7 Physics Nos. 162-232

162
SECTION 5 - PHYSICS
UNIT 21
MEASUREMENT AND UNITS
OBJECTIVE:
After studying this lesson the cadets should be able to:
• Identify the system of unit of measurement
• convert the value of a physical quantity from one system of units to another.
INTRODUCTION
Physics is a fundamental science and it deals with matter and energy and their
transformation. It is also deals with mechanic, heat, light, electricity, magnetism, atomic
and nuclear and structures.
To understand how physics is related to life. Let us look at how man’s civilization has
developed from the time when man was dominated by superstition and fear; his belief that
things happened because of the powers of certain gods and goddesses, and man’s faith in
customs, sayings, goodluck and badluck.
Despite man’s ignorance, there were few who were deep thinkers, and these were commonly
known philosophers. They attempted to seek answer to all forms of problem with arguments
and discussions. Later, one of the Greek philosophers, Aristotle, influenced people through
.
his teaching that proof was a necessity before a conclusion was made.
The science of physics uses mathematics as a tool learning. A summary knowledge and
skills from arithmetic, algebra, plane geometry and general science are useful in the study
of physics.
21.1 SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT
The development of science was delayed so much by two great handicaps. One was caused
by the cumbersome number system and the second by the system of measurements and
computations. Before the thirteenth century the Roman numerals were used. You are familiar
with the Roman numerals such as V for 5, X for 10, C for 100, D for 500, M for
1000. To write 1995 in Roman numerals MCMXCV is difficult but more difficult will be
felt if you try to add, subtract, multiply or divide using this numerals. Furthermore, this
number system was no symbol for zero.
Unit 21 - Measurement and Units 163
In the 16th century when measurement was used as a device to learn about reality or truth
of nature, the Arabic system finally replaced the Romans, Babylonians and other number
system. It was during this period that men performed both qualitative and quantitative
experiments when observing the phenomena of life. They asked, how does it happen? And
how long will it happen? This introduction to measurement led to the rapid growth of physics
as science. Man realized that measurement plays a vital role in our life as we use it in almost
everything we do.
21.1.1 Fundamental Quantities and Unit System

All measurement units in physics can be expressed in the fundamentals quantities of length
( l ), mass ( m ), time ( t ), and electric charge ( Q ).
There are two system of measurement commonly used by physicists in their laboratory
work. Namely: Metric and English systems. The metric system known as System
International SI) has two variations: the MKS system or the meter-kilogram-second and the
CGS centimeter-gram-second. This two system are most widely used. The other system is
called English gravitational system. It is also known as the FPS system or the foot-pound-
second.
The basis metric units are: meter ( m ), a unit of length; liter ( I ) a unit of capacity;
kilogram ( kg ). a unit of mass and second (sec) a unit of time.
Other common subdivision’s of each of these units as well as other metric units are named
by the use of prefixes as shown below.
TABLE 1-1 Standard Metric Prefixes
Prefix Symbol Meaning Example
Fraction
deci d 1/10 or 10 -1 decimeter (dm)
centi c 1/100 or 10 -2 centimeter (cm)
milli m 1/1000 or 10 -3 milligram (mg)
micro u 1/1,000,000 or 10 -6 microgram (u g)
nano n 1/1,000,000,000 or 10 -9 nanometer (nm)
TABLE 1-1 Standard Metric Prefixes
Prefix Symbol Meaning Example
Multiples
Deka D 10 or 10 1 dekagram (dag)

hecto h 100 or 10 2 hectogram (hg)
kilo k 1,000 or 10 3 kilometer (km)
mega M 1,000,000 or 10 6 megameter (Mn)
giga G 1,000,000,000 or 109 gigameter (Gm)
Equivalent of Certain Metric Units
Length Mass
1 km = 1000 m 1 kg = 1000 g
1 hm = 100 m 1 hg = 100 g
1 Dm = 10 m 1 Dg = 10 g
1 dm = 0.1 m 1 dg = 0.1 g
1 cm = 0.01 m 1 cg = 0.01 g
1 mm = 0.001 m 1 mg = 0.001 g
Volume
1 L = 1000 cc
1 cc = 1 ml
Metric -English System Equivalent
1 m = 3.281 ft 1 kg = 2.2 lbs

= 39.37 in
1 in = 2.54 cm 1 mt = 1.1 tons
1 km = 0.621 mi 1 lb = 4545 g
1 mi = 5280 ft = 1609 km 1 oz = 28 g
1 cm = 3/8 in
1 yd = 3 ft = 36 in 91.44 cm
1 ft = 12 in = 30.48 cm
In order to carry out the process of unit conversion, keep the following rules in mind:
1. Units can be treated as algebraic quantities in an equation, and they may be multiplied
and divided by one another.
2. Each conversion factor can be written as the quantity 1. For example, there are 2.54
centimeters (cm) to an inch. This relationship may be written as:
2.54 centimeters or, in an equation form, as 1 = 1 inch
1= 2.54 centimeters
1 inch
3. Unit conversions may be performed by a series of multiplication's by the appropriate
factor of 1. If the unit conversions are correctly performed, all units should divided out
except the final desired unit.
The following examples illustrate the unit conversion process.
Example 1-1 Convert 80.0 kilometers to miles.

Solution: Let us use the symbol d for the distance whose unit is to be converted. Thus:
d = 80.0 kilometers
The required conversion factor is
1 kilometer = 0621 mile or 1 km = 0.621 mi

This conversion may be written as
1 = 0.621 mi/km
We can multiply the equation d = 80.0 km by 0.621 mi/km without affecting the equality
multiplication by this quantity will only change the units of the distance: thus, we may write
d = (80.0 km)(0.621 mi/km) = (80.0 x 0.621)(km x mi/km) = 49.7 mi.
Note that in the conversion process, the unit of km is to be multiplied by the unit of mi/km.
We consider the multiplication of these units as the multiplication of two fractions (one
fraction is km/1 and the other is mi/km). In the multiplication of two fractions, the numerator
of the answer is the product of the numerators of the original fractions, and the denominator
of the answer is the product of the denominator of the original fractions: Thus
km mi km x mi
x =
1 km 1 x km
Note that the km divides out of the numerator and denominator., we may write d = 49.7 mi
SECTION 5 - PHYSICS 166
UNIT - 22
FORCE AND MOTION

OBJECTIVE:
• State the Newton’s law of motion.

• Define force, inertia and mass.
• Differentiate between weight and apparent weight.
• Differentiate static and kinetic frictional forces.
22.1 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW: LAW OF INERTIA
A body at rest or moving with constant velocity remains at rest or moving with
constant velocity unless an unbalanced external force act on it.
Any influence that can change an object’s speed or direction of motion is called force. A
force is anything which causes, or tends to cause, a change in the velocity of an object,
thereby causing acceleration.
The S.I unit of force is in Newton (N) which has already been defined as the force which
when applied to a mass of 1 kg, imparts to it an acceleration of 1 m/s2, i.e. “ if we want to
give a body an acceleration of 2 m/s2 instead of 1 m/s2, we must have twice as much force.
Force (N) = mass ( kg ) x acceleration ( m/s2)
F = ma
Example: A horizontal force acting on a 2.50 kg object produces a horizontal acceleration
of 6.00 m/s2. See figure 22.1. Find the magnitude of the net force acting on the
object.
given: mass: m = 2.50 kg a = 6.00 m/s2
acceleration: a = 6.00 m/s2

2.50 kg F =?
find: magnitude of the net force: F = ?
Fig. 22.1
Unit 22 - Force and Motion 167
Solution: Since we are given the mass and acceleration of an object, we can find the
magnitude of the net force acting on it by using the scalar form of Newton’s
second law.
working equation: F = ma
substitution: = (2.50 kg) (6.00 m/s2 )
= ( 2.50 x 6.00) ( kg. m/s2)
answer: F = 15.0 N
We have seen that all material objects tend to resist changes in their state of motion. From
Newton’s first law, an object at rest tends to remain at rest, and a moving objects tends to
keep moving at a constant velocity. The tendency of material objects to resist changes in
their state of motion is called inertia. So Newton’s first law is also called the law of inertia.
There many examples illustrating the property of inertia. Automobile seat belts provide a
surface that pushes backward on your body to keep you from moving into dashboard or
steering wheel when your car suddenly stops. If you jam on your brakes, you feel your
body move forward in the seat see figure 22-2 What is actually happening is that the inertia
of your body tends to keep you moving at a constant velocity with respect to earth while the
entire car is slowing down. Your body will continue its forward motion until a force slows
it down.
Fig. 22-2 The Law of Inertia

Objects tend to resist changes
in their state of motion
Some objects resist changes in their state of motion more than the others. For example, a
bricks is harder to move than a cereal box; a large truck is harder to move than a small car.
The harder it is to change the state of motion of an object, the more inertia it has. A
quantitative measure of the inertia of an object is called its mass.
22.2 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW: THE LAW OF ACCELERATION
The acceleration of an object is directly is directly proportional to the net force

acting on it and inversely proportional to the object’s mass.
Force = mass x acceleration where:

Force F = magnitude of the unbalanced external force
acceleration = m = mass of the object
mass
a = magnitude of the acceleration
Example: A horizontal force of magnitude 100 N pulls on a 5.00 kg mass see figure 22 -3
The mass is initially at rest. If the force acts for 3.00 s,
Find: (a) the magnitude of the acceleration produced by the force
(b) the distance traveled by the mass in 3.00 s.
given: magnitude of net force: F = 100 N
mass = 5.00 kg
initial velocity: v0 = 0 m/s
time: t = 3.00 s
find: a. acceleration: a = ?
b. distance traveled s = ?
t = 0s
F = 100 N
Fig. 22 -3
Solution: We can find the acceleration of the mass by solving for a.
Force
acceleration =
mass
a = 100 N
5.00 kg
= ( )( )
100
5.00
N
kg
= 20.0
(
kg. m/s2
kg )
a = 20.0 m/s2 Ans.
Note that since the unbalanced force acting on the object is horizontal, the direction of the
acceleration vector is also horizontal.
22.3 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW: LAW OF INTERACTION
Whenever two objects interact with each other, the forces they exert on each other
are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
The term action refers to the force that one object exerts on a second. The term reaction
refers to the force the second objects exerts on the first. The action and reaction forces are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Note that the action and reaction forces act on different objects. For example, as shown in
figure 24- 4, if you push on an object with force F, it pushes back on you with force F’
which is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Fig. 22 - 4 Action- Reaction Forces

Action-reaction forces are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction.
22.4 WEIGHT AND APPARENT WEIGHT
The weight w of an object is the gravitational force acting on it. Weight is a force vector
which always points vertically downward see figure 22 - 5. Since a weight is a vector
quantity, it has both magnitude and direction. When solving problem, always assume that
the direction of the weight vector is vertically downward. We will speak of weight in terms
of its magnitude w and will not explicitly state its direction.
Fig. 22 - 5 Direction of Weight

The weight of an object always
points vertically downward.
The weight of an object is related to its mass but is not equal to its mass. The relationship
between the weight w of an object and its mass m may be derived from Newton’s second
law. Considered a freely falling object see figure 22 - 6. By the definition of free-fall, the
only force acting on the object is the force of gravity - that is, its weight. Also, the
acceleration of a freely falling object is the force of gravity.
m
g
Earth ‘s surface
Fig. 22 - 6 Weight and Free Fall
The only force acting on a freely
falling object is its weight.
If we apply the scalar from Newton’s second law, to a freely falling object, we obtain the
relationship between weight and mass. The scalar from of Newton’s second law is
F = ma but for a freely falling object, F = w and a = g

Substituting w for F and g for a in equation F = ma yields the relationship between

weight and mass.
w = mg where:
w = weight of the object
m = mass of the object
g = acceleration due to gravity
Example: A 10.0 kg object rests on a horizontal surface see figure 22 - 7.
find: (a) its weight
(b) the magnitude and direction of the normal force acting on the object.
given: mass: m = 10.0 kg

N
find: a. Weight w = ?
b. Normal force: N = ? 10.0 kg
Solution a: w = mg w
= ( 10.0 kg) (9.81 m/s2) Fig. 22 - 7
= ( 10.0 x 9.81 ) ( kg x m/s2 )

= 98.1 N
The direction of the weight vector is vertically downward
Solution b Since the object is at rest on the table, its acceleration is zero. Therefore, by
applying Newton’s second law to the object, we see that the sum of the
forces in the vertical direction is also zero. Thus; N = w = 0
Since these two vertical forces are in opposite directions see figure 22 - 7,
they must be equal in magnitude in order for their vector sum to be zero.
N = w
= 98.1 N
N = 98.1 N
Since N is opposite to w, the direction of N is vertically upward.
22.5 FRICTION
Whenever two solid surfaces are in contact with each other, they exert a frictional force on
on each other which tend to oppose relative motion of the two surfaces. Frictional forces
always tend to oppose the motion of the two surfaces which are moving with respect to each
other. This type of frictional force is called the kinetic frictional force (f k ). For example,
all moving objects eventually come rest because of the force of friction acting in a direction
opposite to the direction of motion. See figure 22 - 8.
v v
f k f k
Fig. 22 - 8 Kinetic Frictional Force

Kinetic frictional force always opposes
motion.
Another type of frictional force exists even if the two surfaces are in contact with each
other but are not moving relative to each other. This type of frictional force is called static
frictional force ( f s ) For example, you may try to move a large crate resting on a rough floor
by pushing on it with a relative small horizontal force F see figure 22 - 9a. You find that the
crate does not move since there is an opposing static frictional force which is equal in
magnitude to your push.
As you push harder figure 22 - 9b, the crate remain at rest, because the static frictional force
increases in magnitude to equal that of your push. When your push just exceeds the
maximum static frictional force see figure 24 - 9c, the crate begins to move.
v=0 v = 0
a = 0 a = 0
F F
fs fs
F = fs F = fs
( a) Static friction ( b) Static friction
v = 0 v >0
a> 0 a >0
F F
f k
fs max
F > f k
F > fs max
( c) Slip point (d) Kinetic friction
Fig. 22 - 9 Static and Kinetic Frictional Force
As the force applied to the crate increases, the static frictional force increase to maximum.
Once the crate begins to move, a smaller, constant kinetic frictional force acts on the crate.
When a stationary object just begins to move, it is said to be at its slip point. The opposing
static frictional force has a maximum value, fs max Once you apply a force greater than this
maximum value, the crate begins to move (see figure 22 - 9d). However, once the crate is
moving, the kinetic force of friction acts on the crate. You do not have to push as hard on the
crate to keep it moving at a constant velocity, because the kinetic frictional force usually has
smaller magnitude than the maximum static frictional force.
Another type of frictional force exist between two solid objects when one rolls over the
surface of each other is called rolling friction ( f R ). For example, a ball or a wheel rolling
over a hard surface experiences a rolling frictional force. Rolling frictional force are usually
much smaller in magnitude than either the static or kinetic frictional forces.
Coefficients of friction are given different labels depending on the type of relative motion
between the surfaces in contact. For kinetic friction, in which two surfaces are sliding
relative to each other, the constant is called the coefficient of kinetic friction ( µ k ). For
static friction, in which the surface are rest with respect to each other, it is called coefficient
of static friction ( µ S). For rolling friction , it is called the coefficient of rolling
friction ( µ R )
Equation for the following frictional forces
Kinetic frictional force f k = µk N

Maximum static frictional force fs max = µS N
Rolling frictional force f R = µR N
Example: A 15.0 kg wooden crate rest on a horizontal wooden table. Assume that µ S =
0.500 and µ k = 0.300. How large a horizontal force is required to (a) just start the crate
moving and (b) keep it moving at constant velocity?
Given: mass m = 15.0 kg
Coefficient of static friction: µ S = 0.500
Coefficient of kinetic friction: µ k = 0.300
Find: a) force to start motion: Fa = ?
b) force for constant motion: Fb = ?
Solution a Step 1
The force needed to start the crate moving is just slightly larger than fs max
Therefore, Fa is equal to fs max , and we may write
Fa = fs max = µSN
Step 2
Before we can solve for Fa , we must find the normal force N. From the free-body
Diagram shown in figure 22 - 10a, the normal force N is equal to the weight w of
crate. The weight w may be found as follows.
N N
fs max . Fa fk . Fb
(a) (b)
w w
Fig. 22 - 10
w = mg = (15.0 kg) (9.81 m/s2 ) = 147.1 N

therefore
Fa = µs N
= (0.500) (147.1 N)
Fa = 73.6 N
Solution b If the crate move with constant velocity, its acceleration is zero. Therefore, the
sum of the forces acting on it (see figure 22 - 10b) must also be zero. If we
apply the scalar form of Newton’s second law in the horizontal direction, we
obtain
F = Fb - Fk = 0 therefore, Fb = fk but fk = µk N
where: N = w = 147.1 N
The working equation for Fb combines these equations.
Fb = µk N
= (0.300) (147.1 N )
Fb = 44.1 N
UNIT - 23
ENERGY
OBJECTIVE:
• Define the technical definition of work, power and energy

• Differentiate between kinetic and potential energy
• State the six types of simple machine
• Explain the relationship between work output and work input of a machine
23.1 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Work is done when a force is exerted on an object causing the object to move in the
direction of a component of the applied force. Forces make matter move, change their
direction, and make them move faster and slower or even stop their motion. Whenever
forces act, the concept of energy is involved. Energy is expended and work is done.
The heavier the load to be moved, the greater the amount of work to be done. Likewise,
more work is done when the object is lifted to a greater height. The amount of work done
varies with the force acting on the load and its displacement.
Work = Force x Distance W = FxD

The unit of work is the unit of force multiplied by a unit of distance. If the force is in
Newton (N) and the distance in meter (m) then the work is in Joules (J) . If the force is in
dynes and the distance is in centimeters (cm), work is in dyne - cm or ergs.
1 Nm = 1 Joule 1 Nm = 10 ergs.
Example: What work is done by a man who pushes a box along the floor with a force of
30 N over a distance of 5 m. ( disregard friction).
Solution: F = 30 N d = 5m
Work = force x distance

= (30 N) (5 m )
= 150 J
Unit 23 - Energy 177
The work W performed by a force acting on an object is a scalar quantity which is the
product of the magnitude of the displacement and the component of the forces in the
direction of the displacement. If the angle between the force vector and the resulting
displacement is ø, then the component of the forces in the direction of the displacement is
F cos ø (see figure 23.1). F
F
ø
F cos ø
s
Fig. 23 - 1
We may write now the equation defining work as W = F cos ø
Where: W = work done by the applied force

