give you a background of
[ah] why he got this ano ba, pagiging magaling sa panggagamot, [uh] ano ‘to eh [um] medyo
matanda na noong time na ‘yon, o matanda na sila may kaibigan siyang matalik na best friend
nito na nag-aano sila, nag sasabong ganyan ganyan and namatay ito pero yung best friend niya
ito na lagi niyang kasama nagsasabong magaling manggamot namatay itong [ano niya itong]
kaibigan niya. Parang sabi nung kaibigan niya parang isasalin sa kanya yung galling niya. Hindi
naman alam ng lolo ko eh so my grandfather actually parang namatay. Namatay in the sense na
hindi na siya [ano] so binurol siya eh hindi pa naman uso noon yung embalmment [embalming]
di pa uso noon eh yung overnight lang pala yung patay noon eh tapos following day ililibing. So
nakalagay lang siya sa nang ganun then biglang bumangon siya, humingi ng tubig, ganyan tapos
sinabi o, di nag takbuhan yung mga tao [sa] so tapos nagkwento siya [uh] he dreamt about [yung]
the whole body structure pati ilong, ganyan ganyan so doon siya nag-istart na [ano na]
manggamot but pag naggamot pala siya, kung may problem aka halimbawa may pilay ka or what
may reklamo ka may dinadasal siya eh. [Ang] kung ang rinereklamo mo paa mo o kamay mo o
whatever part of your body or parts of your body hindi siya [hindi lang yun] ang gagalwain niya.
Sisimulan ka niya sa ulo then pababa yan hanggang paa kasi connected lahay ‘yan sabi niya
ganyan. So, ang mother ko, tinawagan siya, [uh ah] pinuntahan [ah] pinapunta sa bahay. So
ginamot niya yung [ano yung] cousin ko na babae tapos sabi niya “alam mo” sabi niya “meron
ba kayo ano dito? [uh] Langka tree sabi niya na somewhere dito inside there” “Ay meron ata”
sabi ng [Tatang tawag sa kanya] “Andyan sa ano, diba may ano kayo doon may kubeta doon.
“ Alam mo yung kubeta noong araw na iyon yung ano lang. “O, doon siya na ano” sabi ng ano,
meron siyang naapakan doon eh ang naapakan niya Kalinga, he is a Kalinga eh “ang Kalinga
matatapong yan” sabi niya “ang tapang nun, parang [ano tawag dito uh] matapang, [ma-] yung
- 164 -
anong may term siya noon na sinasabi eh pag nagalit galit na galit talaga eh na napagalit nang
husto ganun ang inano niya doon sa [sa ano ko sa] cousin ko. So gusto niyang [ano] usually
ganun sabi niya gagawin siyang ano eh luka luka. So awa ng Diyos, [ano] gumaling yung [ano]
[yung ano ko]. May inoffer lang siya ganyan, at least meron nag-ooffer siya doon sa malapit sa
lugar doon sa place. ‘yon [ah] gumaling siya. Gumaling yung [ano] You believe it or not
talagang gumaling [ano ko at nakikita ko kasi bata pa ako eh.
R: And then I had my [oh] And that’s the second one then the third one I had my own, personal
experience. Ah eto. Elementary ako so [ah] usually kasi [uh] every Sunday ‘yan, morning mass
kami [ah] Roman Catholic kami so morning mass, uwi kami. [uh] doon sa ano noong hapon na
‘yun na Sunday after lunch usually [pinapa-] nap kami nang mother ko kahit one hour ganyan.
So nag nap kami nang usual time. Noong bumangon ako sabi ko “mama may nararamdaman
ako” sabi niya “bakit” “eto, may mumps na ako dito may mumps ako” Tiningnan ni mama so
akala niya yung mumps na ano yung makukuha lang sa yung gamot na alam natin noong araw
yung may kulay yung violet ba ‘yun o yung nakalimutan ko yung name ng gamot na ‘yan eh
pero di gumagaling. So Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday tapos meron pa akong ringworm dito so
nilalagyan namin ng salicylic acid tumutuklap naman yung skin yung outer skin ‘yan diba.
Tumutuklap naman pero bumabalik siya. So nagano na yung mother ko nagduda na for three
days nagano. Fourth day [ah] concerned na siya tinawagan niya ulit yung lolo ko the same na
lolo ko [na ano]. Ang sabi ng lolo ko pagpasok [papun-] pagbaba niya ng kalesa, kasi kalesa
yung uso noon wala pang tricycle eh [wala pang ano] doon palang sa gate namin eh, alam na
niya ang lakas ng [sinasabi niya]. Tapos sa akin pagdating niya sa bahay sabi niya dun sa mother
