1.

Stadiul actual privind influenta solicitarilor structurale asupra surselor energetice ce

echipeaza vehiculele electric

Particularitate studiu
- Caracteristici mecanice
- Simulari
- Constructie carcasa

Vehicule electrice
Surse energetice
Solicitari structurale

Vehicule electrice
Vehiculele electrice sunt mijloace de transport rutier care dispun un ansamblu propulsor
format din motor electric și baterii sau motor electric și motor termic pentru cele hibride. Un
vehicul electric fiind propulsat de către un motor electric, are emisii zero când motorul este
alimentat de la un grup de baterii. In ultima vreme, vehiculele electrice castiga teren in raport cu
vehiculele cu propulsoare clasice, iar motivele din spatele acestui fapt sunt multe. Ceea mai
eminenta este contributia lor la reducerea emisiilor de gaze cu effect de sera.
Uninunea Europeană a stabilit un obiectiv pentru 2050 de reducerea emisiilor de gaze cu
efect de seră, din toate domeniile economice cu 80- 95% în raport cu nivelul emisiilor din anii
1990. În timp ce alte sectoare au redus emisiile în ultimii ani, transportul este singurul sector care a
înregistrat o creștere la nivel European din 1990 (figura 1). Cu toate că autovehiculele moderne
dispun sisteme noi de reducerea emisiilor poluante, graficul prezentat reflectă în mare măsură din
creșterea numărului de autovehicule în circulație, numărul de kilometri parcurși, trecerea spre
autovehicule mai mari a consumatorilor (comode) și diferențele rezultate la testare și emisiilor din
lumea reală [3].

1
 Fig. 1. Evoluția emisiilor de gaze cu efect de seră (CO2) din UE
pe sectoare, inclusiv un interval propus pentru reducerea nivelului
emisiilor cu 80-95% prin 2050 [3]

Din figura 1 se înțelege faptul că sectorul transport este responsabil pentru o bună parte din
cantitatea totală de emisii. Datele statistice arată că numărul autovehiculelor în circulație la nivel
global este în continuă creștere, depășesc 1,2 miliarde de unități în prezent, respectiv estimările
realizate arată către două miliarde de autovehicule în anul 2040 [4].

Având în vedere domeniul autovehiculelor electrice ce au o dinamică ridicată de intrare pe

piața auto, se observă o dezvoltare ascendentă, conform estimărilor Agenției Internaționale pentru
Energie, până în 2030 vor exista 125 de milioane de unități de mașini în întreaga lume [5].
Utilizarea vehiculelor electrice va contribui semnificativ la scăderea emisiilor de gaze cu efect de
seră din sectorul transporturilor și la reducerea/eliminarea poluării din marile orașe.

Ideea de a folosi motoarele electrice pentru a propulsa un vehicul a aparut dupa inovatia motorului
in sine. Incepand cu anii 1897 pana in 1900, numarul vehiculelor electrice era 28 % din totalul
vehiculelor si au fost preferate in comparatie cu motoarele cu ardere interna. A doua sansa a
aparut sub forma conceptului EV 1 de la General Motors, lansat in 1996, si a devenit rapid foarte
popular. Alti producatori de masini fruntasi, printre care Ford, Toyota si Honda au obtinut propriile
lor vehicule electrice. De la Toyota un model reusit a fost Priusul, primul vehicule electric hibrid
comercial, a fost lansa in Japonia in anul 1997, cu un numar de 18000 de unitati vandute in primul

2
an de productie. In prezent, piata este dominata de Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Volt si modelele de la
Tesla.

VE poate fi considerat o combinatie a diferitelor subansamble/subsisteme. Fiecare dintre

aceste sisteme interactioneaza intre ele pentru a asigura o buna functionare a vehiculului. Figura 2
arata partile cheie ale acestor sisteme si contibutia acestora in ansamblu.

Figura 2

Vehiculele electrice pot functiona electric sau pot dispune si un motor cu ardere interna cu
functionare in paralel. Comitetul tehnic al Comisiei Electrotehnice Internationale 69 ( Vehicule
Rutiere Electrice) a propus ca vehiculele care utilizeaza doua sau mai multe tipuri de surse de
energie stocare sau convertoare sa poata fi denumite vehicule hibride. Atata timp cat cel putin unul
dintre acestia furnizeaza energie electrica [4]. -- ?

Vehiculele se clasifica dupa cum urmeaza :

3
 Vehicule

Autovehicule Vehicule
cu motor cu Vehicule
electrice
ardere internă hibride

1.Cu motor cu ardere 1. Vehicul electric cu hibridizare

internă
2. Vehicul electric cu
hibridizare minimă
1. Vehicule electrice
medie cu baterii
2. Vehicul electric cu hibridizare
2. Vehicul cu celulă
ridicată de combustie
- cu modul de autonomie extinsă (EREV)
- hibrid serie (SHEV)
- hibrid paralel (PHEV)
- hibrid cu incărcare externă (PHEV)
- hibrid complex (CHEV)

Fig. 2. Tipologia vehiculelor în funcție de tipul grupului propulsor [6]

Vehicule electrice cu baterii:

Un vehicul electric avand grupul de baterii singura sursa de energie pentru propulsie,
trebuie sa se bazeze exclusive pe energia stocata in baterii. Prin urmare autonomia vehiculelor
electrice depinde direct de capacitatea grupului de baterii. La o singura incarcare autonomia este
de la 100 km – 250 km [5], iar modelele mai noi pot parcurge pana la 500 de km [5]. Altfel
autonomia depinde de stilul de conducere , configuratiile vehiculului, conditiile rutiere, de clima si
de tipul si varsta sursei de energie.

