Telecom Essentials

Telecom Essentials
UTL Technologies Ltd www.utltraining.com

Communication Basics

what is communication?
Communication is the process of

exchanging information between two
different points.
The information may be sent from one
point to another point through a wire /
cable or it may be sent on a particular
frequency (wireless) on air

• Any Communication System requires the
following:
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver

5

6

Transmitter
• It is the one which transmits the
information after processing the
normal signal (modulating signal) to
modulated signal.
• It has some elements like modulator
to combine low frequency
information with RF carrier and an
amplifier to amplify the signal before
giving it to the antenna. 7

Receiver
• It is the one, which receives the
modulated information and retrieves
the actual information from the
modulated signal.
• It has an amplifier to amplify the
weak signal and a demodulator to
separate the actual information from
the modulated information.
8

Channel
• It is the medium through which the

information is being carried out.
• If the information is being carried
over wires, it is called wire line
communication.
• If the information is carried over a
particular frequency on air, it is called
wire less communication.
9

Types of communication Systems :
Type Description Example

Simplex One way only FM radio,
Television etc..
Half Two way, only one at a Walkie Talkie
Duplex time
Full Two way, both at the Mobile
Duplex same time Systems
10

Simplex System
It is one way communication. It can
either transmit or receive. But only one
function it does at any time.
Ex: Radio, Television, GPS Rx etc.
11

Half Duplex System
It can do both the functions. i.e., it can
transmit as well as receive. But only one
function at a time. That means, if it is
transmitting, it works like a transmitter and if it
is receiving, it works like a receiver.
• Ex: Police Walkie-Talkie
12

Full Duplex System
It can do both the (Tx and Rx) functions at a
time.
• Ex: Telephone and mobile systems
13

Full Duplex System
14

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WIRED & WIRELESS
COMMUNICATIONS:
• The main difference between the wired and

wireless communication infrastructure is
the existence of the physical cabling.
• Wired communication consists of a
physical cable between two points,
whereas wireless communication doesn’t
have any physical cabling between the
points. The information will be sent on a
particular frequency over air.
15

• FREQUENCY: The number of cycles per unit of
time is called the frequency.
frequency is most often measured in cycles
per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz) (60 cps = 60 Hz)
1000 Hz is often referred to as 1 kHz (kilohertz).
16

velocity: Distance travelled per unit time
wavelength:
wavelength is the distance between
repeating units of a propagating wave of a
given frequency. It is commonly denoted by the
greek letter (λ). Examples of wave-like
phenonomena are light waves and sound
waves.
• Note: The wavelength, (λ)., is related to the
propagation velocity, v, and the frequency (f),
by = v /f.
17

18

BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth is expressed in terms of the
difference between the highest-frequency
signal component and the lowest-frequency
signal component. Since the frequency of a
signal is measured in Hertz (the number of
cycles of change per second), a given
bandwidth is the difference in hertz
between the highest frequency the signal
uses and the lowest frequency it uses.
(or)
19

BW of a signal can be defined as the
range of frequencies in which most of the
energy or Power lies.
• For a Band limited signal the BW is well

defined.
20

Frequency Spectrum and its Applications
Range Frequency Band Application
VLF 3 KHz – 30 KHz Submarine Application

LF 30KHz to 300 KHz Navigational Application
MF 300KHz to 3MHz Cordless Phones, AM radio
HF 3 MHz to 30 MHz Aeronautical, Amateur radio

VHF 30 MHz to 300 MHz FM radio, TV Applications
UHF 300 MHz to 3GHz TV, Mobile Communication
SHF 3 GHz to 30 GHz Point to Point, Satellite Comm.
EHF 30 GHz to 300 GHz Point to Point microwave
21

MODULATION
22

What is modulation?
It is the process of changing

the parameters of the carrier
signal with respect to the
amplitude of the modulating
signal.
23

NEED OF MODULATION
• To reduce the noise and interference.