ko ‘Memay itong anak mo’ Ibanag na, he was speaking in Ibanag “itong anak mo ay nakulam”
[ah] “siguro kanina meron nandito, nandito lang siya [uh] neighbor lang niyo siya nasa
- 165 -
neighborhood” sabi niya “eh nakita yung anak mo [uh] parang hinipa nalang siya ganun, pero
ano itong anak mo” sabi niya [uh] [maraming cute daw kasi ako noon sabi niya ganun, ah she
wants [babae iyon matanda na] she wants to destroy my face kaya meron pala akong ringworm
dito [gestures at face] “lalaki iyon” sabi niya. Yung mumps ko pala para matangal mga ngipin ko
[papatanggal ng ngipin ko] ganun nalang. So ginawa niya “so kinulam siya” sabi niyang ganun,
[ah] so may ano siya may dasal siya tapos hinilot-hilot niya nga ako. Ang nakukuha niya rito
[points where his mumps were] believe it or not hindi lang yung sand yung [anong tawag diyan
sand] buhangin kundi may mga tinik pa, buhook, tinik, mga ganyan. Eh yung kamay niya oil
lang yun eh may oil siyang dala tapos ipapahid niya ganun, tapos mamaya o ayan. Hindi ko rin
alam talagang just as suddenly yung ginagamot ko na dito [gestures to face] nawala tapos ito
nawala rin yung ano [yun]. So yun yung binigay niya na reason [uh] actually nandito lang yun
eh, [uh sabi] Ang tanong lang ng mother ko pati ako naman curious din ako sabi “Paano ikaw ba
basta kursonada ka o tinatarget ka” usually daw napapaniginpan nila eh napapaniginpan nila
yung target nila tapos [yun oh] tapos they have means either yung salubungin ka either hawakan
ka o hiipan ka niya ganyan yung ang ano nila o may gagawin sila at mahirap daw mamatay sila
sabi ni lolo ang hirap mamatay [ng] matatagal yung mga ‘yan kasi hindi sila mamamatay unless
na maitransfer nila ‘yun sa iba and the only way you can, ano, maano mo yun, ma check mo is
yung parang bato na lalabas sa kanila [uh] alam mo yung ano ng papaya? Diba parang tube yun
diba yung ilalagay eh ilagay mo sa sika sa fire kasi ‘yun, tatalon ‘yun eh kung itapon mo lang
yun sa fire na ‘yun tatalon ‘yan eh. Tapos yung pagbibigyan nun parang napili rin eh. Na
pupunta nalang doon [sa]. So ganun ang kwento ng lolo ko.
- 166 -
Interviewer: May tawag—My specific bang tawag sa mangkukulam sa area niyo? O
mangkukulam lang?
R: Hindi, eh [uh] ano ‘yon?
Tess Mapagu: Mannamay
R: Minatamay. Minnatamay.
I: Minnatamay
R: Oo, Sa Ibanag iyon.
T : Sa amin Mannamay.
R : Mannamay sa ano oo. So kung victim ka nattamay ka. Oo, sabi namin sa Ibanag, nattamay.
I : So yung kulam, tamay ?
R & T: Tamay.
R: Yes.
9.1.4. APPENDIX D: Transcript of Interview with Princess Pionan
Biodata
- 167 -
Name: Princess Puyal Pionan
Age: 26 years old
L1: Bisaya
Place of Origin: DIgos, Davao Del Sur
Interview 1
Princess: One of our favorites din na inuulit-ulit ng mom ko, it was originally happened from
Bansalan, Davao del Sur. Since she was [uh] grade school meron siyang best friend na
Concordia yung pangalan and then palagi siyang iniinvite sa bahay nila without [uh] actually
having a doubt na may [may] lahi daw sila ng aswang. So yung ginawa ng mom ko punta lang
siya ng punta doon, naglaro sila like casual friends, tapos yung ordinary play na ginagawa ng
mga bata. Pero yung last na pagbalik niya kasi wala silang school, hindi niya [ina-] iniisip na
[uh] magiging totoo yung sinasabi ng ibamg tao na ang pamilya ng kaibigan niya ay pamilya ng
mga aswang. So ang ginawa ng family ng friend ng mama ko nagkaroon sila ng interes na
patayin nila ang mother ko. Tapos [ah] noong day na iyon, habang naglalaro sila, [ah] binigay
nila lahat ng mga fruits na nandoon sa yard nila since mahilig sa prutas yung mother ko, binigyan
siya ng sobrang gaganda ng mga prutas ng santol at langka. Tapos [ah] naglaro sila the whole
day and hindi namalayan ng mama ko na sobrang gabi na pala noong nag takipsilim na sabi ng
ano[sabi ng] tao na “O, sige pwede ka nang umuwi” So that’s the moment na lumabas siya, nag
exit na siya ng bahay. Pero, without noticing, na parang nag-[nag-] karoon na ng hexing taops