Figura. Configuratia unui vehicul electric.

Propulsoare cu motor electric

4
 Transmisia cu propulsorul poziționat central, figura 3 (a) este cea mai comună configurație
în rândul vehiculelor electrice. Unele EV existente cum ar fi Nissan Leaf și Tesla Model S au
adoptat această tipologie. Cu toate acestea unitatea centrală de propulsie este relativ grea. Multiple
cercetări s-au realizat pe vehicule electrice la adoptarea configurației distribuită, a motoarelor
electrice, care permit controlul independent și precis a fiecărei roți motrice [6-8]. Cea mai simplă
configurație este cea cu propulsorul integrat complet în roți, figura 3 (b). Reprezintă un avantaj
costul și greutatea redusă, dezavantajul fiind limitarea dimensiunilor de gabarit a motorului electric
integrat în roți. Din lipsa reductorului pentru condiții de utilizare la viteză redusă și cuplu mare,
acesta nu funcționeză eficient, iar pentru a soluționa această problem, s-a introdus un reductor între
motor și roata motrică, figura 3 (c). S-a realizat un ansamblu compact motor și reductor cu un
raport de transmisie constantă. La configurația aceasta suspensia este mai rigidă pe fața din cauza
greutății ansamblului motor-reductor, ceea ce duce la o manevrabilitate mai greoaie a vehiculului.
În figura 3 (d) este reprezentată schema grupului propulsor cu două sisteme independente. Ca și la
schema anterioară, motorul și reductorul constituie un ansamblu compact, dar între reductor și roata
motrică s-a prevăzut și arborele planetar. Ansamblul motor-reductor fiind pe șasiu, s-a îmbunătățit
remarcabil manevrabilitatea vehiculelor [7].

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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 Fig.3. Tipologii de propulsie a EV: (a) - propulsor montat central; (b) – propulsor integrat în roți
(HUB); (c) – reductor și motor integrat în roți ; (d) – două sisteme propulsoare independente[7]

Vehicule hibride:

Aceste vehicule folosesc atat motorul cu ardere interna cat si un motor electric pentru a
propulsa vehiculul. Functionarea concomitenta a motoarelor este posibila datorita automatizarii
vehiculului. Un vehicul hibrid utilizeaza propulsia hibrida in regim de exploatare economa.
Reprezinta un mare avantaj la deplasari cu viteza redusa, consumul de combustibil se reduce
deoarece motorul termic ramane oprit la relanti sau in stationare/ blocaje de traffic. Totodata prin
reducerea consumului de combustibil se reduc si emisiile de gaze poluante.

La viteze ridicate sau la cuplu mare intra in functiune si motorul termic, iar cele doua
motoare pot functiona impreuna pentru imbunatatirea performantelor. De asemenea hibridele pot
recupera energia prin intermediul franarii regenerative. Au fost dezvoltate de catre mai multi
producatori de vehicule. Figura prezinta fluxurile de energie intr-un VH (vehicul hibrid) clasic.
Dupa pornirea autovehiculului motorul electric este actionat de catre motorul termic in regim de
generator respectiv incarca grupul de baterii din dotare. La pornire in deplasare, ambele motoare
transmit putere catre transmisia vehicului. La franare, motorul electric actionat ca si generator de
transmisie, bateriile se incarca prin franare regenerativa. In deplasare motorul termic prin
actionarea motorului electric in regim de generator incarca bateriile din dotare respectiv o parte din
energia mecanica este transmisa prin intermediul transmisiei la rotile mortice a vehiculului.

6
 (a) Direction of power flow during starting and when stopped.

(b) Direction of power flow during passing, braking and cruising.

Figure 4. Power flow among the basic building blocks of an HEV during various stages of a drive cycle.
Adapted from [8].

Vehicule hibride cu incărcare externă

Conceptul de incarcare externa a hibridelor se rezuma din dezvoltarea hibridelor. Dispune

un motor termic respectiv unul electric, diferenta dintre cel hibrid si hibrid cu incarcare externa este
ca hibridul cu incarcare foloseste exclusiv pentru propulsare motorul electric. Pentru a avea o
autonomie, dezvoltatorii au echipat vehiculele cu baterii cu o capacitate mai mare de depozitare a
energiei electrice ca si cele hibride. Motorul termic este folosit doar pentru incarcarea bateriilor
fara sa transmita energie mecanica la transmisia vehiculului. De asemenea incarcarea bateriilor se
poate realiza si din surse externe de energie respectiv dispun functia de incarcare in regim de
franare regenerativa. Datorita faptului ca motorul termic la acest tip asigura incarcarea sursei de
energie , consuma mai putin combustibil decat cele hibride, din care rezulta o cantitate mai mica de
emisii de gaze poluante. Modele Chevrolet Volt si Toyota Prius sunt cele mai populare .

Vehicul cu celulă de combustie

Vehiculele cu celule de combustibil au o compononenta principala celule de combustibil

care prin reactii chimice produc energie electrica. Combustibilul pentru aceste vehicule este
hidrogenul, care este incarcat la presiune mare in rezervorul special din dotarea autovehiculului. De
asemena si oxigenul are un rol important in procesul de functionare si generare a energiei electrice,
iar aceasta se poate obtine din aerul aspirat din mediul inconjurator. Energia electrica rezultata din
precesul de transformare chimica, actioneaza motorul electric iar acesta prin transmisie roltile
motrice. Daca energia produsa este mai multa decat energia consumata acesta este stocata in
sursele de energie din dotarea autovehiculului. Toyota Mirai si Honda Clarity utilizeza baterii in
acest scop.