• Multiplexing and de multiplexing.
• To decrease the Antenna size.
• To transmit the audio signal to far
distance.
24

TYPES OF MODULATIONS
• Analog modulation.
• Digital modulation
Analog modulation:
• The aim of analog modulation is to
transfer the analog signal over a
channel. (or) the modulation which
deals with the analog signals
25

ANALOG SIGNAL
An analog signal is any variable signal

which is continuous in both time and amplitude.
26

Different types of Analog modulations are
• Amplitude modulation.
• Frequency modulation.
• Phase modulation
27

Amplitude modulation
If the Amplitude of the carrier

signal is varied according to the
amplitude of the modulating signal,
it is called Amplitude Modulation
28

29

FREQUENCY MODULATION
If the Frequency of the carrier signal

is varied according to the Amplitude of
the modulating signal, it is called
Frequency modulation
30

31

DIGITAL MODULATION
32

Digital Modulation Techniques
• There are different types of digital

modulation techniques, which are given
as follows.
• Pulse code modulation.
• Delta pulse code modulation.
• Adaptive delta code modulation.
33

PULSE CODE MODULATION
• PCM is a digital representation of an

analog signal where the magnitude of the
signal is sampled regularly at uniform
intervals of time.
• They are three steps to continue DIGITAL
MODULATION, they are
• Sampling.
• Quantization.
• Coding.
34

SAMPLING
• : It is the process of measuring the analog
signal at different instants of time.
• According to nyquist criteria Ns>=2fm,
the number of samples should be taken at
least twice the maximum frequency or
higher than that.
• If not, we will not get accurate output. We
will get the distorted output and this effect
is called as Aliasing effect.
35

Quantization and coding
• QUANTIZATION: Approximating the

sampled signal with an accurate value.
• CODING: Representing the quantizing
signal with binary form i.e ‘0’ and ‘1’s
36

Based on the sampling theorem,
• Each analog sample is assigned a binary
code
– Analog samples are referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM) samples
• The digital signal consists of block of n
bits, where each n-bit number is the
amplitude of a PCM pulse
37

38

DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION
39

Data Communication Terms
• Data - entities that convey meaning, or

information
• Signals - electric or electromagnetic
representations of data
• Transmission - communication of data
by the propagation and processing of
signals
40

41

42

• Reasons for Choosing Data and Signal
Combinations
• Digital data, digital signal
– Equipment for encoding is less expensive
than digital-to-analog equipment
• Analog data, digital signal
– Conversion permits use of modern digital
transmission and switching equipment
43

• Digital data, analog signal
– Some transmission media will only
propagate analog signals
– Examples include optical fiber and
satellite
• Analog data, analog signal
– Analog data easily converted to analog
signal
44

Analog Transmission
• Transmit analog signals without regard to

content
• Attenuation limits length of transmission
link
• Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s
energy for longer distances but cause
distortion
– Analog data can tolerate distortion
– Introduces errors in digital data
45

Digital Transmission
• Concerned with the content of the signal

• Attenuation endangers integrity of data
• Digital Signal
– Repeaters achieve greater distance
– Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
• Analog signal carrying digital data
– Retransmission device recovers the digital
data from analog signal
– Generates new, clean analog signal
46

Digital to Analog modulation Techniques
There are many different modulation

techniques
• Amplitude shift key modulation (ASK)
• Frequency shift key modulation (FSK)
• Binary-phase shift key modulation (BPSK)
• Quadrature -phase shift key modulation
(QPSK)
• Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
47

Amplitude Shift Key Modulation
In this method the amplitude of

the carrier assumes one of the two
amplitudes dependent on the logic
states of the input bit stream.
 A cos(2πf c t ) binary 1
s (t ) = 
 0 binary 0
48

A typical output waveform of an ASK
modulator is shown in the figure below
49

Frequency Shift Key Modulation
• In this method the frequency of the

carrier is changed to two different
frequencies depending on the logic state of
the input bit stream.
• The typical output waveform of an FSK is
shown below.
• Notice that logic high causes the centre
frequency to increase to a maximum and a
logic low causes the centre frequency to
decrease to a minimum 50

• Values represented by different
frequencies (near carrier)
• Less susceptible to error than ASK
• Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• High frequency radio
• Even higher frequency on LANs using
co-axial cable.
51

Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK)
• Two binary digits represented by two different

frequencies near the carrier frequency.
 A cos(2πf1t ) binary 1
s(t ) = 
 A cos(2πf 2t ) binary 0
where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier
frequency fc by equal but opposite amounts
52

FSK
53

Phase Shift Key Modulation
• With this method the phase of the carrier

changes between different phases
determined by the logic states of the input
bit stream.
• Phase of carrier signal is shifted to
represent data
• Differential PSK
• Phase shifted relative to previous
transmission rather than some reference
54
signal
Types of PSK
• There are several types of phase shift key

(PSK) methods.
• Two-phase (2 PSK)
• Four-phase (4 PSK)
• Eight-phase (8 PSK)
• Sixteen-phase (16 PSK)
• Sixteen- quadrature amplitude (16 QAM)
55

The 16 QAM is a composite modulator
consisting of amplitude modulation and
phase modulation. The 2 PSK, 4 PSK, 8
PSK and 16 PSK modulators are generally
referred to as binary phase shift key
(BPSK) modulators and the QAM
modulators are referred to as quadrature
phase shift key (QPSK) modulators.
56

Two-Phase Shift Key Modulation (BPSK)
• In this modulator the carrier assumes one

of two phases to represent binary digits. Logic
1 produces no phase change and logic 0
produces a 180°phase change.
s(t ) =  A cos(2πf t + π )
 c binary 0
=
− A cos(2πf c t )
binary 0
57

BPSK
58

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
• Four-level PSK (QPSK) : Each element
represents more than one bit
 π
 A cos 2πf ct +  11
 4

s(t ) =   3π  01
A cos 2πf c t + 
  4 

 3π 
A cos 2πf c t −  00
 4 
 π 10
A cos 2πf ct − 
 4
59

QPSK
60

8PSK
61

Quadrature amplitude modulation
Quadrature amplitude modulation,

or QAM, is a big name for a relatively
simple technique. It is simply a
combination of amplitude modulation and
phase shift keying
62

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
63

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
The media through, which transmission

takes place is called as Transmission Media.
There are two types of transmission
media. They are
– GUIDED MEDIA
– UNGUIDED MEDIA.
64

GUIDED MEDIA
• This uses a cabling system that guides the
data signals along a specific path. The data
signals are bound by the cabling system. This
is also known as “bound media”.
• Different types of Guided media are as follows.
1. TWISTED PAIR
2. CO-AXIAL CABLE
3. WAVE GUIDES
4. FIBER OPTICS
65

TWISTED PAIR
Twisted pair is the ordinary copper wire
that connects home telephone to the PSTN
exchange.
To reduce crosstalk or electromagnetic
induction between pairs of wires, two
insulated copper wires are twisted around
each other. Each connection on twisted pair
requires both wires
66

Types of twisted pair cables:
• There are two types of twisted pair cables.

They are,
• UNSHILEDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP)
• SHEILDED TWISTED PAIR (STP)
67

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the
most popular and is generally the best
option.
68

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
69

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
If twisted pair is enclosed in a

shield that functions as a ground.
This is known as shielded twisted
pair (STP).
70

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
71

• A disadvantage of UTP is that it
may be susceptible to radio and
electrical frequency interference.
• Shielded twisted pair (STP) is
suitable for environments with
electrical interference; however, the
extra shielding can make the cables
quite bulky.
72

FIBER OPTICS
Fiber optics (optical fibers) are long, thin

strands of very pure glass about the diameter of a
human hair.
When light ray passes from one medium
to another (from glass to air) ,the ray is
Refracted or bent at the boundary, the
amount of refraction depends on the
properties of two media
73

Light rays in different medium
74

What is critical Angle?
Critical Angle
75

Critical Angle?
The least angle of incidence at which

total internal reflection takes place.
The angle of incidence in a denser
medium, at an interface between the
denser and less dense medium, at which
the light is refracted along the interface
76

Critical Angle: In the above diagram, light is lost
along the interface until reaching the Critical 77
angle of 60 degrees.
Elements of Fiber
78