yung nagyari sabi ng mama ko “I’ve been walking very long time, per bakit ganun” akala niya
nandoon na siya sa bahay nila pero nothing happens. Pagtingin niya nandoon pa rin siya sa lugar
ng friend niya and then noong ano na noong [pag-a] pagrecognize niya na I’m still at the same
place parang hindi na maganda tapos nakakarinig na siya ng mga loud chopping sounds nagging
- 168 -
busy na day yung kusina tapos yung mga tao alive na alive na noong gabi na iyon. Pero parang
kinakabahan na siya kasi bakit ganun, parang redundant na yung pangyayari, paulit-ulit lang
siya. And [uh] parang thank god talaga kasi na-notice ng family ng mother ko na ayon wala pa
rin siya ng hatinggabi na and then siguro somebody told them na nandoon siya sa specific house
na iyon ng friend niya and then iyon, ang ginawa nung[nung] family ng mother ko, sina lolo at
lola, talaga yung holos buong kamag anak namin sinama nila doon sa [ah] sa sasakyan, pumunta
sila doon sa lugar. Tas pinababato nila, nakita nila yung mother ko nandoon pala sa likod ng
bahay nila paikot-ikot lang na naglalakad tapos noong siguro nabulabog na sa kanila siyempre
hexing kasi tapos hindi siguro nakapag concentrate. Tapos that was the moment na natauhan
yung mother ko hinila nalang siya ng lola ko na ano “kanina ka pa nagikot-ikot diyan” eh ayon
yung nangyari. Then yung sabi ng mother ko [ah] pinakain daw siya ng prutas siguro that was
the very specific thing na nakapag ano sa kanya nag-control sa kanya na paikot-ikot lang siya sa
lugar na iyon. Tapos yung nangyari noong nakuha na yung mother ko. Yung mga tao
nagsipagtago sa loob ng bahay at pinagbabato nila. Noong umuwi na sila mama, the next day
nabalitaan niya, yung nga daw, [uh ah] plinano nilang sunugin or I don’t know kung talagang
sinunog or o pinagplanuhan lang sunugin yung bahay ng friend niya tapos, [uh] starting from that
day hindi na rin pumasok yung bata sa school nila hindi na nagkita kasi ang balita lumipat na
daw sila ng ibang bahay. Ayon.
9.1.5. APPENDIX E: Transcript of Interview with Erfel Pionan
- 169 -
Biodata
Name: Erfel Dinampo Pionan
Age: 32 years old
L1: Hiligaynon
Place of Origin: Banisilan, North Cotabato
Interview 1
Erfel: Okay Start. [ah] Isang ar- Ang aking kwento ay si [uh] Tungkol kay Tinyente
Gimo ah isang—Si TInyente Gimo ay [ah] kilala sa lugar nila na [ah] pamilya ng aswang.
Ngayon [ah] noong araw ng pagaani sa lugar nila [uh] niyaya nung anak niya na si Maria yung
kanyang kaibigan na sina Teresa at Juana and then, ah, noong sila ay imbitahan na kumain, sa
bahay nila [ah] habang sila ay kumakain nagtanong yung dalawang kaibingan kung ano yung
[yung] ulam nila, paanong niluto. Ngayon hindi umimik yung kasambahay, ngumiti lang and
then [ah] noong dumating sa oras na sila’y matutulog na [uh] ngayon [ah] hindi pa naantok ang
mga kaibigan, ngayon nagpapasya nila na palitan sila ng mga gamit nila ayon, hiniram ni Juana
[ah], ay ni Maria yung kwintas ni Juana and then [uh], noong sila ay nakatulog na, [ki]kinuha,
pinuntahan ni Tinyente Gimo yung isang babae na yung palatandaan niya ay may kwintas.
Ngayon noong kinuha niya yung babae na may kwintas, at yun ang pinatay niya. Tapos kinain
niya ng buo ang ulo at yung mga paa and then [uh] kinabukasan, nalaman na ang pinatay pala
niya ay ang kanyang anak. Iyon [ah] yun lang yung kewnto at hindi alam kung ano nangyari sa
dalawang kaibigan, kung paano sila nag exit doon sa bahay [doon sa area].
9.1.6. APPENDIX F: The Story of Tinyente Gimo
Translated by Karl Gaverza from a story told by Erfel Pionan
- 170 -
Tinyente Gimo and his family were known in their area as a family of aswang. One day,
during the harvest season his daughter Maria invited her playmates Teresa and Juana to their
house to stay over. While Teresa and Juana were eating in the house they asked what they were
eating and how it was cooked. The helper they were talking to said nothing and just smiled.