7
 Prin utilizarea VCC-urilor ( vehicul cu celula de combustie) rezulta apa ca si produs
secundar a procesului de generare a energiei electrice, care este evacuata pe esapament.

Configuratia unui VCC este prezentata in figura . Avantajul acestor tipuri de vehicule este
lipsa emisiilor gazelor poluante. Din aceasta cauza cercetatorii doresc dezvoltarea lor [2–4,19]. Un
obstacol major in calea adoptarii acestei tehnologii reprezinta lipsa statiilor de alimentare cu
hydrogen. Iar pentru a atinge stadiul in care sa fie vehicule sigure cercetatorii trebuie sa clarifice
ingrijorarile privind siguranta in cazul scurgerii de hydrogen si dezvoltarea celulelor de
combustie, care momentan sunt costisitoare.

Figura Configuratie VCC.

1. EV Configurations
An electric vehicle, unlike its ICE counterparts, is quite flexible [4]. This is because of the
absence of intricate mechanical arrangements that are required to run a conventional vehicle. In an
EV, there is only one moving part, the motor. It can be controlled by different control arrangements
and techniques. The motor needs a power supply to run which can be from an array of sources.
These two components can be placed at different locations on the vehicle and as long as they are
connected through electrical wires, the vehicle will work. Then again, an EV can run solely on
electricity, but an ICE and electric motor can also work in conjunction to turn the wheels. Because of
such flexibility, different configurations emerged which are adopted according to the type of
vehicle. An EV can be considered as a system incorporating three different subsystems [4]: energy
source, propulsion and auxiliary. The energy source subsystem includes the source, its refueling
system and energy management system. The propulsion subsystem has the electric motor, power
converter, controller, transmission and the driving wheels as its components. The auxiliary
subsystem is comprised of auxiliary power supply, temperature control system and the power
steering unit. These subsystems are shown in Figure 10.

8
 Figure 10. EV subsystems. Adapted from [4].

The arrows indicate the flow of the entities in question. A backward flow of power can be
created by regenerative actions like regenerative braking. The energy source has to be receptive to
store the energy sent back by regenerative actions. Most of the EV batteries along with
capacitors/flywheels (CFs) are compatible with such energy regeneration techniques [4].

1.1. General EV Setup

EVs can have different configurations as shown in [4]. Figure 11a shows a front-engine front-
wheel drive vehicle with just the ICE replaced by an electric motor. It has a gearbox and clutch that
allows high torque at low speeds and low torque at high speeds. There is a differential as well that
allows the wheels to rotate at different speeds. Figure 11b shows a configuration with the clutch
omitted. It has a fixed gear in place of the gearbox which removes the chance of getting the desired
torque-speed characteristics. The configuration of Figure 11c has the motor, gear and differential as
a single unit that drives both the wheels. The Nissan Leaf, as well as the Chevrolet Spark, uses an
electric motor mounted at the front to drive the front axle. In Figure 11d,e, configurations to obtain
differential action by using two motors for the two wheels are shown. Mechanical interaction can be
further reduced by placing the motors inside the wheels to produce an ‘in-wheel drive’. A planetary
gear system is employed here because advantages like high speed reduction ratio and inline
arrangement of input and output shafts. Mechanical gear system is totally removed in the last
configuration (Figure 11f) by mounting a low-speed motor with an outer rotor configuration on the
wheel rim. Controlling the motor speed thus controls the wheel speed and the vehicle speed.
EVs can be built with rear wheel drive configuration as well. The single motor version of the
Tesla Model S uses this configuration (Figure 12). The Nissan Blade Glider is a rear wheel drive EV
with in-wheel motor arrangement. The use of in-wheel motors enables it to apply different amount
of torques at each of the two rear wheels to allow better cornering.

9
 Figure 11. Different front wheel drive EV configurations. (a) Front-wheel drive vehicle with the ICE
replaced by an electric motor; (b) Vehicle configuration with the clutch omitted; (c) Configuration
with motor, gear and differential combined as a single unit to drive the front wheels; (d)
Configuration with individual motors with fixed fearing for the front wheels to obtain differential
action; (e) Modified configuration of Figure 11d with the fixed gearing arrangement placed within
the wheels;
(f) Configuration with the mechanical gear system removed by mounting a low-speed motor on the
wheel rim. Adapted from [4].

Figure 12. Tesla Model S, rear wheel drive configuration [22,24]. (Reprint with permission [24]; 2017,
Tesla.)

For more control and power, all-wheel drive (AWD) configurations can also be used, though it
comes with added cost, weight and complexity. In this case, two motors can be used to drive the
front and the rear axles. An all-wheel drive configuration is shown in Figure 13. AWD
configurations are useful to provide better traction in slippery conditions, they can also use torque
vectoring for better cornering performance and handling. AWD configuration can also be realized
for in-wheel motor systems. It can prove quite useful for city cars like the Hiriko Fold (Figure 14)
which has steering

10
actuator, suspension, brakes and a motor all integrated in each wheel. Such arrangements can provide
efficient all wheel driving, all wheel steering along with ease of parking and cornering.

Figure 13. Tesla Model S, all-wheel drive configuration [24]. (Reprint with permission [24]; 2017,
Tesla.)

Figure 14. Hiriko Fold—a vehicle employing in-wheel motors.

