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Communism has proved yet another fact difficult to deny, namely that, on principle,
as an extension of the atheist revolutionary "fundamentalism," it conducted the
same policy adverse to religion on two different planes. The former is the one of
faith, where they act as atheists, pursuing to destroy God's presence in the soul
and mind of people, to destroy the image of Homo religiosus. In this respect, the
communists took the path of the deicide, by ideologically demolishing faith but
also by eliminating or physically isolating the believers and their shepherds from
society, from the national communities of the whole world. The latter plane is the
one of the church institution, i.e. the plane of the legal status of denominations,
of the relations with the State, of the fortunes, of their recognition irrespective
of the degree of autonomy or of the extreme subordinations accepted under treaties,
concordats or other modalities that do not run counter to the constitutional order
(cults not accepted by the law).
Both planes and the repressive, direct or dissimulated measures deriving therefrom
have been running counter to the human rights principles, to the freedom of
conscience and to the exercise of these freedoms.
20th century Romania experienced one totalitarian regime. It was the one of
communist origin and Soviet inspiration, extending between. 23 August 1944 and
December 1989. The communist totalitarian regime gradually acquired a state
terrorist character, due to the "participation" imposed by different methods that
ran counter to human rights and involved all institutions of the State in the
monitoring and repression of the country's own citizens (a genuine interpretation
of the human rights attests the citizens' millenary religious and even Christian
origin)1.
Through internationalist extensions, these methods infringed upon religious
freedoms in the countries annexed or caught in their influence sphere.
In keeping with the so-called radical revolutionary theory implemented most often
through coups d'etat, the entire population was forced through blackmail and terror
(as it did not have freely acquiesced organization alternatives) to become obedient
versus the goals pursued by the establishment, by its universal ideology, by the
single parties - instruments for putting into practice the destruction of the
"class enemies." They were geared to "re-educating" the whole society. But terror
was exercised notably against religion and the representatives of the traditional
Churches, deemed "conservative" and "reactionary." Tragic evidence is to be found
in the history of communist revolutions (whatever name they might have taken) from
the French Revolution and what it inspired - 1848, the Paris Commune, the anti-
Christian struggle methods in Latin America against the "Colonial Church" and the
promotion of "Liberation Theology", the strategy of fragmenting the Christian unity
into countless sects in the two Americas - to the forms instituted by totalitarian
communist revolutionarism beginning in 1917 in Russia and followed by the vast
complementary experiments in Asia and particularly in the East-European countries,
from 1944 to 1984-1990. The communist spirit that inspired the ideology of the
"world revolution" influenced to a large extent the world control of the anti-
religious and especially anti-Christian struggle either through the policy
conducted by the Komintern (Kominform), by the "peace movement," by other forms of
the atheist "world solidarity." Often the anti-religious policy ran hand in hand
with the interests of the states, with the national movements and with the
manipulation of communities by esoteric groups.
Such states of affairs generated resistance on the part of religious institutions
everywhere even when they had to accept compromises with the authorities in the
totalitarian communist countries. This holds true for the Orthodox. Catholic,
Buddhist and, to a lesser extent, the Muslim, Mosaic or Protestant Churches. A
highly important support resided in the preservation of religiosity as a form of
the everyday culture, from intimate inner feelings to the hidden events (baptisms,
weddings, and funerals with religious rituals) or even ones happening in public (as
in the communist Tibet), to the worst communist repression, leading to a minimal
survival of faith in Albania, where all structures of the religious life were
destroyed, or in the USSR, which for 70-80 years was the bastion of the Marxist-
Leninist anti-religious struggle in its spheres of influence: states, peoples,
intellectuals, universities, trade unions, allegedly ecumenical organizations etc.
Francois Furet emphasizes H. Arendt's assertion: Concentration camps reveal the
essence of totalitarianism, rounding it off to the effect that the basic inhumanity
of these ideological regimes has to be opposed to the Divine transcendence, as
Gurian pertinently shows. The latter upholds that the European intellectual left,
as a whole, is antifascist, not anti totalitarian. That is why he thinks highly of
George Orwell, the author of the well-known novel 1984. written back in 1949 and,
equally, of Raymond Aron, who are exceptions from the intelligentsia's time-serving
conformism, owing to their analytical capacity.
One should not overlook, however, the role H. Arendt assigned to terror under
totalitarianism, to total, terror as a law governing the movement of History under
Bolshevism, or of Nature with the Nazis, replacing the positive laws; total terror
becomes an essence of government and a principle of movement. The true essence of
all Ideologies was revealed by the role it plays in the totalitarian domination
machinery, becoming independent from the other human experiences.
The totalitarian regime destroyed all the social, juridical and political
traditions of the country (adding to which are the spiritual ones - A.A.).