When the time came for them to sleep, Teresa and Juana weren’t sleepy so they and Maria
decided to exchange clothes and accessories and Maria borrowed Juana’s necklace. Tinyente
Gimo went to the room and ate Maria who he mistook for Juana. It was only the next day that he
realized that he killed his own child.
9.1.7. APPENDIX G: The Story of the Cursed Fruit
Translated by Karl Gaverza from a story told by Princess Pionan
This is a favorite story that my mother likes to tell. It originally happened in Davao del Sur. My
mother was in grade school then and she had a best friend named Concordia. Concordia would
always invite my mother to their house and my mother would always go even though many
people in the area would warn her that her friend’s family are aswang. One time when my
mother visited their house, Concordia’s family gave my mother fruits like santol and langka. My
mother, being fond of fruits, readily accepted. They played the whole day and my mother didn’t
realize it was already falling dark. One of Concordia’s family members told my mother she could
go home and that’s the only time my mother left the house. She walked for a very long time bud
didn’t seem to be going anywhere, she would always end up back at Concordia’s house.
It was them that my grandparents noticed that my mother was missing and she
was very fortunate that someone told them that she was going to Concordia’s house. My
grandparents , together with the extended family, all went to the house and when they got
- 171 -
there they discovered my mother going around in circles in the back yard of the house.
Concordia’s family hid inside the house while my grandparents took my mother home.
Concordia was never seen at my mother’s school again, the people of the town said that
her family moved away.
9.1.8. APPENDIX H: The Aswang of Dueñas
Translated by Karl Gaverza from a story told by Jenifer Solana
In Iloilo there is a town called Dueñas, this was where one of my classmates from college
was from. She invited me and a group of friends to attend the wedding of her sibling and
we stayed over at their house. We didn’t realize that their family was aswang because
they were attractive and very wealthy.
The first night we got there, while we were trying to sleep we were startled because it
seemed that all of the people in the house weren’t sleeping. There were loud noises
coming from their kitchen, it seemed like a fiesta. One of my other classmates decided to
go and see what the commotion was about. When she left to find out she didn’t some
back, she ran away from the house. Another classmate went outside to check and she said
she saw a person in their kitchen chopping up a human hand. We didn’t believe her and
thought it was just a joke.
The next morning, when it was time for the wedding, there was a strange smell that
seemed to come from everywhere in the house. Someone approached us and said that the
family we were staying with had the reputation of being aswang. We didn’t believe the
stranger, but the mother of the classmate that invited us just stared after the conversation.
- 172 -
After, she locked us in a bodega and said we couldn’t leave. Her face changed into
something very scary and her hair started growing extremely long, it was reaching up to
our necks. One of our classmates remembered that the oil that gave aswang power was
under their armpits, so she grabbed the mother’s armpit and took away the oil that was
there. She told our other classmate to do that to her other armpit. The mother changed
into a cat. We saw a man passing by and we told him the cat was an aswang so he
covered it with a basket. The next day when we removed the basket it turned out that the
cat was the man’s mother. He asked us not to tell anyone that their family was aswang.
9.1.9. APPENDIX I: Table of Gods by Domain
9.1.9.1. Supreme Gods
- 173 -
Name of supreme god Ethnic group / Area Found