In-wheel motor configurations are quite convenient in the sense that they reduce the weight of
the drive train by removing the central motor, related transmission, differential, universal joints and
drive shaft [25]. They also provide more control, better turning capabilities and more space for
batteries, fuel cells or cargo, but in this case the motor is connected to the power and control
systems through wires that can get damaged because of the harsh environment, vibration and
acceleration, thus causing serious trouble. Sato et al., proposed a wireless in-wheel motor system
(W-IWM) in [26] which they had implemented in an experimental vehicle (shown in Figure 15).
Simply put, the wires are replaced by two coils which are able to transfer power in-between them.
Because of vibrations caused by road conditions, the motor and the vehicle can be misaligned and
can cause variation in the secondary side voltage. In-wheel motor configurations are shown in
Figure 16, whereas the efficiencies at different stages of such a system are shown in Figure 17. In
conditions like this, magnetic resonance coupling is preferred for wireless power transfer [27] as it
can overcome the problems associated with such misalignments [28]. The use of a hysteresis
comparator and applying the secondary inverter power to a controller to counter the change in
secondary voltage was also proposed in [28]. Wireless power transfer (WPT) employing magnetic
resonance coupling in a series- parallel arrangement can provide a transmitting efficiency of 90% in
both directions at 2 kW [29]. Therefore, W-IWM is compliant with regenerative braking as well.

11
 Figure 15. Experimental vehicle with W-IWM system by Sato et al. [26]. (Reprint with permission
[26]; 2015, IEEE.)

Figure 16. Conventional and wireless IWM. In the wireless setup, coils are used instead of wires to
transfer power from battery to the motor. Adapted from [26].

Figure 17. W-IWM setup showing efficiency at 100% torque reference. Adapted from [26].

1.2. HEV Setup

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 HEVs use both an electrical propulsion system and an ICE. Various ways in which these two
can be set up to spin the wheels creates different configurations that can be summed up in four
categories [4]:
(1) Series hybrid
(2) Parallel hybrid
(3) Series-parallel hybrid
(4) Complex hybrid

3.2.1. Series Hybrid

This configuration is the simplest one to make an HEV. Only the motor is connected to the
wheels here, the engine is used to run a generator which provides the electrical power. It can be put
as an EV that is assisted by an ICE generator [4]. Series hybrid drive train is shown in Figure 18.
Table 2 shows the merits and demerits of this configuration.

Figure 18. Drive train of series hybrid system. The engine is used to generate electricity only and
supply to the motor through a rectifier. Power from the battery goes to the motor through a DC-DC
converter [30].

Table 2. Advantages and limitations of series hybrid configuration. Adapted from [8].

Efficient and optimized power-plant

Possibilities for modular power-plant
Optimized drive line
Possibility of swift ‘black box’ service exchange
Advantages
Long lifetime
Mature technology
Fast response
Capable of attaining zero emission
Large traction drive system
Limitations Requirement of proper algorithms
Multiple energy conversion steps

3.2.2. Parallel Hybrid

13
 This configuration connects both the ICE and the motor in parallel to the wheels. Either one of
them or both take part in delivering the power. It can be considered as an IC engine vehicle with
electric assistance [4]. The energy storages in such a vehicle can be charged by the electric motor by
means of regenerative braking or by the ICE when it produces more than the power required to
drive the wheels. Parallel hybrid drive train is shown in Figure 19. Table 3 shows the merits and
demerits of this configuration, while Table 4 compares the series and the parallel systems.

Figure 19. Drive train of parallel hybrid system. The engine and the motor both can run the can
through the mechanical coupling [30].

Table 3. Advantages and limitations of parallel hybrid configuration. Adapted from [30].

Capable of attaining zero emission

Advantages Economic gain
More flexibility
Expensive

Limitations Complex control

Requirement of proper algorithms
Need of high voltage to ensure efficiency

Table 4. Comparison of parallel and series hybrid configurations. Data from [8].

Parameters Parallel HEV Series HEV

Voltage 14 V, 42 V, 144 V, 300 V 216 V, 274 V, 300 V, 350 V, 550 V, 900 V
Power requirement 3 KW–40 KW >50 KW
Relative gain in fuel economy (%) 5–40 >75

3.2.3. Series-Parallel Hybrid

In an effort to combine the series and the parallel configuration, this system acquires an
additional mechanical link compared to the series type, or an extra generator when compared to the
parallel type. It provides the advantages of both the systems but is more costly and complicated
nonetheless. Complications in drive train are caused to some extent by the presence of a planetary
gear unit [30]. Figure 20 shows a planetary gear arrangement: the sun gear is connected to the
generator, the output shaft of the motor is connected to the ring gear, the ICE is coupled to the
planetary carrier, and the pinion gears keep the whole system connected. A less complex alternative
to this system is to use a transmotor, which is a floating-stator electric machine. In this system the
engine is attached to the stator, and the rotor stays connected to the drive train wheel through the
gears. The motor speed is the relative speed between the rotor and the stator and controlling it
adjusts

14
the engine speed for any particular vehicle speed [30]. Series-parallel hybrid drive train with
planetary gear system is shown in Figure 21; Figure 22 shows the system with a transmotor.

Figure 20. Planetary gear system [31].

Figure 21. Drive train of series-parallel hybrid system using planetary gear unit. The planetary gear
unit combines the engine, the generator and the motor [30].

15
 Figure 22. Drive train of series-parallel hybrid system using transmotor. The planetary gear system is
absent in this arrangement [30].