Elements of Fiber:
• Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the
light travels
• Cladding - Outer optical material surrounding
the core that reflects the light back into the
core
• Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects
the fiber from damage and moisture
• Hundreds or thousands of these optical fibers
are arranged in bundles in optical cables. The
bundles are protected by the cable's outer
covering, called a jacket. 79

Types of Fibers:
Optical fibers come in two types:
• Single-mode fibers
• Multi-mode fibers
80

• Single-mode fibers have small cores (about
3.5 x 10-4 inches or 9 microns in diameter) and
transmit infrared laser light (wavelength =
1,300 to 1,550 nanometers).
• Multi-mode fibers have larger cores (about
2.5 x 10-3 inches or 62.5 microns in diameter)
and transmit infrared light (wavelength = 850 to
1,300 nm) from light emitting diodes (LEDs).
• Some optical fibers can be made from plastic.
These fibers have a large core (0.04 inches or
1 mm diameter) and transmit visible red light
81
(wavelength = 650 nm) from LEDs.
Multimode Step-Index
82

• Density of the core remains constant from
the center to the edges.
• Multiple beams from a light source move
through the core in different paths hence
the term Multimode.
• Due to different beams arriving at different
times at the receiver the signal is distorted
(propagation delays). Thus this constant
density multimode fiber finds less
applications. 83

Multimode Graded-Index
84

Single Mode
85

Single mode fiber
In single mode fiber the diameter is
smaller & the density of core is lower. The
decrease in density and dia results in
critical angle almost equal to 90 degrees to
make the propagation almost horizontal.
All the beams arrive at the receiver
together that can be combined with less
distortion. Core sizes vary from 10 to50
microns, while the cladding varies from 100
to 150 microns. 86

Fiber Construction
Fiber Construction
87

Fiber optic Elements
• Light source: LED, Laser Diode.

• Receiver: Photodiode, PIN diode.
88

Advantages of optical fiber
(over Copper & Coaxial cables)
• Optical Fiber can handle much higher bandwidth

• Due to low attenuation repeaters are needed
about every 50kms compared to every 5kms for
copper, reducing cost.
• Since it uses light, it is not affected by power
surges, EM interference or power failures. Also
not affected by corrosive chemicals in the air
• Fiber is thin, has less weight.
• Fiber does not leak light and it is difficult to tap,
thus security is highest 89

Disadvantages
• Fiber optic cable is more expensive.

• Needs skilled job for cable joints by
splicing.
• Since made out of Glass can be easily
broken
90

UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION
• This consists of means of data

signals to travel but nothing to
guide them along a specific path.
• The data signals are not bound to
a cabling media and as such are
often called unbound media.
91

UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION
Different types of unguided

Transmission media are…,
• Line of sight communication
• Satellite communication
92

LINE OF SIGHT COMMUNICATION
• This type of communication uses

parabolic dishes of different diameters
(0.6,0.8,1.2mts etc.).
• These are fixed at certain height and
focuses a narrow beam .
• It achieves line of sight transmission to
receiving antenna.
93

• Line of sight propagation transmits
exactly in the line of sight.
• The receive station must be in the view
of the transmit station.
94

Terrestrial Microwave Line of Sight communication
95

Satellite Communication
96

Description of communication satellite
– Microwave relay station
– Used to link two or more ground-based
microwave transmitter/receivers
– Receives transmissions on one frequency
band (uplink), amplifies or repeats the
signal, and transmits it on another
frequency (downlink)
97

Applications
– Television distribution
– Long-distance telephone transmission
– Private business networks
98

Case study1:
• Transmission medias used in GSM,

CDMA, etc.. (mobile Communication)
between different elements of the
network.
• Comparison of Optical Fiber with Micro
wave (Line of sight) communication.
99

DATA TRANSMISSION
100

Synchronous Transmission
The transmission of data in which both

stations are synchronized.
Codes are sent from the transmitting
station to the receiving station to establish the
synchronization, and data is then transmitted in
continuous streams
101