Bathala Tagalog
Mangetchay Kapampangan
Gugurang Bikol
Lumawig Bontok
Kabunian Igorot
Liddum Ifugao
Mahal Maakaako Mangyan
Laon Bisaya
Magbabaya Bukidnon
Sualla / Tullus-god Tiruray
Melu Blaan
Makalidung Manobo (Agusan Valley)
Pamulak Manobo / Diwata Bagobo
Manama Manuvu
(Couple god) Kadaw La Sambad and Bulon T’boli
La Mogoaw
Tungkung Langit Panay
Diwata-sa-Langit/Diwata Subanon
(god with two aspects) Malaon/Makapatag Waray
The Great Anito Tinguian
Kabunyan Kalinga
Kabunian Gaddang
Taganlang Mansaka
9.1.9.2. Creator Gods
Name of creator god Ethnic group / Area found

Tungkung Langit Panay
Pamulak Manobo Bagobo
Melu Blaan
Makalindung Manobo (Agusan Valley)
Manama Manuvu
Bathala Tagalog
Maka-ako Bisaya
Laon Bisaya
Melu Bagobo
Magbabaya/Diwata na Magbabaya Bukidnon
Makakagahum Aklanon
Taganlang Mansaka
Malayari/ Apo Mamalyari Sambal
Lumawig Bontok
- 174 -
Gugurang Bikol
Dagau Manobo
9.1.9.3. Gods of Lightning
Name of Lightning god Ethnic group / Area found