3.2.4. Complex Hybrid

This system has one major difference with the series-parallel system, that is, it allows
bidirectional flow of power whereas the series-parallel can provide only unidirectional power flow.
However, using current market terminologies, this configuration is denoted as series-parallel
system too. High complexity and cost are drawbacks of this system, but it is adopted by some
vehicles to use dual-axle propulsion [4]. Constantly variable transmission (CVT) can be used for
power splitting in a complex hybrid system or choosing between the power sources to drive the
wheels. Electric arrangements can be used for such processes and this is dubbed as e-CVT, which
has been developed and introduced by Toyota Motor Co. (Toyota City, Aichi Prefecture 471-8571,
Japan). CVTs can be implemented hydraulically, mechanically, hydro-mechanically or
electromechanically [32]. Two methods of power splitting—input splitting and complex splitting are
shown in [32]. Input splitting got the name as it has a power split device placed at the transmission
input. This system is used by certain Toyota and Ford models [32]. Reference [32] also showed
different modes of these two splitting mechanisms and provided descriptions of e-CVT systems
adopted by different manufacturers which are shown in Figures 23 and 24. Such power-split HEVs
require two electric machines, wheels, an engine and a planetary gear (PG), combining all of them
can be done in twenty- four different ways. If another PG is used, that number gets greater than one
thousand. An optimal design incorporating a single PG is proposed in [31]. Four-wheel drive
(4WD) configurations can benefit from using a two-motor hybrid configuration as it nullifies the
need of a power transmission system to the back wheels (as they get their own motor) and provides
the advantage of energy reproduction by means of regenerative braking [33]. Four-wheel drive
HEV structure is shown in Figure 25. A stability enhancement scheme for such a configuration by
controlling the rear motor is shown in [33].

16
 Figure 23. Input split e-CVT system. Adapted from [32].

Figure 24. Compound split e-CVT system. Adapted from [32].

17
 Figure 25. Structure for four-wheel drive HEV [32]. This particular system uses a vehicle
controller which employs a number of sensors to perceive the driving condition and keeps the
vehicle stable by controlling the brake control and the motor control units.

Surse de energetice : Current Li-Ion Battery Technologies in Electric

Vehicles

Exista diferite tipuri de baterii, iar ca si produse noi sunt dezvoltate pana in stadii finale
de produs comerial, si totodata s-a aplicat si in problema transportului rutiere .

In constructia primelor modele de vehicule electrice s-a folosit surse de energie pe baza
de plumb acid, dezvoltata in 1859 de catre Gaston Plante [1]. In 1899 Waldemar Junger a
introdus bateria nichel-cadmiu care dispus o mai buna capacitate de stocare a energiei electrice.
Din lipsa cercetarilor, a prezentat unele dezavantaje majore inclusive o problema de pierdere a
tensiunii [15]. Cercetarea a continuat pana la inceputul si a doua jumatate a secolului XX , iar in
anul 1985 au fost create primele baterii Litiu-ion. Cercetarile au continuat inca sase ani inainte
de comercializarea produsului respectiv. Tehnologia curenta predominanta de stocare a energiei
electrice la vehicule electrice sunt bateriile Litiu-ion

18
 Figura Compararea a diferitelor tehnologii de stocare a energiei electrice. [12]

În figura 4 este reprezentat nucleul unei baterii comerciale litiu-ion de pe piața actuală și
care are o structură multistratificată, iar o celulă unică constă dintr-un catod, anod și două straturi
de separator. Catodul este executat dintr-o folie de aluminiu acoperită pe ambele părți cu un
material activ. De asemenea, anodul este realizat dintr-o folie de cupru acoperită cu grafit (sau
siciliu). Componentele celulei sunt inundate în electroliți și învelite cu o carcasă de oțel și
plastic. Componenta chimică și materialele folosite pot diferi de la un producător la altul, dar
structura unei celule rămâne identică cu cea prezentată în figura 4 [10].

Fig. 4. Secțiunea repetabilă a unei baterii litiu-ion [10].

19
 Prin urmare, exista multe optiuni de materiale ce se pot folosi la electrozi pozitivi,
negativi, electrolit si separator. Limitarile tehnologice ale diferitelor materiale sunt determinate
in functie de tipul si zona de exploatare.

Electrolitul trebuie sa un flux mare de transport de litiu in utilizare. Sursele energetice

trebuie sa functioneze la temperaturi optime de lucru, dar sa fie compatibil si cu o anumita
variatie de temperature, de exemplu de la – 30 C pana la + 60 C. De asemenea, separatorul
trebuie sa dispuna cea mai bun transfer de litiu-ion, in aceleasi conditii de exploatare si sa
asigure izolare termica in timpul suprasolicitari sau supraincalzirii, pentru a preveni distrugerea
surselor energetice. Trebuie sa fie o compatibilitatea adecvata a materialelor electrozilor positive
si negative, din care sa rezulte un produs care sa fie efficient din perspectiva financiara.
Combinatia de materiale a electrodului si potentialele semiconductoare electrochimice se
regasesc in figura.

Figura Materiale specifice electrozi la surse energetice Li-ion.