F = magnitude of the applied force
s = magnitude of the displacement resulting from the applied force
ø = angle between the applied force and the resulting displacement.
In the SI system, the unit of work is the Joules while in the English system, the unit of work
is in foot - pound (ft - lb). It is the amount of work done by a 1 lb force producing a displace-
ment of 1 ft in the direction of the force.
Example: A worker applies a horizontal force of 50.0 N to move the crate a distance of
3.50 m along a level floor (see figure 23 - 2). How much work is done by the
worker?
Given: applied force: F = 50.0 N
displacement: s = 3.50 m
angle between the force and the displacement: ø = 00
Note that the force and displacement are in the same direction.
Find: work done: W = ?
F = 50.0 N F
s = 3.50 m
Fig. 23 - 2
Solution: The work done by the worker may be found directly by using :
W = Fs cos ø
= (50.0 N) (3.50) m)( cos ø )
= 175 J
23.1.1 Work done by a force of an angle with the Displacement
If we push or pull a mass of 2.5 kg along a floor at a distance of 2 m, the force we exert is
not equal to the weight, because there is friction and
f = µFN where: µ is the coefficient of friction and FN is the normal force equal to mg.
Thus W = µFN . d
Example: how much work is done when 2.5 kg package is pushed to a distance of 2 m
along a level floor? The coeff. of friction is 0.2)
Solution: W = µFN . d W = F x D however, F = µFN

= (0.2)(2.5 kg)(9.81 m/s2)(2 m)
= 9.61 J
F = (0.2)(2.5)(9.81) = 4.9 N
23.2 POWER
Power is a measure of how fast work is being done by a force. In many cases, the amount of
time needed to perform a job is as important as the amount of work to be done. If one
machine does a certain amount of work in 10 minutes, while another machine does exactly
the amount of work in 5 minutes, then the second machine had twice as much power as the
first.
We may mathematically define power in the following way: Suppose that a force F perform
an amount of work W in a time t. The power P expended by the force in performing the
work may be written as
work done W
power = In equation form, we may write P =
elapsed time t
Where: P = power expended by the force
W = work done by the force
t = time required for the work to be done
The unit of power in the SI system is the watt (W). It is named after the Scottish engineer
James Watt (1736 - 1819) who invented the steam engine. Power expended at the rate of
1 W if 1 J of work is done in 1 s. Thus,
1 W = 1 J/s
The unit of watt is too small for most technical and industrial application. The larger unit
of a kilogram (KW) is often used, where: 1 kW = 1000 W
In English system, the unit of work is the foot-pound and the unit of time is the second.
Therefore, in the English system, the unit of power is the foot - pound per second (ft - lb/s).
So it is often replaced by the unit of horsepower (hp), where 1 hp = 550 ft . lb/s
The conversion factor between the units of horsepower and watt are:
1 hp = 746 W = 0.746 kW 1 kW = 1.34 hp
Example: A force of 300 N acts on an object for 30.0 sec., causing it to move 50.0 m in the
direction of the force. Find the power expended by the force in (a) watt and (b)
kilowatts.
Given: applied force: F = 300 N
time: t = 30.0 sec
displacement: s = 50.0 m
angle between the applied force and the displacement: Ø = 00
Find: a) expended power in watts: P = ?
b) expended power in kilowatts: P = ?
W
Solution a From the definition of power, we may write P =
t
Using the definition of work, we may write W = Fs cos ø
Combining this two equation
Fs cos ø (300 N)(50.0 m)(cos 00)
= 500 W
P = =
t 30.0 sec
Solution b In order to convert the power to kilowatts, we use the conversion factor
1 = kW = 1000 W The expended power in kilowatts is therefore
1 kW
P = 500 W x P = 0.500 kW
1000 W
23.3 WORK AND ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work. The units of energy are the same as the units of work, the
joule and foot-pound. Although energy appears in many different forms, we will concentrate
on kinetic and potential energy.
In order to illustrate the relationship between work and energy, imagine that you are. As you
throw the bowling ball, you do work on it because you exert a force on the ball and it moves
through a distance. After you let go of the ball, it rolls down the alley, strike the pins, and
exert a force on them. Since the pins moves through some distance, the ball does work on
them. Therefore, when you did work on the ball, you gave it energy, because you gave it the
ability to do work on the pins. Any moving object has the ability to work. We call the energy
of moving objects its kinetic energy KE. From the concept of kinetic, we see that the work
done on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic energy.
We will now derive an equation for the kinetic energy of an object in terms of its mass m
and its speed v for an object moving on a horizontal, frictionless surface. A constant
horizontal force F is applied to the object, causing it to undergo a constant acceleration a
(see figure 23 - 3)
v a v
o f
F F
m
s
Figure 23 - 3 Work and Kinetic Energy
The change in an object’s kinetic energy
is equal to the work done on it.
The object moves through a horizontal displacement s. The work done on the object by the
force is equal to the change in its kinetic energy, KE ( is a Greek letter delta). Thus,
work done on object = change in kinetic energy

or
W = KE
The work done on the object is

W = Fs cos ø = Fs cos 00 (the force is horizontal)
W = Fs cos ø = Fs cos 00 (the force is horizontal)
But from the study of constant-acceleration motion, recall that

W = (ma)s = mas
But F = ma, according to Newton’s second law. Therefore
v2f v20
v2f = v2 + 2as Solving for as we obtain as =
0
2
Substituting into equation for work W, we have
m ( v2f v02 ) m ( v2f v02 )

W = Therefore KE =
2 2
Since the kinetic energy is the work needed to move an object from rest to its final speed
we have:
v0 = 0 and W = KE
So the kinetic energy of a moving object becomes
1
KE = mv2f
2
Where:
KE = kinetic energy of the object

v = speed of the object
Recall that the work done on an object by a force is equal to the change in its kinetic
energy. Using the previous equation for KE, we may write
W = KE
1 1
W = mv2f mv20
2 2
1
W = m ( v2f v20 )
2
Example: Find the kinetic energy of an 80.0 kg person running at a speed of 5.00 m /s.
Given: mass: m = 80.0 kg
speed: v = 5.00 m /s
Find: kinetic energy: KE = ?
Solution: The kinetic energy of the person may be found by using this formula
directly:
1
KE = mv2
2
= ()
1
2
(80.0 kg) (5.00 m /s)
= 1.00 x 103 kg . m2/s2

KE = 1.00 x 103 J Ans
23.4 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
The gravitational potential energy PE of an object is the energy it has because of its position
For example, a pile driver is a device which uses a heavy weight to drive a piling into the
ground (see figure 23 - 4). Since work is done in lifting the weight above the piling, the
weight has the ability to do work when it falls.
Figure 23 - 4 A Pile Driver Work is done by the

pile driver weight when it strikes the piling.
The gravitational potential energy of an object is the work needed to lift the object of mass
m to a height h above its initial position. (see figure 23 - 5).
PE = mgh
F = mg
h
Fig. 23 - 5
The force F needed to just lift the object is equal in magnitude to the weight of the object.
The displacement s of the object is the height h . Therefore, we may write
PE = work done in lifting or PE = Fs cos ø
In this case,
F = weight = mg
s = displacement = h
ø = 00
(the force and the displacement are in the same direction). Therefore.
PE = (mg) (h) (cos 00 ) or PE = mgh
Where:
PE = gravitational potential energy of the object
h = height of the object above some reference level
The reference level from which heights are measured is arbitrary. Usually, we measure
heights from the lowest level of the object. However, once a reference level is chosen for a
problem, it may not changed during the solution of the problem.
Example: A 5.00 lb object is held 2.00 ft above a tabletop. The tabletop is 3.00 ft above
the floor., which, in turn, is 25.0 ft above ground level (see figure 23 - 6). Find
the potential energy of the object relative to (a) the tabletop, (b) the floor, and
(c) the ground. When we label the given information, we will use the subscript
t for tabletop, f for floor, and g for ground.
Given: weight of the object: mg = 5.00 lb
height of the tabletop: ht = 2.00 ft
height of the object with respect to the floor:
hf = 2.00 ft + 3.00 ft + 5.00 ft
height of the object with respect to the ground:
hg = 2.00 ft + 3.00 ft + 25.0 ft = 30.0 ft
Find: a. Potential energy of the object relative to the table: PEt = ?
b. Potential energy of the object relative to the floor: PEf = ?
c. Potential energy of the object relative to the ground: PEg = ?
2.00 ft tabletop
3.00 ft floor
25.0 ft
ground
Fig. 23 - 6
Solution a The object’s potential energy in each of the three parts of this example
will be found by this formula directly
PEt = mght Solution c PEg= mghg
= (5.00 lb) (2.00 ft)
= (5.00 lb) (30.00 ft)
PEt = 10.0 ft . lb
Solution b PEf = mghf PEg = 150.0 ft . lb
= (5.00 lb) (5.00 ft)

PEf = 25.0 ft . lb
23.5 MACHINES AND EFFICIENCY
A machine is any device that uses energy to multiply and / or change the direction of a force
For example, a car jack (see figure 23 - 7) is a machines which multiplies the force exerted
on its handle so that a relatively small force can lift a car off the ground. Thus, a force of
about 50 lb exerted on the jack handles produces a force of about 2000 lb on the car. Notice
that the jack handles moves through a greater distance that the automobile.
Figure 23 - 7 A Car Jack as a Machine