Kidlat Tagalog
Revenador Ilokano
Languit Bikol
Linti Bikol
Kaptan Bisaya
Inaiyu Manobo
Ovug Ifugao
9.1.9.4. Gods of Fire
Name of Fire god Ethnic group / Area found

Gugurang Bikol
Makilum-sa-bagidan Bisaya
Kabuniyan Bukidnon
Pamulingan Manuvu
Cumucul T’boli
9.1.9.5. Sun Gods
Name of Sun god Ethnic group / Area found

Apolake Tagalog
Amman Ilokano
Chal-Chal Bontok
Aldao Bikol
(Sunrise and Sunset) Libtakan Manobo
Init-init Tinguian
9.1.9.6. Moon Gods
- 175 -
Name of Moon god Ethnic group / Area found

Mayari Tagalog
Wife of Mangetchay Kapampangan
Kabigat Bontok
Bulan Bikol
Luna Ibanag
Sinang Tinguian
9.1.9.7. Psychopomps
Name of Psychopomp gods Ethnic group / Area found

Bangla’e Sulod
Mangganghaw Sulod
Manglaegas Sulod
Patag’aes Sulod
Mama Guayen Ilonggo
Magyan Bisaya
Sumpoy Bisaya
Manduyapit Manobo
Andalapit Bukidnon
Badadum Waray
Imbayan / Lingayan Ifugao
9.1.9.8. Gods of the Harvest
Name of Harvest gods Ethnic group / Area found

Dumagan Sambal
Kalasakas Sambal
Kalasokus Sambal
Damulag/Damolag Sambal
Pamulak Manobo Bagobo
Taphagan Manobo
Dumangan Tagalog
Ikapati Tagalog
Anianihan Ilokano
- 176 -

The Myths of The Philippines

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

The Myths of The Philippines

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

THE MYTHS OF THE PHILIPPINES

By JEAN KARL M. GAVERZA

An Undergraduate Thesis Submitted to the

College of Social Science and Philosophy

Diliman, Quezon City

As Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

To Arthur Cotterell whose encyclopedia of mythology set of a spark in my young life.

To Budjette Tan who so kindly gave one of my main sources unexpectedly.

To all the myths forgotten by time.

higher mythology was organized by ethnolinguistic group in terms of cosmogony, cosmology,

creatures associated were given a new classification.

3. Semantic Deconstructions ......................................................................................................... - 5 -

4.5.5. The Sad God ................................................................................................................... - 39 -

5.3.6. Subanon......................................................................................................................... - 104 -

9.1.9.5. Sun Gods ................................................................................................................... - 175 -

migration and treasures.

1.2. Myth in the Philippine Context

lowland ethnolinguistic groups.

said to house spirits.

2. Review of Related Literature

2.1.1. Philippine Folk Literature: The Myths. Damiana Eugenio (2001)

context lost in the translations.

a motif in Philippine myth.

2.1.2. Creatures of Philippine Lower Mythology. Maximo Ramos (1971)

Ramos’ taxonomic classification of the creatures of Philippine mythology borrowed

Philippine mythological creatures could be categorized in terms of indigenous thinking.

Too much is derived from foreign folklore traditions. Most of it is definitions of

to be commensurate in the Philippine context.

ethnolinguistic groups that propagate narratives of these creatures.

2.1.3. Philippine Mythology. F. Landa Jocano (1969)

explanation of some rituals was very concise.

Aswang by Erin Locsin

3.1.1. General description

various ethno-linguistic groups, with some of them having no similarities whatsoever to

connotation than if you use the word in an area around Panay.

Linguistically ‘aswang’ may be related to the ‘keswange’ belief of ‘witches’ in the

Indonesia. (Mckinnon, 1991)

3.1.1.1. Aswang Names

behind. (Scott, 1992)

3.1.1.2. Physical Aspects

sharp teeth, beautiful if in human form and bestial if shapeshifted.

3.1.1.3. Becoming an Aswang

Lynch (1949) describes 4 ways of becoming an aswang. Becoming an aswang in these

3.1.1.3.1.1. Personal Effort

in coconut water and mixed with human flesh and blood.

3.1.1.3.1.2. Transmission of Supernatural Powers

of the initiate, granting them the powers of the aswang.

Children of aswang are aswang themselves.

something that the victim will ingest.

A salab may also be hereditary.

3.1.2.1. By Matter Consumed

3.1.2.1.1. Bloodsucker – The Mandurugo

The aswang as a bloodsucker is reminiscent of the western notion of a vampire. This

her eighth month of pregnancy.

accompanies it or by the aswang itself.

human shape. (Lynch, 1949)

3.1.2.1.2. Viscera / Fetus eater – The Wakwak

aswang is accompanied by a foul odor (Cruz, 1933)

This subspecies of aswang is described by Lynch (1949) as a special kind of asuwang na

mananaggal. He described these aswang as having hunched shoulders and looking

3.1.2.1.3. Corpse eater – The Balbal

wir-wir of the Isneg in the Cordilleras.