The present dictionary shows that in any country where the communist regime is
enforced, it expresses state terrorist totalitarianism and that destruction of
religion is one of the major goals pursued with a steadfastness rarely met in world
history, even though it should have waited one more century before reaching the
deepest roots of religion as a whole and of Christianity in particular.
After the 20th century atheist experiences, we are recording today the following
values regarding the spread of Christianity in the world:
1) Catholics - 872, 104, 000 out of whom: Roman-Catholics - 862, 422, 000 and
Uniates (Eastern) - 9, 682, 00
2) Protestants - 339, 990, 000 out of whom: the United Church (Reformed and
Lutheran) - 65, 400, 000; Lutherans - 44, 900, 000; Reformed / Presbyterians - 43,
500, 000; Methodists - 31, 650, 000; Pentecostals - 59, 000, 000; Holiness - 6,
125, 000; Adventists - 6, 200, 000; Congregational - 2, 900, 000; Anabaptists
(Mennonites) - 1, 250, 000; Moravians - 750, 000; Quakers - 500, 000; and various
(other Neoprotestant sects) - 27, 475, 000.
3) Orthodox - 139, 380, 000, out of whom: Russians - 92, 542, 000; Romanians -18,
000, 000; Greeks - 13, 430, 000; Serbs - 8, 100, 000; various - 7, 326, 000
4) Anglicans - 52, 500, 000
5) Monophysites - 30, 267, 000 out of whom: Ethiopians - 17, 333, 000; Coptic - 7,
919, 000; Armenians - 3, 350, 000; Syrians - 1, 665, 000
6) Nestorian Church: close to Protestants - 30, 500, 000 and close to Catholicism -
14, 600, 000.
After the end of World War II, countries such as Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia,
Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Yugoslavia and a good part of
Germany's territory (up to Berlin) remained under the influence and direct control
of the former USSR.
The anti-religious policy of the occupiers manifested itself immediately after
August 1944 and especially after 1945, in different conditions, according to the
prevailing structure of the religious denominations.
In Russia, after 1917, the Bolshevik party was not late in starting the religious
repression of the Orthodox Church (O.C.) and then against the other denominations
in the territory of the USSR.
Here below are a few aspects of the Bolshevik repression against religion and
churches:
a) After the communist revolution of February 1917, an all-Russia Synod is held,
which restores the independence of the patriarch from the state (autocephaly).
b) The October 1917 revolution triggers the collapse of the O.C.'s unity, the
secularization and bullying of millions of believers, the ousting of ecclesiastical
personalities and the subordination of the Church.
c) The action of secularizing the Russian intelligentsia and the workers had
notable antecedents dating to the late 19th century (see the theories of the
communist Gramsci).
d) The period 1918-1948 (the decree on the separation of the Church from the State,
and not of the legal status) records a ruthless struggle against the O.C. and the
seizure of all assets (from all denominations). In 1927, Metropolitan Sergey
recognizes the authority of the Soviets and the opposition against the communist
totalitarian State comes to an end.
e) The repression - 150 bishops interned in the camps on the White Sea coast; wide-
scope atheist campaign; between 1917 and 1923 (the "Lenin epoch") 14,590.000
persons were victimized, including 40,000 priests; between 1924 and 1947 there died
ca. 36,000,000 people, including 5,000 priests (by virtue of the Kirov law which
provided for summary trial and rapid execution, a law promoted in 1794 by Couthon
for the "enemies" of the French Revolution).
f) The world's biggest Orthodox Cathedral, inaugurated in 1883 (the Cathedral of
Christ the Saviour), which had taken 45 years to build, is pulled down in 1931, in
just four months, on Stalin's order. Worth mentioning from among its riches are:
the central dome covered with 173 tons of copper; the massive cross which took the
height of the monument to 103 m.; 14 bells, with the central one, the Tsar's bell,
weighing 24 tons; 12 bronze gates, 48 very tall bas-reliefs; 3000 candlesticks; a
monumental iconostasis decorated with emeralds and gold, icons, over 170
commemorative marble plates etc.
g) A report submitted to Boris Yeltsin by Iakovlev, who headed the Commission for
the Rehabilitation of Political Victims, shows that 200,000 clerics were martyred
and 500,000 were detained and deported between 1917 and 1980. By 1937, 136,900
clergy had been imprisoned and 85,000 had been assassinated. In 1938, 28,000 were
arrested and 21,500 were executed. In 1922 alone, they assassinated 8,000 prelates,
including Metropolitan Beniamin, following the Bolshevik rulers' pressures with a
view to taking over the church treasure estimated at ca. 300 million dollars.