A small force applied to the jack handle can
lift a heavy car.
Machines may also be used to change the direction of a force. For example, a pulley system
may be used to lift the engine from a car. A downward pull on the rope lifts the car engine up
(see figure 23 - 8). Most machines, however complicated, are combinations of the following
three basic machines: inclined plane, the lever, and the hydraulic press (see figure 23 - 8).
Figure 23 - 8 A Pulley System as a Machine

A small force applied to the rope can lift an
automobile engine.
The inclined plane shown in figure 23 - 9(a) allows us to lift a weight w by applying a force
F parallel to the incline. Thus, if we use an inclined plane, we can lift an object by applying
a force which is smaller than a weight. We can do the same thing with the lever and the
hydraulic press shown in figure 23 - 9(b), and 23 - 9©. Different methods are used by each
machine in lifting the weight.
Figure 23 - 9 The Three Basic Machines
All machines have three basic characteristics:

1. Energy is inputted to the machine from an external source. Since energy is the ability to
do work, the input energy is often called the input work.
2. An output force does useful work.
3. Some work is done within the machine against friction. This work is known as waste
energy.
In order to illustrate the basic characteristics of machine, we will draw a machine simply as
block box. That is, we will draw a rectangle to represent the machine without being
concerned with actual detailed workings of the machine (see figure 23 - 10).
Input Work, Wi Output Work, W0

Machine
Waste Energy, WW
Figure 23 - 10 The Black-Box Representative of a Machine

The input energy is equal to the sum of the work done by the
machine and its waste energy.
If we apply energy conservation to a machine, we see that
Input work = output work + waste energy

In equation form, we may write Wi = Wo + Ww
Where:
Wi = input work
Wo = output work
Ww = waste energy
The output work is always less than the input work since friction is always present in real
machines. Although machines can be very helpful, we will always get less useful work out of
the machine than we put in. The energy losses of a machine are expressed in terms of its
efficiency. A machine which has an efficiency of 100% converts all of its output work into
useful output work, with no waste energy. A machine with an efficiency of 60% convert
60%of its input energy into useful work, with the remaining 40% being waste.
The efficiency eff of a machine is the ratio of the machine’s output work to its input work.
Efficiency is commonly expressed as a percentage rather than as a decimal number.
Consequently, we write the equation for the efficiency of a machine.
Where:
Eff =
()
Wo
Wi
100%
Eff = efficiency of a machine (expressed in percentage)

Wo = output work
Wi = input work
In using a machine to lift an object, the efficiency equation becomes:
Fw h d Simple
Efficiency = F Fa machine
a d
Principle of the simple machine. In the absent of friction

h
the work output, Fw h, is equal to the work input F d
a Fw
Where:
FW = is the weight of the object
h = is the height through which it is lifted.
Fa = is the input force applied to the machine
d = is the distance through which Fa acts in the direction of the input motion
Example: A machine requires 395 J of input energy to perform 362 J of useful work. What
is its efficiency and how much energy is waste?
Given: work input: Wi = 395 J

work output Wo = 362 J
Find: a. efficiency: eff = ?

b. waste energy Ww = ?
Solution a The machine efficiency may be found by using this equation directly:
eff =
()
Wo
Wi
100%
= ( )
362 J
395 J
100%
eff = 91.6%
Solution b The energy wasted by a machine may be found by using this equation.
Ww = Wi - Wo
Ww = 395 J - 362 J
Ww = 33 J
UNIT - 24
DENSITY
OBJECTIVE:
• Differentiate between mass density and weight density

• Define specific gravity
• Solve for the volume of a substances given its mass and density.
24.1 MASS DENSITY AND WEIGHT DENSITY
Has anyone ever asked you, “what’s heavier, a pound of feathers or a pound of gold”? It
probably did not take you too long to answer that they both weight the same. But what is
the difference between them? The pound of feathers takes up more space that the pound of
gold. So we see that objects of the same weight can have different volumes. But objects with
the same volumes can have different weights and, therefore, different masses. For example,
imagine that you have two identical sized blocks. One is made of cork and the other is made
of steel (see figure 24 - 1). If you place them on a mass balance,you will find that the mass
of the steel block is about 30 times greater than the mass of the cork block. Thus, we see that
in order to adequately describe an object, we need to define a physical quantity which
combines both mass and volume.
Figure 24 - 1 Volume and Mass

Identical volumes of different substances
may have different masses
UNIT 24 - Density 190
The mass density p (Greek letter rho) of an object is a measure of how much mass there is
in a given volume. It is the mass m of the object per unit volume V. Under fixed condition
the mass density of an object is constant and dependent of its dimensions.
In equation form, the mass density of an object is given by:
p= m
V
where:
P = mass density of the object
V = volume of the object
Typical units for mass density are kilogram per cubic meter in the SI system of units and
slugs per cubic foot in the English system.
Example: What is the volume of a 2.25 kg block of copper?

Given: mass of copper: m = 2.25 kg
mass density of copper: p = 8.89 x 103 kg/m3
Find: volume: V = ?
Solution: In order to find the volume of the copper block, we may use this formula:
p= m
V
2.25 kg
=
8.89 x 103 kg/m3
p = 2.53 x 10 3 m3 Ans
In many application, the weight density D of an object is used. It is the weight of an object
per unit volume. That is,
m
D =
V
where:
P = weight density of the object
m = weight of the object
V = volume of the object
UNIT 24 - Density 191
You may be familiar with the English unit for weight density, which is lb/ft3. For example,
the weight density of water at 20C is 62.4 lb/ft3; this means that every cubic foot of water
at 20C has a weight of 62.4 lb.
Note that whenever we refer simply to the density of an object, we means its mass density,
not its weight density.
Example: What is the weight of water in a full, 20.0 gal aquarium fish tank.?
given: volume of water: V = 20.0 gal

weight density of water: D = 62.4 lb/ft3
find: weight of water: w ?
Solution: Step 1
We first convert the volume of water from gallon to cubic feet by using the
required conversion factor: Thus,
V = 20.0 gal x 0.134 ft3/gal

V = 2.68 ft3
Step 2
We can now find the weight of the water in the fish tank by using this equation
w = DV
= (62.4 lb/ft3) (2.68 ft3)
= 167 lb
The relationship between mass density and weight density may be derived as follows:
D =
w
V
but w = mg Therefore, D =
mg
V
= ()
m
V
g
But p= m and also D = pg

V
Where: D = weight density of the object

p = mass of the object
UNIT - 25
FLUID
OBJECTIVE:
• Define pressure
• State Pascal’s principles
• Explain the pressure in a fluid at rest.
• State Archimedes’ principles
A fluid is a substance that can flow. Therefore, both liquids and gases are fluids, although the
the dividing line between solids and liquids is not clearly defined. Because of its ability to
flow, a fluid does have a well-defined size and shape unless it is placed within a container.
Water in a river, the air of the earth’s atmosphere, and the blood in our bodies are examples
of fluid substances.
Since we are surrounded by fluids, their properties and use are of considerable importance.
For example, cars, aircraft, and boats are “streamlined” so that they can move through a
fluid with minimal resistance. Pipelines are used to carry fluids -- such as gas, oil, and water
- - over large distance. Arteries and veins are pipes which circulate blood through our body.
Fluids are often used in machinery to reduce friction between moving parts. They are also
used as heat transfer agents in heating and cooling system.
We will begin with the study of fluids at rest, called hydrostatics, and the basic concept of
hydraulic pressure. We will then study a simplified form of fluid flow and introduce the
concept of fluid flow rate.
25.1 PRESSURE
Suppose that in order to comfortably read this text, you lay it flat on a table. The book will
exert a downward force on the tabletop. The magnitude of this force is equal to the weight of
the book, and its direction is perpendicular to the tabletop. Notice that the force exerted by the
book on the tabletop does not act at a single point but, rather, is distributed over the area of the
table which is in contact with the book. Whenever a force is exerted over an area rather than
at a single point, we say that the force exerts a pressure on the area. In general, if a force acts
perpendicular to an area, the pressure exerted by the force is the force per unit area, or
F
P =
A
UNIT 25 - Fluid 193
where:
P = pressure exerted by a force
F = magnitude of the force acting perpendicular to the surface
A = area of the surface
Note that pressure is a scalar quantity. Since a force which acts perpendicular to a surface is
referred to as a normal force, the pressure exerted by a force is often referred to as the normal
force per unit area (see figure 25.1).
Normal force
Area
Figure 25 - 1 Pressure and Force

Pressure is the normal force per unit area
Notice for fluid at rest, the surface force acting on the fluid must be a normal force since
fluid at rest cannot resist tangential forces. Indeed, it is this inability to resist tangential force
that gives fluids the property of being able to flow. Therefore, a tangential force acting on a
fluid at rest causes the fluid layers to slide over one another, resulting in the motion of the
fluid.(see figure 25 - 2)
Tangential force
Segment
of a liquid
Fluid layer
Figure 25 - 2 Fluid flow A tangential
force causes a fluid to flow
The SI unit of pressure is newton per square meter (N/m2 ) This unit is called the pascal
(Pa), named after French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662). Thus,
1 Pa = 1 N/m2.
UNIT 25 - Fluid 194
The English unit of pressure is pounds per square inch (lb/in2 or psi). Four other pressure
unit are commonly used. The atmosphere (atm) is defined as:
1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa = 14.7 lb/in2.