Capacitatea celulei energetice este definita este influentata si de capacitatea specifica a

materialelor electrozilor prezente in celula. De exemplu, folosind capacitatile prezentate in
figura 3 pentru a construi perechi conceptuale si alegerea aceluiasi LiFePO 4 (170 Ah kg-1)
asociat cu Li4Ti5O12 (175 Ah kg-1), presupunand un raport idealizat al materialelor la electrozii
pozitivi si negativi intr-un mod proportional cu capacitatea lor conceptuala, raportul idealizat

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LiFePO4 : Li4Ti5O12 = 170 Ah kg-1 : 175 Ah kg-1 = 0.97, ceea ce inseamna ca o sursa de energie
optimizata cu o capacitate de 170 Ah ar continue un kg de LiFePO4 si 0.97 kg de Li4Ti5O12.

Celulele litiu-ion au o eficienta coulumbica (EC) mare, ce permite incarcari si descarcari

ultrarapide. EC descrie eficienta incarcarii prin care electronii sunt transferati in celule si este
sarcina totala introdusa in baterie pe durata unui ciclu complet. EC a bateriilro se
imbunatateste cu cresterea numarul ciclurilor. Pentru a dovedi acest lucru, Panasonic, E-one,
Sony , LG si Samsung si au testat celulele de tip 18650. Unele celule au inceput cu EC de 99.1
% si au crescut la 99.5 % dupa efectuarea a 15 cicluri, iar alte celule au inceput cu 99.5% si au
ajuns la 99.9% dupa 30 de cicluri. Coerenta pe incercarile effectuate este ridicara , datorita
faptului ca celulele litiu-ion sunt stabile.

Electrodul pozitiv

Electrozii pozitivi sunt in general compusi prin intercalare din care ionii de litiu…

Positive electrodes generally are intercalation compounds from which Li+ ions can diffuse out or
back in. Exemple de materiale utilizate sunt detaliate in figura 3, si includ LiCoO 2 (~ 140 Ah kg-
1
, ~ 3,9 V vs. Li / Li + ), LiFePO4 (~ 170 Ah kg-1, ~ 3,45 V vs. Li / Li +), Li (Ni1-x-yMnxCoy) O2
(de exemplu, NMC811 unde 1-x-y = 0,8, x = 0,1 și y = 0.1, Li (Ni 1-x-yCoxAly) O2 (NCA, ~ 200
Ah kg-1, ~ 3,8 V vs. Li / Li +) și LiMn2O4 (~ 110 Ah kg-1, ~ 4,1 V vs. Li / Li +) [16]. In general,
alegerea materialelor este bazate pe dorinta de performanta a bateriei ( in principal energie/
putere versus ciclu de viata), siguranta si costuri.

Litiu  oxid de cobalt-  (LiCoO2)

A fost dezvoltat de Sony in 1991, bateria cu litiu oxid cobalt a fost preferata in alimentarea
electronicelor ( laptopuri, camera, tablete etc.) datorita capacitatii de inmagazinare a energiei,
ciclului de viata lunga si fabricarea relativ usoara [20]. Sunt reactive, prin urmare, stabilitatea
termica este redusa este necesar exploatarea lor in siguranta printr-o monitorizarea permanenta.
Disponibilitatea limitata a cobaltului se reflecta in costurile de fabricatie a celulelor. Cu toate
acestea, Tesla Roadster si Smart ForTwo au implementat pentru stocarea energiei electrice
pentru propulsia vehiculului.

Litiu oxid nichel (LiNiO2)

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 A fost recunoscut ca un material promitator pentru sursele de energie de inalta tensiune (
aprox 4V vs. Li/Li+ pontentialul electrodului), deoarece este un material cu costuri reduse si are
capacitate teoretica ridicata de 250 Ah kg-1 [27-29]. Deoarece LiNiO2 stoichiometric necesita o
mare atentie in fabricare si este un material mai putin practic pentru electrod, solutiile solide ales
acestui material cu Co [31], Fe [32], Mn [33], Al [34], Ti [35] Mg au fost dezvoltate [36], din
care au fost dezvoltate actualele NMC 811 (nichel 0.8, mangan 0.1, cobalt 0.1).

Oxid de mangan cu litiu (LiMn2O4)

Bateriile de litiu cu oxid de mangan ( LMO) au fost introduse pentru prima oara la
inceputul anilor 1980 [37], desii au mai durat comercializarea lor inca 15 ani [16]. Forma
constructive spinel tridimensional (cubic), imbunatateste fluxul de ioni pe electrod, ceea ce
conduce la o rezistenta interna scazuta respectiv la o stocare mai sigura a energiei electrice.
Scaderea rezistentei interne a celulelor permit incarcarea si descarcarea rapida. Sursele de
energie cu li-mangan pot fi descarcate la un curent de 20-30 A prin cresterea moderata a
temperaturii in grupul de baterii 18650. Chimia celulei dispune o stabilitate termica mai buna
decat celulele cu oxid de cobalt cu litiu, dar capacitatea de stocare este mai inferioara cu 33 % si
durata de viata mai mica [38]. Producatorii combina li-mangan cu oxid de mangan litiu cobalt
(NMC) pentru a imbunatatii capacitatea specifica si prelungirea duratei de viata. LMO-NMC
au fost utilizate de multi producatori de vehicule electric, printer care Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt
si BMW i3 [20].

Litiu fier fosfat (LiFePO4)

In 1996 , cercetatorii de la universitatea Texas din Austin au descoperit ca materialele

fosfatice ar putea fi utilizate in electrozi pozitivi ai celulelor litiu-ion [40,41]. LiFePO4 (LFP)
ofera performante electrochimice bune cu rezistenta interna scazuta. Fosfatul ajuta la
stabilizarea electrodului impotriva supraincarcarii si dispune o marja mai ridicata la fluctuatiile
de temperature, mentine in limitele stabilite solicitarile asupra materialelor [20]. Aceste celule
suporta si se pot exploata la temperaturi intre – 30 C si + 60 C si sunt rezistente la solicitari
termice.