Current assets of the Church were distributed to the poor but the very precious
ecclesiastical objects were retained by the "new power." In Bessarabia (which after
the occupation became the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic), in 1944-1945 there
existed 24 monasteries and hermitages (9 for nuns and 15 for monks) with 1007 nuns
and 440 monks. In 1954 there Were 7 monasteries with monks and 8 for nuns, the
personnel aggregating 1393 persons, down from 2414 in 1925 (when it was already
reduced following the repression in the first seven years of Bolshevism). The data
comes from the review Destin romanesc (Romanian Destiny), 4/1996, no. 12, pp. 85-
100. The assets seized from the O.C. were worth a fabulous 2.5 billion gold rubles.
40,000 churches and half the number of mosques and synagogues were destroyed.
h) The clergy were compromised through the KGB's recruitment (Iakovlev s report
showed that many members of the clergy had acted against their conscience) under
reprisals, so that they can hardly be singled out for reproaches7.
i) The communists started a furious action to instill atheism into the people's
conscience, from children to the elderly, through the vilest practices of
slandering faith (which, as a matter of fact, were found among the crimes
perpetrated b\ the terrorist re-education organized in the prisons in Romania where
the young people of the 1948 generation were detained): publication of atheist
literature, forms of propagandist^ derision of the worship forms, the ban on
religion in schools, encouragement of blasphemies notably against the Christian
religion, and so on.
j) Between 1959 and 1964, under Khrushchev, the repression was revived: out of
20,000 churches there remained 13, out of 77 monasteries there were left 17, five
out of eight seminaries were shut down, and the Council of Religious Affairs was
set up to intensify state control over the Church; in 1964-1989 people were
arrested and interned in psychiatric hospitals; dissidence surfaced among the
clergy. I. Andropov, the former chairman of the KGB, infiltrated the Church as part
of a demolishing diversion, i.e. promotion of the actions characteristic of a
communist variant of the "Liberation Theology" within the traditional Church, which
after decades of terror was anyway helpless.
k) It is worth mentioning that the notorious Basic Guidelines of the NKVD for the
countries in the Soviet orbit (Moscow, 2 June, 1947 [top secret] K-AA/CC 113, Index
NK/003/47), item 34, "recommended" special attention to be paid to churches.
Cultural-educational activity has to be so directed as to generate antipathy for
the churches. It is necessary to monitor the church printing houses, the archives,
and the content of sermons, of songs, of religious education and of burial
ceremonies. That was in 1947, at the outset of anti-religious measures in the
countries occupied by the Soviets.
The Soviet model was to be forced upon the countries in eastern Europe and even on
those in Asia (Tibet), North Korea, Mongolia, China, Cuba, etc., in keeping with
the strategic, confessional or political particularities.
- The repression in Bulgaria (1948-1963) was more restrained and the Uniate Church
remained relatively autonomous.
- In Albania, the repression was ruthless, one may say it was even absolute with
regard to the church institution. Even among the Muslims there were thousands of
persecuted people.
- In the Catholic countries, the Roman-Catholic Church was sometimes tolerated
while at other times it was intimidated. Certain compromises were made in Hungary,
Poland, Czechoslovakia and the Baltic countries. The Iron Curtain functioned in its
most sensitive spots.
- The Protestant Church was obedient towards the state", which also explains the
low number of victims.
During the Vatican Council II, 1962-1965, there were 150 Catholic bishops in the
whole communist world, but the proceedings were attended by few bishops and by none
from Russia, Romania, China or North Vietnam. The Orthodox Patriarch
(Constantinopolitan) and the Ecumenical Council of Churches (a Soviet creation)
failed to send observers.
In Romania, the traditional churches and the cults were forced to take over the
Soviet subordination system imposed by the Communist Party (although the
autocephaly principle was encroached upon). Most of the quite large Orthodox
population was subjected to unfailing terror, given the deep roots the Orthodox
faith had in the people's conscience and, on the other hand, the fact that the
Romanian right wing was pervaded by the Christian spirit. The four-party "Front"
that assumed the power after 23 August 1944 did not want to see anticommunist
resistance movements based on connections that could become operational with all
the other Eastern countries invaded by the Red Army.
The Soviet totalitarianism also had a long-standing experience in point of imposing
its programme on other countries (within the Soviet Union and outside it through
the Komintern and through other allegedly ecumenical networks of influence).
The anti-religious repression model applied in Romania, between 1944 and 1989,
basically reproduced the ideology and policy of the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union and of the NKVD.
Here are the main components of the repressive policy.
1) The concern over forming a communist party which was absolutely missing. The
method? Rallying those who wanted power, the undecided, the ignorant and those
considered as "compromised", misleading them with "democratic" promises.
In all the major fields of the intellectual life were created "democratic,"
tolerant organizations "open to collaboration." This is how associations of the
Writers, Jurists, the united trade union movement, the Progressive Youth, the
National Democratic Front, the Democratic Community of Jews and other such
organizations came into being.
For the Orthodox clergy, the Democratic Union of Priests was set up after March
1945.