The millibar (mbar) is defined as
1 mbar = 100 Pa = 0.750 mm hg
The inch of mercury is defined as
1 in. hg = 25.40 mm Hg
Example: A normal force of 35.0 N acts over an area of 12.5 cm2. What is the pressure
exerted by the force?
given: normal force: F = 35.0 N
surface area: A = 12.5 cm2 = 1.25 x 10 -3 m2
find: pressure exerted by the force: P ?
Solution: We can find the pressure exerted by the force using this equation:
F 35.0 N
P = =
A 1.25 x 10 -3 m2
= 2.80 x 104 Pa
In order to illustrate the difference between force and pressure, imagine that you are crossing
an asphalt street on a hot summer day. You observe a man and woman crossing in front of
you and notice that the pointed heel of the woman’s shoe sticks in the road surface and the
man’s flat heel does not. Being an experienced physics student, you perform some mental
calculation to determine why the woman’s pointed heel stuck in the hot asphalt while the
man’s flat heel did not.
You estimate that the woman weights about 125 lb and each of her heels has an area of
0.30 in 2,You also estimate that the man weights about 175 lb and that each of his heel has
an area of 5.00 in 2. If the man momentarily rest all of his weight on one heel, the pressure
exerted by his weight is 175 lb/5.00 in2., or 35 lb/in 2. However, if the woman momentarily
rests all of her weight on one pointed heel, the pressure exerted by her weight is 125 lb/0.30
in 2, 417 lb / in 2. Although the women weights 50 lbs. less than the man, her weight acts
over a much smaller area than the man’s. Therefore, the greater the pressure (stress) exerted
by the woman’s heel leads to a greater deformation (strain) of the asphalt surface.
UNIT 25 - Fluid 195
25.2 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE: HYDRAULIC PRESS
Have you ever wondered how the force you exert on a car’s brake pedal is transmitted to the
brakes? This and many other technical applications involving a hydraulic press are based on
the transmission of pressure through fluids confined in a container.
Let us consider a fluid confined to a cylinder with a tightly fitted piston. With the piston in
position we have a completely enclosed system confining the static fluid. Suppose we place
a weight on the piston (see figure 25 - 3)
Figure 25 - 3 Pascal’s Principles

Changes in pressure are transmitted
uniformly through a fluid.
The weight exert a pressure P on the top of the fluid. The pressure everywhere in the liquid
increases by the same amount P. The transmittal of pressure changes in a fluid was studied
by Pascal, and his description of this phenomenon is known as Pascal’s Principle. It states
that if a change in external pressure is applied at any point in a confined fluid, the same
change in pressure occurs everywhere within the fluid and inner walls of the container. An
equivalent statement of Pascal’s principles is that the pressure change in a body of fluid is
transmitted to every point within the fluid.
An important application of Pascal’s principles is the hydraulic brake system of an auto-

mobile. Figure 25 - 4 is a schematic diagram of a hydraulic disc brake system showing its
major components, including the brake pedal, master cylinder, calipers, and rotors. These
UNIT 25 - Fluid 196
components are connected by brake lines filled with an incompressible brake fluid. When
you step on the brake pedal, you increase the pressure within the entire brake fluid. The
increase pressure is transmitted undiminished from the brake pedal to the master cylinder
and then to the piston of each wheel brake. The increased fluid pressure causes wheel piston
to press the brake pads against the rotors. The frictional force against the brake pads and the
rotors causes a retarding force, which tends to slow the car. Hydraulic brake systems on
trucks and aircraft use similar arrangements.
Figure 25 - 4 Automobile Hydraulic Disc Brake System
Pascal’s principles is also the basis of one of the three types of basic machines, the hydraulic
press . A hydraulic press consists of two cylinders interconnected by a fluid system. The two
cylinders have close-fitting pistons on their upper portions (see fig. 25 - 5).
Figure 25 - 5 Hydraulic Press The hydraulic press

is a machine that is an application of Pascal’s Principles
The two pistons have different cross-sectional areas; Let us assume that the area A1 is the
smaller cross-sectional area. this piston is referred to as the input piston.
UNIT 25 - Fluid 197
The piston with the larger cross-sectional area is referred to as the output piston. A force F1
applied to the piston in the input cylinder produces a pressure P, on the fluid. The force F1
F1
P=
A1
Is referred to as the input force. The pressure within the output cylinder is F0/A0, where Fo
is the upward force exerted by the fluid on the larger piston.
According to Pascal’s principle, pressure is uniformly transmitted throughout the fluid,

including the fluid in the output cylinder. Since the pressure is equal throughout the fluid,
we may write
F1 F
= 0
A1 A0
where:
F1 = input force
F0 = output force
A1= cross-sectional area of the input piston
A0 = cross-sectional area of the output piston
Thus, we can obtain an output force F0 which is larger than the applied force F1 A small
input force F1 can be greatly increased if the area of the output piston A0 is considerably
larger than the area of the input piston A1 . Hence the hydraulic press can be used to increase
force.
In designing hydraulic systems, we often need to know the relationship between the input
and output force and the distances that the hydraulic piston move through. Recall from our
discussion of machines that for a 100% efficient machine, the work input to the machine is
equal to the work out of the machine. Since hydraulic machines usually have very high
efficiency of 100%, or
W1 = W0
Using the definition of work, we may then write the following equation for the hydraulic press
where:
F1 s1 = F0 s0
F = input force
1 S = distance through which the input piston move
0
F0 = output force S1 = distance through which the output piston move

UNIT 25 - Fluid 198
Example: When an input force of 150 N is applied to a hydraulic press, the input moves
by 6.50 cm. If the output force is 475 N, what distance does the output piston
move through ?
given: input force: F1 = 150 N
output force: F0 = 475 N
input piston displacement: s1 = 6.50 cm

find: output piston displacement: s0 = ?
Solution: We may find the distance through which the output piston moves by solving for
s0
F1s1 (150 N) (6.50 cm)
s0 = = = 2.05 cm
F0 475 N
Using the conversion of fluid volume, we may derive an equation relating the cross-sectional
area of the pistons to the distances through which they move. When the input cylinder moves
through the distance s1, it displaces a volume of the fluid, which moves into the output
cylinder to move upward to accommodate this volume of fluid. The volume of fluid which
flows out of the input cylinder, V1, is equal to the volume of fluid flowing into the output
cylinder, V0. Using the conversion of fluid volume, we may write
V1 = V0
But
V1 = A1 s1 and V0 = A0 s0 Therefore, A1 s1 = A0 s0
where:
A1= cross-sectional area of the input piston
A0 = cross-sectional area of the output piston
S0 = distance through which the input piston move
S1 = distance through which the output piston move
UNIT 25 - Fluid 199
Example: A hydraulic press consists of two cylinders whose pistons have cross-sectional
area of 6.50 cm2 and 75.0 cm2 (see figure 25 - 6). Initially, the two piston are the
Figure 25 - 6
same level. Find (a) the upward force on the larger piston if a downward force
of 15 N is exerted on the smaller piston, and (b) the distance through which the
larger piston moves if the smaller piston moves 15 cm.
Note that the piston areas are given in square centimeters and the input distance is given in
centimeters. Since, the units for distance and area will divide out in our equations, we could
use these units to solve this example. However, one should not mix SI units with the units of
centimeters and grams in the same equation. Therefore, we will convert centimeters to meters
and square centimeters to square meters.
Given: area of the input piston: A1 = 6.50 cm2 = 6.50 x 10 - 4 m2

area of the output piston: A0 = 75.0 cm2 = 7.50 x 10 - 3 m2
Input force: F1 = 15 N
Input distance: s1 = 15 cm = 0.150 m
Find: a) output force: F0 = ?

(b) output distance: s0 = ?
Solution: Solving for F0
F1A0 (15. 0 N) (7.50 x 10 - 3 m2 )

F0 = = = 173 N
A1 6.50 x 10 -4 m2
UNIT 25 - Fluid 200
Solution b Solving for s0 we can use the equation:
s1A1 (0.150 m) (6.50 x 10 -4 m2 )

s0 = = = 1.30 x 10 - 3 m
A0 7.50 x 10 -3 m2
25.3 PRESSURE IN A FLUID AT REST
Imagine that you are swimming underwater at a constant depth. Both of your eardrums feel
the pressure exerted by the weight of the water above your ears. However, regardless of how
turn your head (as long as you maintain the same depth below the surface of the water), the
water will exert the same pressure on your eardrums. If we place any surface in a fluid at rest,
the force per unit area (pressure) acting on a surface is the same regardless if its orientation
within the fluid (as long as we keep the surface at the same depth in the fluid). Thus, for a
fluid at rest, the pressure at a point is the same in all direction.
You may also know that the deeper you dive into water, the greater the water pressure
exerted on you. We will now find the fluid pressure at a depth h below the surface of the
fluid. This pressure is due to the weight of the fluid above that water. If we assume the fluid
is in static equilibrium - that is, not moving. - this pressure is called the hydrostatic pressure.
Consider a column of liquid having a height h and a cross-sectional area A (see figure 25 -
7). Let us further assume that the liquid is incompressible and has a constant density p. The
volume V of the liquid within the column is given by
Figure 25 - 7 Hydrostatic Pressure and Depth The hydrostatic

pressure at any depth within a column of fluid is due to the weight of
the fluid above that depth.
UNIT 25 - Fluid 201
V = hA
The mass of the fluid within the column is

m = pV or m = phA
The weight of the fluid within the column is
w = phAg
The hydrostatic pressure Pfluid at the bottom of the column of fluid is due t6o the weight of
the fluid within the column. Thus,
phAg
Pfluid = F = w = = pgh
A A A
The column height h is often referred to as the pressure head.
Example: A swimmer dives to a depth of 10.0 m. What pressure (in pascals) does the water
above the swimmer exert on the swimmer?
given: depth: h = 10.0 m
density of water: p = 1.00 x 103 kg/m3
find: hydrostatic pressure due to water: Pfluid = ?
Solution The pressure exerted by the water may be found by using this equation:
Pfluid = pgh
= (1.00 x 103 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)(10.0 m)