Synchronous Transmission
102

Asynchronous Transmission
The transmission of data in which each
character is a self-contained unit with its
own start and stop bits.
Intervals between characters may be
uneven.
It is the common method of transmission
between a computer and a modem,
although the modem may switch to
synchronous transmission to communicate
with the other modem. Also called
"start/stop transmission." 103

Asynchronous Transmission
104

Error detection
Error detection is the ability to detect errors
caused by noise or other impairments during
transmission from the transmitter to the receiver
Error correction
Error correction has an additional feature
that enables identification and correction of the
errors
105

Parity Check
Basic method of checking data for errors
during a transmission or on a data storage
mechanism.
Parity works by setting a parity bit to an
even or odd number.
If the binary stream contains eight 0's or 1's,
for example, we know that this is an even
number; however, if the parity bit indicates that
this number should be an odd number we would
be able to easily determine that the data is
corrupt.
106

Even Parity & Odd Parity
• Parity bit appended to a block of data

• Even parity
– Added bit ensures an even number of 1s
• Odd parity
– Added bit ensures an odd number of 1s
• Example, 7-bit character [1110001]
– Even parity [11100010]
– Odd parity [11100011
107

Multiple Access Methods
108

Multiple Access Method
It determines how several users

can share a medium with minimum
or no interference.
109

Types of Access Methods
Access Methods
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
110

Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA) :
– An approach to sharing a channel by

separating the simultaneous users in
frequency
111

FDMA
c
f
112

Time division multiple access
(TDMA)
– Approach for allotting single-channel

usage amongst many users, by
dividing the channel into slots of time
during which each user has access to
the medium.
113

TDMA
c
f
114
2.17.1
TDMA / FDD
c
f
115
2.18.1
Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) :
–Approach for allotting the channel

usage amongst many users, by
converting the speech signals of all
users in to different codes.
116

CDMA
117

How CDMA uses codes to the actual data?
User Data : 1011 (to be transmitted)

PN Code : 110101
Transmitting Data : 001010 110101 001010 001010
Receiving Data : 001010 110101 001010 001010

PN Code : 110101
Final Data : 111111 000000 111111 111111
Received Data : 1011
118

How CDMA uses codes to the actual data?
119

What we do, we can undo
120

Generations of Mobile Communication
121

122

EVOLUTION MOBILE COMMUNICATION
AMPS D-AMPS
CDMA 2000
TACS IS-95
GPRS
2.5G UMTS/
NMT GSM
W-CDMA
ANALOG DIGITAL IMT-2000

1G 2G 3G
123

ANALOG MOBILE COMMUNICATION
– Advanced Mobile Phone Service

AMPS
US based, 800 MHz band
– Total Access Communication
TACS
System UK based, AMPS in 900
MHz band
NMT – Nordic Mobile Telephone System
Scandinavian, Both in 450 MHz
ANALOG
SYSTEM and 900 MHz band
1G
124

DIGITAL MOBILE COMMUNICATION
– Dual mode AMPS

US, Analog signaling and Digital voice
D-AMPS coding
IS-95 – IS-95
US, CDMA based
GSM – GLOBAL SYSTEMS FOR MOBILE

COMMUNICATIONS
DIGITAL European standard, Both in 900 MHz
SYSTEM & 1800 MHz band
2G
125

Case Study 2:
• Different Generations in mobile

Communication.
• Multiple Access Methods used in that
particular generation.
• Communication Methods used in that
particular Generation.
• Data rates in different generations.
126

Telecom Essentials

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Communication is the process of

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• It is the medium through which the

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Type Description Example

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• The main difference between the wired and

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• For a Band limited signal the BW is well

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Range Frequency Band Application

VLF 3 KHz – 30 KHz Submarine Application

HF 3 MHz to 30 MHz Aeronautical, Amateur radio

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It is the process of changing

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• To reduce the noise and interference.

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An analog signal is any variable signal

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If the Amplitude of the carrier

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If the Frequency of the carrier signal

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• There are different types of digital

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• PCM is a digital representation of an

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• QUANTIZATION: Approximating the

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• Data - entities that convey meaning, or

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• Transmit analog signals without regard to