Oxid de cobalt cu litiu nichel mangan NMC (LiNiMnCoO2)

Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) electrodes can be designed for high specific

22
 energy or power with high density. The secret of NMC lies in combining nickel and manganese:
nickel is known for its high specific energy but poor stability; manganese has the benefit of
forming a spinel structure to achieve low internal resistance but offers a low specific energy [37].
The mix of the various metals (nickel and manganese) varies by manufacturer and is a very closely
guarded formula. Researchers are using nickel-rich electrodes to increase energy density, while
reduction in cobalt is also helpful since it lowers costs. Companies have switched from NMC111
(discharge capacity: 154 Ah kg−1 at 0.1 C) to NMC442 to NMC622, and now NMC811 (discharge
capacity: >185 Ah kg−1 at 0.1 C) is slated for introduction. NMC111 means equal parts nickel,
manganese and cobalt [43].
Combining nickel and manganese enhances each other’s strengths, making NMC the most
successful Li-ion system and suitable for EV powertrains. These batteries are currently in high
demand given the high specific energy and excellent thermal characteristics. As mentioned above,
NMC has been used by many EV manufacturers, including Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt and BMW i3
[20].

Oxid de nichel cobalt aluminiu NCA (LiNiCoAlO2)

Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA) has been around since 1999 for special
applications. It shares similarities with NMC by offering high specific energy and specific power
(the rate at which the battery can deliver energy), and a long life span [20]. NCA is not as safe as
the others listed above and as such, require special safety monitoring measures to be employed
for use in EVs. They are also more costly to manufacture, limiting their viability for use in other
applications [44]. So far, Tesla is known as the only EV manufacturer who uses NCA chemistry,
and claims their NCA battery in production has even less Cobalt than NMC811. The NCA
batteries used in the Tesla Model 3 and the first Model S in 2012 had only 15% Cobalt content
[45,46].

2.2. Negative Electrode

Two main types of negative electrodes being used include lithium titanate and carbon-based
electrodes, and new types of electrodes under development include lithium metal and lithium-
metal alloys with a special focus on lithium-silicon alloys, and conversion electrodes [47].

2.2.1. Carbon Based Electrodes

Carbon, and usually synthetic graphite, still remains the active material of choice for the
negative electrode, due to its relatively high specific capacity of ~370 Ah kg−1, low average
voltage (150 mV

vs. Li/Li+) and a relatively flat voltage rendering a high overall cell voltage and high roundtrip
energy efficiency [48]. Further, because it is a very abundant, low cost and non-toxic material, it is
a particularly good choice of electrode and therefore widely used. Regrettably, under some specific
conditions, carbon reacts with atmospheric oxygen, and in the case of a thermal runaway event,

23
the electrode can catch fire.

2.2.2. Lithium Titanate (Li4Ti5O12)

Batteries with lithium titanate negative electrodes have been known since the 1980s. Li-
titanate (LTO) replaces the graphite in the negative electrode of a typical Li-ion battery and the
material forms into a spinel structure. The counter-electrode can be lithium manganese oxide or
NMC [37]. Spinel lithium titanate has been regarded as a highly useful electrode material because
of the zero volume change during lithiation, leading to an extremely long operational lifetime for
the electrode, coupled with the improved safety owing to an extremely flat discharge and charge
plateau at about 1.55 V vs. Li/Li+. This material has low electronic conductivity and the Li +
diffusion coefficient of this material can result in poor performance at high power levels, though
this can be improved through the reduction of the lithium ion transport path lengths through
proper nanostructuring, and the improvement of the electronic conductivity through doping,
surface coating, and forming composites with better electronic conductors such as carbon
materials [49].
Titanate batteries are used in certain Japanese-only versions of Mitsubishi’s i-MiEV electric
vehicle [50], and Honda uses them in its Fit EV [51]. LTO are also used in the Tosa concept
electric bus [52]. Due to their high level of safety, lithium titanate batteries are used in mobile
medical devices [53].

2.2.3. Lithium Metal

With a very large capacity (3860 Ah kg−1) and the lowest negative electrochemical potential,
it is natural to consider Li metal electrodes for the negative electrode in a Li-ion battery since
the significant electrode capacity may decrease the mass of the negative electrode by an order of
magnitude, and possibly decrease the mass of the overall battery by about a third. Unfortunately,
Li metal electrodes in secondary batteries have proved challenging due to the growth of metallic
dendrites during Li plating/stripping, with short circuit caused by the dendrites leading to thermal
runaway and a risk of fire/explosion [54]. Nonetheless, research in this electrode option continues
[55], and attempts to create safe lithium metal electrodes may eventually prove practical, greatly
enhancing the performance of EVs [56,57].

2.2.4. Alloy Based Electrodes

Constructing the negative electrode from metals that electrochemically alloy with lithium at
close to room temperature presents opportunities for the creation of Li-ion batteries with higher
specific capacity than that offered by conventional graphite electrodes. For this reason, a number of
metals and metalloids, like aluminum, tin, and silicon which react with lithium to form alloys by
electrochemical processes that are partially reversible, are under study [58]. Unfortunately, the
accommodation of so much lithium is accompanied by enormous volume changes in the host
metal plus phase transitions. The mechanical strain generated during the alloying/de-alloying
processes leads to cracking and crumbling of the metal electrode and a marked loss of capacity to
store charge, in the course of a few cycles [59].