Pfluid = 98.1 kpa
The hydrostatic pressure is the pressure due only to the weight of the fluid itself. In many
cases, an external pressure exerted on the top of the fluid by the atmosphere or perhaps by a
piston. From Pascal’s principle, the total pressure P at a depth h in a fluid is equal to the
sum of the external pressure P ext exerted on the top of the fluid and the hydrostatic pressure
(see figure 25 - 8) Thus,
UNIT 25 - Fluid 202
Figure 25 - 8 Absolute Pressure and Depth The absolute pressure

at any depth is the sum of the hydrostatic pressure and the external
pressure exerted on the fluid surface.
P = Pfluid + P ext or P = pgh + P ext
Where:
P = total pressure exerted by the fluid

p = density of the fluid
h = depth within the fluid
P ext = external pressure exerted on the top of the fluid
The total pressure P is often called the absolute pressure exerted by the fluid.
25 - 4 ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
Have you ever wondered why a piece of metal will sink into a water surface but a metal ship
can float? You also may noticed that many other heavy objects float in fluids and that objects
feel lighter underwater than in air. The force which cause this phenomenon is due to fluid
pressure and is called the buoyant force B. This force, which is directed vertically upward,
partially balances the object’s weight. Thus, when an object is immersed in a fluid, its
apparent weight is less than its actual weight. The magnitude of the buoyant force is given by
Archimedes’ principle, which states that an object which is totally or partially immersed in a
fluid experiences an upward buoyant force whose magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.
UNIT 25 - Fluid 203
Note that the fluid displaced by the immersed object depends on the volume of the object
which is submerged beneath the fluid. If the object’s weight w is greater than the buoyant
force, it will rise. If the weight is equal to the buoyant force, it will float in equilibrium. Thus,
if a wooden block is held submerged underwater and then released, it will rise to the surface
and float. Part of the block is submerged, so that the buoyant force due to the displaced water
is equal to the block’s weight (see figure 25 - 9). The block’s depth in the water is such that
the weight of the block is equal to the weight of the displaced water.
Figure 25 - 9 Archimedes’ Principles A wooden block

sinks into water until the buoyant force of the water is equal
to the block’s weight
Archimedes’ principles is not a fundamental physical principles, since it can be derived from
other principles of physics. We can derive an equation for Archimedes’ principles by consi-
dering a cylindrical object completely immersed in a fluid as shown in figure (25 - 10)
Figure 25 - 10 Buoyant Force The buoyant force

on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the
fluid it displaces.
UNIT 25 - Fluid 204
The sides of the cylinder and each end experience a force due to the pressure of the fluid. The
forces acting on the cylinder’s sides balance each other, since they are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction. Since the bottom face is deeper than the top face, the fluid pressure on
the bottom face is greater than the pressure on the top face. This pressure difference leads to
the upward buoyant force on the cylinder.
The top surface of the cylinder in figure 25 - 10 is submerged at a depth h1 and its bottom
surface at a depth h2, We can find the force on each surface as follows:
F1 = P1A F2 = P2A or F1 = h1pgA F2 = h2pgA
Notice that F2 is greater than F1 since h2 is greater than h1 and p and g are constant. The
magnitude of the buoyant force B exerted by the fluid is the difference between these two
forces. Thus,
B = F2 - F1
= h2pg - h1pg
B = pgA (h2 - h1)

But h2 - h1 = l, the length of the object which is immersed in the fluid. Therefore,
B = pgAl
The volume V of the displaced fluid is equal to the volume of the object which is submerged
beneath the fluid’s surface. Thus, V = Al The mass m1 of the displaced fluid is given by
m1 = pV Therefore, the buoyant force may be written as B = pVg = m1g
Where: B = magnitude of the upward force exerted by the fluid on the immersed object
p = mass density of the fluid
V = volume of the fluid displaced by the object
m1 = mass of the displaced fluid
Since the term m1g is the weight of the displaced fluid, we derived Archimedes’ principle
by applying Newton’s second law to a cylindrical object immersed in a uniform-density
fluid. This result is true in general for an object of any shape in any fluid.
UNIT 25 - Fluid 205
Example: 1 A copper cube 20.0 cm on a side is completely submerged underwater. What
is the buoyant force acting on the cube?
given: length of side: l = 20.0 cm = 0.200 m

density of water: pw = 1.00 x 103 kg/m3
find: buoyant force: B = ?
Solution Step 1
Before we can use equation B = pVg = m1g to find the buoyant force acting
on the copper cube, we must first find the cube’s volume. The volume of the
cube whose side have length l is V = l 3
Step 2
Equation B = pVg = m1g may now be used to find B.
B = pwl 3g
= (1.00 x 103 kg/m3) (0.200 cm)3 (9.81 m/s2)

B = 78.5 N
Buoyancy and Apparent Weight
The apparent weight of an object immersed in a fluid is less than its actual weight because
of the upward buoyant force acting on the object. The apparent weight w’ of a submerged
object is equal to the difference its true weight w and the buoyant force B acting on it see
figure 25 - 12. Thus,
w’ = w - B
where:
w’ = apparent weight of the totally immersed object
w = true weight of the object (w = mg)
B = buoyant force acting on the object
Since the magnitude of the buoyant force acting on a
floating object equals its weight, the object’s apparent
weight is zero.
Figure 25 - 12 Buoyancy and Apparent Weight
Objects submerged in a fluid appear to weight less
UNIT 25- Fluid 206
Example: If a 25.0 cm3 piece of gold weights 4.73 N in air, what its apparent weight when
it is completely submerged in (a) water and (b) liquid mercury?
given: weight in air: w = 4.73 N
density of water: pw = 1.00 x 104 kg/m3
volume of the object: V = 25.0 cm3 = 2.50 x 10 -5 m3
find: a. apparent weight in water: w’w = ?
b. apparent weight in mercury w’m = ?
Solution: a Step 1
Before we can use the equation w’ = w - B to find the object’s apparent
weight, we must first find the buoyant force Bw acting on the gold when it is
submerged in water. Using this equation B = pVg = m1g we may write the
working equation;
B = pVg
= (1.00 x 104 kg/m3) ( 2.50 x 10 -5 m3) (9.81 m/s2)

= 0.245 N Ans.
Step 2
The apparent weight can now be found.
w’w = w - B
= 4.73 N - 0.245 N
= 4.49 N
Solution: b Step 1
We first find the buoyant force Bm when the gold is submerged in mercury
Bm = pmVg
= ( 1.36 x 104 kg/m3) (2.50 x 10 -5 m3) (9.81 m/s2)

Bm = 3.34 N
Step 2
The apparent weight can be found.
w’m = w - Bm
= 4.73 N - 3.34 N = 1.39 N Ans
UNIT 25 - Fluid 207
25.5 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The measurement of pressure is important in many everyday technical and scientific

situations. Two commonly used pressure-measuring device are the barometer and the
manometer.
A simple device for measuring pressure is the mercury barometer, invented by Evangelista
Torricelli (1608 - 1647). A long tube, which is closed at one end, is filled with mercury and
then inverted into a dish of mercury. (see figure 25- 13)
Figure 25-13 Liquid-Mercury

Barometer
The space above the mercury column contains only mercury vapor, whose pressure is so
small at ordinary temperatures that it can be neglected.
The liquid mercury in the tube rises to a height h above the mercury in the dish. The
pressure at the base of the mercury column is due to the weight of the mercury in the column.
This pressure must balance the atmospheric pressure; otherwise, mercury would flow into or
out of the tube. The height of the liquid-mercury column is therefore a direct indication of
atmospheric pressure. The relationship between atmospheric pressure and the height of
mercury column is given by
Po = pmghm
Where: Po = atmospheric pressure

pm = density of mercury
hm = height of the mercury column
UNIT 25 - Fluid 208
Many of the commonly used pressure units are defined in terms of the height of the column
of a liquid-mercury barometer. This height is the origin of the meteorological terms
centimeters of mercury, millimeters of mercury, and inches of mercury often used to describe
atmospheric pressure. For example, a pressure corresponding to a 1 mm height of a liquid-
mercury column ( mm Hg) is defined as 1 torr, after Torricilli, the inventor of the mercury
barometer.
Although atmospheric pressure is constantly changing, it is the basis for a unit of pressure. A
normal pressure of 1 atmosphere (atm) is defined to be the pressure that supports a column
of mercury that exactly 76 cm high at 00C, with g = 9.80665 m/s2. The density of mercury
at these conditions is 13,595.0 kg/m3. Using equation Po = pmghm the relationships
between the various pressure units are
1 atm = 76.00 cm Hg
= 760.0 torr
= 1.013 x 105 Pa
= 101.3 kPa
= 2117 lb/ft2
= 14.70 lb/in2 (psi)
= 29.92 in Hg
Example: What is the atmospheric pressure (in kPa) when the column height of a
mercury barometer is 77.1 cm and the density of mercury is taken to be
1.358 x 104 kg/m3 ?
given: height of the column: h = 77.1 cm = 0.771 m
density of mercury: p = 1.358 x 104 kg/m3
find: pressure (in kPa): P = ?