2) The position of minister at the Department of Religions was held in turn by
Gheorghe Pop, Constantin Burducea, the priest of a commune parish (March 1945
-April 1946) and Stanciu Stoian, who ensured the interference -of the Sovietized
state in the activity of the churches; the persecution of the clergy began as early
as 1945.
3) After Ion Antonescu's arrest, the new government decided to send to prison most
of the ethnic Germans who were citizens of Romania; they organized the first
detention camps for the enemies of the Soviet-type regime, including many priests;
the Church underwent massive purges, for different reasons that served as pretext
for reducing the ecclesiastical personnel; application of the obligations deriving
from the Armistice Agreement, of the Allied Control Commission in Romania which,
although it was quadripartite, was dominated by the Soviets, of the Paris Peace
treaty, accompanied by complementary documents or requirements related to the
special circumstances (the NKVD Protocol, orders brought by the Soviet advisers
directly from Moscow, the "visits" paid by Andrei Ianuarevich Vyshinski etc.).
4) In 1948, confessional schools were closed down; a sustained anti-religious press
campaign was conducted; on 1 December 1948, under Decree no. 358 the Greek-Catholic
Church (united with Rome) was dissolved. The measure was dictated by the politburo
of the Romanian Communist Party and imposed arbitrarily (the RCP resolution was
made by Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Teohari Georgescu, Ana Pauker, Vasile Luca and Emil
Bodnaras, the last two having direct responsibilities for the "religious policy").
Moreover, the episcopal seats of the Roman-Catholic Church were reduced from 6 to
2.
Monastic life in the traditional churches was restricted almost down to
nonexistence. The measures were stepped up after the monarchy had been abolished
(1947), concurrently with the start of the campaign of arresting the participants
in the anticommunist resistance movement (about 200 thousand detainees and five
times as many people subjected to the Securitate investigations), reaching
nationwide proportions by 1964. The Patriarch of the Orthodox Church died while in
office in 1948. Many bishops of the Christian church were dispossessed of their
seats and arrested, after which they died, or were just purged or subjected to
forms of house arrest.
In July 1948, an all-Orthodox Conference was held at the level of metropolitans in
the Orthodox countries under Soviet occupation. On 19 July 1948 the concordat with
the Vatican was denounced, religion was eliminated from schools, on the basis of
the new education law, the fortunes of these schools were confiscated, and a new
law on the cults was passed, providing for the restriction of areas in the
possession of the traditional churches (mostly the Orthodox Church).
Previously, several bishops and vicars of the O.C. had been deprived of their
dioceses, some being even isolated in monasteries, just like the Roman-Catholic and
Greek-Catholic ones, while others were relegated to the lower ecclesiastical
echelons.
5) Arrests were made among the ecclesiastical personnel of the Orthodox Church,
Romania's majority church, as well as among the personnel of the other two
traditional churches. Gradually, the O.C. was dispossessed of the inherited assets,
of fields and buildings, through a policy of secularization. Later arrests were
operated also among other cults. After 1944 in Romania there existed 5 metropolitan
seats (of Ungro-Vlahia, Moldavia, Transylvania, Oltenia and Banat), 9
archbishoprics and 12 bishoprics.
6) A cursory statistic of the data contained in the Dictionary indicates certain
evaluations regarding the ordeals the ecclesiastical personnel in Romania was
subjected to in the totalitarian period.
It emerges that the Church was not only contemplative but also fighting. That
explains the measures taken against monks, who actively supported the anticommunist
struggle (as this Dictionary partly attests).
Categories of persons under surveillance (who "plotted against the democratic
gains")
"The internal reaction, made up of former industrialists and landlords, elements of
the former bourgeois state apparatus, retired officers, former policemen, clerics,
members of sects, former members of the so-called historical parties, Iron
Guardists and capitalist elements from the villages."
...In 1951, 417,916 persons were under surveillance, 5401 of who were arrested for
"inimical activity."
(A.S.R.I., Stock D, file 189, p.6-7 The White Book of Securitate, p.45)
Main directions of action of the political police: "exposing the imperialist
espionage actions"
...They pursued both to obtain data and secret information on the country's defense
system and to provoke certain acts of diversion and sabotage, to the end of
determining the collapse of the internal life and creating tension in society.
Attempts were made to involve the Iron Guardist groups that were active in the
mountains in the activity of sabotage, whereas the "Iron Guardists who had sought
refuge in monasteries were used for intelligence gathering, as couriers and for
providing shelter to parachuted spies."
The counterintelligence concerns of the Securitate then extended to the
representatives of the Roman and Greek-Catholic cults, as well as those of the
religious sects, all of whom were accused of anticommu'nist propaganda and
espionage in favour of the capitalist countries.
(A.S.R.I., Stock D, file 9604, vol.4, p.144 The White Book of Securitate, p.23)
�
Prof. PAUL CARAVIA