2.

1 Argument
cross-reference
1. Study the organisation of the following paragraph:
1.12 Organising Paragraphs Currently, roads are often congested, which is expensive
2.6 Discussion in terms of delays. It is claimed that building more roads,
4.6 Discussion Essay or widening existing ones, would ease the congestion.
But not only is the cost of such work high, but the
construction process adds to the congestion, while the
resulting extra road space may encourage extra traffic.
Therefore constructing extra roads is unlikely to solve the
problem, and other remedies, such as road pricing or
greater use of public transport, should be examined.

a) Problem Currently, roads are often congested, which is . . .

b) Solution A It is claimed that building more roads, or widening
...
c) Argument against But not only is the cost of such work high, but . . .
solution A
d) Solutions B and C . . . other remedies, such as road pricing or
greater use . . .

2. The same ideas could be presented to arrive at a different

conclusion:
Currently, roads are often congested, which is expensive
in terms of delays. It is claimed that building more roads
is costly, increases congestion and will encourage extra
traffic. This may be partly true, but the alternatives are
equally problematic. Road pricing has many practical
difficulties, while people are reluctant to use public
transport. There is little alternative to a road building
programme except increasing road chaos.

Problem Currently, roads are often congested, which is . . .

Solution A building more roads . . .
Arguments against It is claimed that building more roads is costly,
solution A increases . . .
Solutions B and C and Road pricing has many practical difficulties, while
arguments against people are . . .
Conclusion in favour of There is little alternative to a road building
solution A programme . . .
68 Elements of Writing

3. Analyse the following paragraph in a similar way:

Obesity is a growing problem in many countries. It can
lead to various medical conditions which increase the
demand for public health services. There is no clear
agreement on the causes of the condition, although some
doctors blame a sedentary lifestyle. This does not explain
why only certain people suffer from the condition, while
others are not affected. Another theory is that a high
fat diet, linked to modern processed food, is to blame.
Recent research shows that most obesity sufferers do eat
this unhealthy diet.

Problem

Cause A

Argument against cause A

Cause B

Conclusion in favour of B

4. Use the following points to build an argument in one paragraph:

Topic: University expansion
Problem: Demand for university places is
growing, leading to overcrowding
Solution A: Increase fees to reduce demand
Argument against A: Unfair to poorer students
Solution B: Government pays to expand
universities
Argument against B: Unfair to average taxpayer who
would be subsidising the education
of a minority who will earn high
salaries
Conclusion: Government subsidises poorer
students
 2.1 Argument 69

5. Think of a similar debate in your own subject. Complete the

table and write a paragraph which leads to a conclusion.

Topic

Problem

Solution A

Argument against A

Solution B

Argument against B

(Solution C)

Conclusion
 2.2 Cause and Effect
cross-reference
1. The relationship between two situations can be shown in a
variety of ways:
3.20 Verbs – Passives

CAUSE: heavy EFFECT:

rain flooding

Heavy rain causes flooding.

Heavy rain leads to flooding.
Heavy rain results in flooding.
Heavy rain produces flooding.

EFFECT: CAUSE: heavy

flooding rain

Flooding is caused by heavy rain. (note use of passive)

Flooding is produced by heavy rain.
Flooding results from heavy rain.
cross-reference 2. It is also possible to use conjunctions which demonstrate
3.7 Conjunctions
cause and effect.

Cause Effect
because (of) so
since therefore
as consequently
owing to which is why
due to

Because it rained heavily, the flooding was severe.

(because + verb)
The flooding occurred because of days of heavy rain.
(because + noun)
As/since it rained heavily, the flooding was severe.
(conjunction + verb)
Owing to/due to the heavy rain the flooding was severe.
(conjunction + noun)
(also: Owing to it raining . . .)
 2.2 Cause and Effect 71

It rained heavily for days, therefore the flooding was severe.

(used in mid-sentence)
NB It is more common to use conjunctions to illustrate
particular situations.
3. Decide whether the following are particular or general, then
complete them with a suitable verb or conjunction.
a) Childhood vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
reduced infant mortality.
b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the cold
winter hospital admissions increased.
c) Printing money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . higher
inflation.
d) The summer was extremely dry, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . many trees died.
e) In 2003, falling sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . the company closing two factories.
Write two more sentences from your own subject area.
f)

g)

4. Use conjunctions to complete the following paragraph.

WHY WOMEN LIVE LONGER
Some British scientists now believe that women live
longer than men a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T cells, a vital
part of the immune system that protects the body from
diseases. Previously, various theories have attempted to
explain longer female life expectancy. Biologists claimed
that women lived longer b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . they
need to bring up children. Others argued that men take
more risks, c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . they die earlier.
But a team from Imperial College think that the difference
may be d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . women having better
immune systems. Having studied a group of men and
women they found that the body produces fewer T cells
as it gets older, e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the ageing process.
However, they admit that this may not be the only factor,
and f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . another research project
may be conducted.
72 Elements of Writing

5. Study the flowchart and complete the paragraph which describes

it.
During a recession, people have more increased
government can money to spend and demand for
lower taxes buy more goods and goods and
services services

government has lower unemployment more jobs created

higher income to satisfy demand
from taxation and
spends less on social
security

If a country is suffering from economic recession, the

government can reduce taxation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6. Draw a flowchart similar to the one above, for your own subject,
and write a paragraph to describe it.