Solution Atmospheric pressure may be found directly from this equation P = pgh
P = pgh
= (1.358 x 104 kg/m3 )(9.81 m/s2) (0.771 m)
= 103 kPa
UNIT 25 - Fluid 209
Many pressure gauge measure the difference between the actual pressure and atmospheric
pressure; this difference is called gauge pressure Pg. The actual or total pressure is called
absolute pressure P. Gauge pressures can be either above or below atmospheric pressure.
A negative gauge indicates a pressure less than atmospheric pressure. The relationship
between absolute pressure and gauge pressure is
P = Pg + P0
Where:
P = absolute pressure
Pg = gauge pressure
P0 = atmospheric pressure
Note that all pressure must be expressed in the same unit before we use the equation:
P = Pg + P0
Example: Suppose that you use an air pressure gauge to measure the pressure in your car.s
tires. If you measure the pressure of one tire to be 28.5 lb/in 2, what is the
absolute pressure of the air in that tire?
given: gauge pressure: Pg = 28.5 lb/in2
atmospheric pressure: Po = 14.7 lb/in2
find: absolute pressure: P = ?
Solution The absolute pressure in a tire may be found directly from this equation
P = Pg + P0
= 28.5 lb/in2 + 14.7 lb/in2

P = 43.2 lb/in2 Ans
The open-tube manometer (see figure 27-14) is a device used to measure gauge pressure.
Figure 27-14 Open Type

Manometer
UNIT 25- Fluid 210
It consists of a U-shaped tube containing a liquid, usually water or mercury. When both ends
of the tube are open to the atmosphere, the level of the liquid in both column is the same.
However, if one end of the tube is connected to a system whose gauge pressure we wish to
measure, then the liquid in the other end rises until the pressures are equal. The difference in
the levels of the column is a measure of the gauge pressure.
The absolute pressure at the bottom of both columns are equal. If we call the absolute pressure
of the liquid in the container Pc, the absolute pressure at the bottom of the left column is
P = P0 + pgy1
The absolute pressure at the bottom of the right column is
P = Pc + pgy2 Thus, P0 + pgy1 = Pc + pgy2 Then Pc - P0 = pgy1 - pgy2
But Pc - P0 is the gauge pressure Pc of the substance within the container h . Thus,,
H = y1 - y2 Therefore, Pc = pgh
where:
Pg = gauge pressure of the substance within the container

p = density of the liquid within the manometer
h = difference in heights of the two column.
UNIT - 26
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
OBJECTIVE:
• Define commonly used temperature scale

• Explain the concept of mechanical equivalent of heat and heat energy
• Describe the method of mixtures
• Explain the energy requirements and temperature changes during phase changes.
26.1 TEMPERATURE AND TEMPERATURE SCALES
From early childhood, we have experienced the difference between hot and cold objects. We
learned that some objects, like snow and ice, feel cold to touch and other objects, such as
candle flame or a pot of boiling water, are hot, as well as dangerous, to touch. Temperature
is a measure of the “hotness” or “coldness’ of an object.
The sensations of hot and cold give us a qualitative measure of temperature. However, as
society developed and evolved into a technological society, a quantitative measure of
temperature was needed. Thermometers were invented to define and measure the temperature
of an object. There are many types of thermometers in use today. The most common type of
thermometer is the liquid-in-glass thermometer, which consists of a hollow glass bulb and a
hollow glass tube joined to the glass bulb as shown in figure 26-1.
Figure 26-1 Liquid-in-Glass

Thermometer The heat of
the liquid column is a measure
of temperature
UNIT 26 - Temperature and Heat 212
The bulb contains liquid mercury or alcohol. An increase in the liquid’s temperature causes
it to expand up the glass tube. Therefore, the change in the height of the liquid in the tube
can be used as a measure of the change in temperature.
The Fahrenheit temperature scale with the number 320F and 2120F at the freezing and
boiling point respectively was proposed by Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) a German
physicist, invented this scale. The Fahrenheit scale is widely used in English-speaking
countries, except in scientific works.(see figure 26-2).
Figure 26-2) Fahrenheit and Celsius

Temperature Scale
The Celsius temperature scale was invented by Swedish physicist Anders Celsius (1701-
1744). Celsius defined a new scale by calling the temperature at which ice melts (at standard
atmospheric pressure) 00C and the temperature at which water boils (at the same pressure)
1000C (see figure 26.2) The interval between these two temperature is divided into 100 equal
segments called degrees Celsius.
We can find the relationship between the two scales by observing that the melting point of
water on the Fahrenheit scale is 320F and the boiling point of water is 2120F (see figure 26-2)
The interval between these two temperature is 180 0. Therefore, a change of 1000 on the
Celsius scale corresponds to a change of 1800 on the Fahrenheit scale. A 10 change in the
Celsius temperature corresponds to a 1800/100, or 9/50, change in the Fahrenheit temperature.
Thus, we can convert temperatures from one scale to the other by taking into account this
difference as well as the difference in the temperature for the melting point of ice.
The relationship between Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature is:
9
TF = TC + 320
5
where:
TF = temperature measured on the Fahrenheit scale
TC = temperature measured on the Celsius scale
Solving the above equation for TC yields
5
TC = (TF - 320)
9
Example: Convert (a) 60.00F to Celsius temperature and (b) 60.00C to Fahrenheit
temperature.
given: Fahrenheit temperature: TF = 60.00F
Celsius temperature: TC = 60.00C
find: Celsius temperature: TC = ?

Fahrenheit temperature: TF = ?
Solution a We may convert a Fahrenheit temperature to a Celsius temperature by

using the equation:
5 5
TC = (TF - 320) TC = (60.00F - 320)
9 9
TC = 15.60C Ans.
Solution b We may convert a Celsius temperature to a Fahrenheit temperature by

using the equation:
9 9 (60.00C)
TF = TC + 320 TF = + 320
5 5
TF = 140 0F Ans.
The relationship between Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature is:
9
TF = TC + 320
5
where:
TF = temperature measured on the Fahrenheit scale
TC = temperature measured on the Celsius scale
Solving the above equation for TC yields
5
TC = (TF - 320)
9
Example: Convert (a) 60.00F to Celsius temperature and (b) 60.00C to Fahrenheit
temperature.
Celsius temperature: TC = 60.00C
find: Celsius temperature: TC = ?

Fahrenheit temperature: TF = ?
Solution a We may convert a Fahrenheit temperature to a Celsius temperature by

using the equation:
5 5
TC = (TF - 320) TC = (60.00F - 320)
9 9
TC = 15.60C Ans.
Solution b We may convert a Celsius temperature to a Fahrenheit temperature by

using the equation:
9 9 (60.00C)
TF = TC + 320 TF = + 320
5 5
TF = 140 0F Ans.
Fahrenheit and Rankine Temperature Scale
In the United State, the absolute temperature scale frequently used in engineering is the
Rankine scale. The Rankine scale is based on the Fahrenheit scale, so that a 10 change on the
Rankine scale is located 4600 below the Fahrenheit zero, since the temperature of 0 K
(absolute zero) corresponds to a Fahrenheit temperature of - 4600F (see figure 26-3). The
relationship between Rankine and Fahrenheit temperature is
TR = TF + 4600
where:
TR= temperature measured on the Rankine scale
TC = temperature measured on the Fahrenheit scale
Example: Convert (a) 75.00F to the corresponding Rankine temperature and (b) - 25.00C
to the corresponding Kelvin Temperature.
Celsius temperature TC = - 25.00C
find: a. Rankine temperature: TR = ?

b. Kelvin temperature: TK = ?
Solution a We may convert a Fahrenheit temperature to a Rankine temperature by using

this equation.
TR = TF + 4600
= 75.00F + 4600
TR = 5350 R Ans
Solution b We may convert a Celsius temperature to a Kelvin temperature by using

this equation.
TK = TC + 273 TK = - 25.00C + 273
TK = 248 K Ans
26.2 INTERNAL ENERGY AND MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT
What actually happens to the molecules of water when the water is heated? Why does the
temperature of a metal block increase when a machinists drills a hole in it? Because of the
atomic nature of matter, every body of matter contains internal energy due to the random
translational, vibrational and rotational motions of its atoms.
The total energy of an object depends upon its temperature, composition, mass and, physical
state (solid, liquid, or gas). However, only the temperature difference between an object and
its environment determines whether internal energy will be transferred from the environment
to the object, or vice versa. Thus, we can think of heat not as a substance but as a process
which changes the internal energy of an object. When an object is heated, its internal energy
increases; when it cool, its internal energy decreases.
As you know from everyday experience, if two objects initially at different temperatures are
placed in contact with each other, the warmer object will cool down and the cooler object
will grow warmer. In fact, both objects will eventually reach the same temperature. When
they do, the two objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium. For the two objects to reach
thermal equilibrium, the internal energy of the warm object decreased, and the internal
energy of the cool object increased. Changes in internal energy are said to be caused by the
transfer of heat energy from one object to another.
We may summarize our present understanding of the nature of heat as follows: Heat is the
process of transferring energy from one object to another solely as a result of the temperature
difference between them.
The heat unit, called the calorie (cal), was defined in terms of the effect of raising the
temperature of a known amount of water. More precisely, the calorie was defined as the
amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of 1 g of water at 14.5 0C by 10C.
Since SI units define quantities in terms of kilograms, the kilocalorie (kcal) is defined as the
amount of heat energy needed to change the temperature of 1 kg of water at 14.5 0C by 10C
In the United States, heating and cooling applications still use the unit of heat energy in the
English system - the British thermal unit (Btu). The British thermal unit is defined as the
amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of 1 lb of water at 63 0F by 10F
The relationships between the various units of heat energy are
1 Kcal = 1000 cal = 3.97 Btu
1 Btu = 252 cal = 0.252 Kcal.