2.2.5. Silicon Based Electrodes

The lithium–silicon alloy has, in its fully lithiated composition, Li15Si4, a theoretical specific

24
capacity of 4200 Ah kg−1 which is even higher than the 3860 Ah kg −1 for metallic lithium [60].
The major issue with this electrode chemistry is the significant volumetric change of the electrode
material, where the transition between Si and Li15Si4 causes a 280% volumetric change, generating
high internal strain in the active materials [61]. The resulting strain leads to cracking and eventual
disintegration of the Si material leading to significant reversible capacity fade [62].
Additional drawbacks of Si are a low Li+ diffusion coefficient and high electrical resistivity
[63]. Manufacture of composite electrodes composed of nanostructured Si, better able to
accommodate volume expansion [64], and using heavily doped Si embedded in conductive
matrices appears to lead to significantly improved mechanical and electrical properties [65,66]. The
combination of these issues has prevented the practical use of Si-based electrodes in EVs to date,
though Si(Li) based battery technology seems to be approaching commercialization [67].

2.2.6. Conversion Electrodes

A different type of electrode material than the lithium intercalation metal oxide based
electrodes is the conversion electrode [68–70]. In a conversion electrode, an actual chemical
reaction takes place, as opposed to the mere intercalation of the Li + ions into the lattice of a host
material. The reaction is generally of the type
MaXb + (b × c)Li + (b × c)e− � aM + bLicX
+
(1)
where M denotes a transition metal and X an anionic species. Anions such as oxides and sulfides
have shown promise as high-theoretical-capacity (generally from 500 to 1500 Ah kg−1) materials
[71]. Because of their stability, these electrodes would again add to the safety of the battery system,
decreasing the risks associated with thermal runaway, and also decrease the overall mass of the
battery.

2.3. Electrolytes

As mentioned, the electrolyte is an essential part of the battery, providing ionic conductivity
enabling Li+ ions to shuttle between the two electrodes, while not being electronically conductive.
Two major classes of electrolytes exist: liquid (aqueous and organic) and solid (polymer
and ceramic) [72].

2.3.1. Aqueous Electrolytes

As in all electrochemical systems, the cell potential is limited by the electrochemical window
of the electrolyte. Although aqueous electrolytes may conceptually be safer and have lower
potential environmental impacts, the restricted electrochemical voltage window (1.23 V) precludes
its use in Li-ion batteries—indeed, all negative electrode materials spontaneously react with water
to produce free hydrogen. While it has been demonstrated that by creating “water in salt”
electrolytes (aqueous mixtures of salts and water at high salt concentrations of the salt, and in
which the number of salt particles exceeds the number of water molecules) can increase this
electrochemical window and enable demonstration Li-ion batteries, this approach is not close to
commercialization [73].

2.3.2. Organic Liquid Electrolytes

In order to achieve a wider electrochemical window, Li-ion battery electrolytes are usually

25
 based on an organic solvent loaded with a lithium salt. A common system is the use of an organic
carbonate, such as Ethyl carbonate, propylene carbonate, and dimethyl carbonate, with dissolved
LiPF6, LiBF4 or LiClO4 [74]. Using appropriate blends of these solvents and salts, electrolytes with
good electrochemical stability and with suitably high Li+ ion conductivities of approx. 10 mS/cm
are needed for a high-performance battery. A new development in the field is the use of Room
Temperature Ionic Liquids (RTILs) which mitigates the flammability and volatility of organic
electrolytes issue [75].

2.3.3. Polymer Electrolytes

Because the use of an organic liquid electrolyte poses an environmental contamination risk
due to leakage, coupled with a flammability issue [76], the development of solid polymer
electrolytes (SPEs) are promising alternatives to enhance the safety performance of batteries [77].
Composite electrolytes

based on POE (poly(oxyethylene)) and similar matrices have been developed that can have gel-like
(low molecular weight) or solid (high polymer molecular weight) properties for Li-ion cell
applications.

2.3.4. Ceramic Electrolytes

Recent advances in battery technology involve using ceramics as the electrolytes, in particular
the use of LiSICONs (Lithium Super Ion Conductors) and including glassy materials with similar
compositions [78], result in higher conductivities overall due to higher conductivity at grain
boundaries. Work to improve the conductivity of ceramic electrolytes to yield materials with
performance similar to that of liquid electrolytes continues, with some promising results [79].

2.3.5. Solid Electrolyte Interphase

A final resistance to Li+ ion transport in the batteries that must be considered to understand
the performance of the Li-ion battery is the presence of the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI)
[80,81]. At the electrode surfaces, this passivation layer (SEI) is formed from decomposition
products of the electrolytes. The SEI allows Li+ transport while blocking further electrolyte
decomposition. While not completely understood, this nanometer scale SEI film is of paramount
importance to the performance of the battery [82], but materials modelling is starting to reveal its
nature [83].

2.4. Physical Implementation of Li-Ion Batteries

Individual cell design can come in several different forms and shapes that can be seen in
Table 1 [18]. This flexibility helps to broaden the uses for Li-ion batteries as they can be designed
around multiple different form factors for each specific need [18].

26
 Table 1. Cell designs and Relative Strengths and Weaknesses. Figures adapted from [84] with permission.

Shape Cylindrical Prismatic Pouch

Diagram

Electrode Arrangement Wound Wound

Stacked Mechanical Strength ++ −+

Heat Management − + +

Specific Energy + + ++

Energy Density + ++ +

Solicitari structurale

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