Example: Convert 15.0 cal to the units of (a) Kcal and (b) Btu.
Solution a We can use the techniques of unit conversion

1 Kcal
15.0 cal x = 1.50 x 10 - 2 Kcal Ans
1000 cal
Solution b
15.0 cal x 1 Btu = 5.95 x 10 - 2 Btu Ans

252 cal
The conversion factor between energy and heat energy units in each system of units is called
the mechanical equivalent of heat. Modern measuring techniques have established the
following mechanical equivalents of heat:
1 Kcal = 4185 J and 1 Btu = 778 ft - lb
Example: The rate at which energy is waste by a machine is 25.7 W. If this energy is
completely converted to heat energy, how many kilocalories are wasted in 5.00 s?
given: power wasted: P = 25.7 W
time: t = 5.00 s
find: energy waste (in Kcal): E = ?
Solution: Step 1
Recall that power is the rate at which work is done. By solving the equation for
power
P = W For W, we obtain the equation W = Pt

t
Since energy is the ability to do work, E = W or E = Pt
E = Pt
= (25.7 W) (5.00 s)
= 128.5 J
Step 2 We may use the conversion factor previously to convert this answer to kilocalories.
128.5 J x 1 Kcal = 3.07 x 10 - 2 Kcal Ans

4185 J
26.3 SPECIFIC HEAT
Have you ever noticed that different objects heat at different rates? If you have gone to the
beach for the day and parked your car in the sun, you probably have noticed that by the end
of the day, the metal car body is hot. During the same time, the lake or ocean surface has
been in the sun but the temperature of the water has not changed much. We therefore say that
water has a greater capacity for absorbing and retaining heat energy.
Various substances require different amounts of heat energy to raise the temperature of a
given mass of the substance by the same amount. For example, 1 Kcal of energy is required
to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 10C, but only 0.0930 kcal is required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of copper by 10C.
The amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of a unit mass of a substance
by 10 is called its specific heat c. We can express the specific heat of an object in equation
form as:
Q
c = This equation may be written as Q = cm T
m T
Where:
Q = heat energy added to or removed from an object

c = specific heat of the object
T = temperature change of the object

If Tf and Ti are the objects final and initial temperature, respectively, then
T = Tf - Ti
Note that when the temperature of an object increases, Tf is greater than Ti and both T
and Q are positive. A positive value of Q corresponds to heat energy being absorbed
(flowing into) the object. Similarly, when heat energy flows out of the object, its temperature
decreases and both T and Q are negative.
The SI unit of specific heat c is the joule per kilogram per Kelvin (J/kg . 0C). For historical
reason, though, the unit of calorie per gram per degree Celsius (cal/g . 0C, which is equal to
kcal/kg . 0C) is frequently used.
Using the definition of the kilocalorie, we see that the specific heat of water is 1 kcal/kg . 0C.
That is, 1 kcal of heat energy is required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 0C.
Example: Find (a) the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 100 g of water from
25.00C to 55.00C and (b) the heat energy required to raise the temperature of
100 g of iron through the same temperature interval.
given: mass of water: mw = 100 g = 0.100 kg

mass of iron: m1 = 100 g = 0.100 kg
initial temperature: T1 = 25.00C
final temperature: Tf = 55.00C

specific heat of water: cw = 1.00 kcal/kg . 0C
specific heat of iron: ci =0.113 kcal/kg 0C
.
find: a. Heat energy to raise the temperature of water: Qw = ?
b. Heat energy to raise the temperature of iron: Qi = ?
Solution a in order to find the heat energy required to raise the water temperature, we
may use the equation Qw = cwmw (Tf - Ti )
Qw = cwmw (Tf - Ti )
= (1.00 kcal/kg . 0C) (0.100 kg) (55.00C - 25.00C)

Qw = 3.00 kcal Ans
Solution b we may use the same equation to find the heat energy required to raise the
temperature of the iron
Qw = cwmw (Tf - Ti )
= (0.113 kcal/kg . 0C) (0.100 kg) (55.00C - 25.00C)
Qw = 0.339 kcal Ans

26.4 METHOD OF MIXTURES
As you know from everyday experience, if two objects initially at different temperatures are
place in contact with each other, the warm object will cool down and the cooler object will
grow warmer. In fact, both objects will eventually reach a common equilibrium temperature.
For example, have you ever filled a bathtub with hot water and then found that the water
was too hot to step into? You probably ran some cold water into the tub until the water felt
cool enough. When the cold water was mixed with the hot water, the hot water lost energy
and the cold water gained energy until all of the water in the tub was at the same temperature.
If two objects which are initially at different temperature are placed in contact with one
another in a thermally insulated container, the objects do not gain or lose energy from their
surroundings. The warmer object loses energy and the colder object gain energy. The
decrease in the internal energy of the warmer object is equal to the increase in the internal
energy of the cooler object. This statement is an alternate form of the conservation of energy
in which heat energy is the only form of energy considered. For a thermally isolated system,
we may express the conservation of energy as:
Heat energy gained + heat energy lost = 0 or Qgained + Qlost = 0
We will use the equation Qw = cwmw (Tf - Ti ) to find Qgained and Qlost . Therefore, if an
object is heated, its temperature changes is positive ( since Tf > Ti ); and the heat energy
gained by the object is positive. However, if an object cools, its temperature change is negative
(since Tf < Ti ); and the heat energy lost by the object is negative.
The conservation of heat energy form the basis of calorimeter, which involves the transfer
of heat energy between objects in a thermally isolated system. In laboratories, the mixing of
hot water and the cold objects usually occurs in a calorimeter cup, which consists of two
metal cups, one inside the other (see figure 26.4)
Figure 26.4 Calorimeter Cup The

inner calorimeter cup is thermally
insulated from its environment.
The objects to be mixed are placed in the inner cup, which is thermally insulated by the air
between the cup and an insulated support gasket. A cover on the outer cup helps to prevent
energy transfer to and from the inner cup and its content. A thermometer and stirrer may be
placed through small holes in the cover.
The specific heat of a substance can be found by using a calorimeter procedure known as the
method of mixtures. In this method, the substance whose specific heat is to be determined
is heated and then placed in or mixed with a colder substance whose mass and temperature
are known. Assuming no heat energy is lost to the surroundings, the conservation of energy
can be applied to the substances involved in the transfer of heat energy. The following\
examples illustrate the method of mixtures.
Example: A 520 g sample of copper, which is at 100 0C, is placed in a container with
725 g of water at 20. 0C. If the final temperature of the mixture (copper and
water) is 25.0 0C, what is the specific heat of the copper (Cu) sample? (Neglect
the heat energy absorbed by the container).
given: mass of Cu: mCu = 520 g = 0.520 kg
mass of water: mw = 725 g = 0.725 kg
initial temperature of Cu: Ti (Cu) = 100 0C
initial temperature of water: Ti (w) = 20 0C
final temperature of mixture: Tf (w) = Tf (Cu) = 25 0C
specific heat of water: cw = 1.00 kcal/kg .0C

find: specific heat of Cu: cCu = ?
Solution The conservation of heat energy is written as Qgained + Qlost = 0

Where the water gains heat energy and the copper loses heat energy. Using the
equation Q = cm T, we may rewrite this equation as
cwmw (Tf (w) - Ti (w)) + cCumCu(Tf (Cu) - Ti (Cu)) = 0
Solving for cCu ,we obtain the working equation

- cwmw (Tf (w) - Ti (w)) - (1.00 kcal/kg 0C) (0.725 kg) (25 0C - 20 0C)
cCu = =
mCu(Tf (Cu) - Ti (Cu)) (0.520 kg) (25 0C - 100 0C)
cCu = 9.29 10 x - 2 kcal/kg . 0C Ans

26.5 HEAT OF FUSION AND VAPORIZATION
In the previous topics we saw that an amount of heat energy Q was required to change the
temperature of an object by an amount of ΔT. However, the addition of heat energy to an
object does not always result in a temperature change. Energy is required to cause a
substance to undergo a phase change such as melting and boiling. The phase changes we will
examine are melting (changing from solid to liquid), freezing (changing from liquid to solid),
boiling (changing from liquid to gas), and condensation (changing from gas to liquid). Even
though energy is transferred during a phase change, the temperature of a substance does not
change, until all of the substance has changed its phase. For example, when an ice cube at
00C melts, it absorbs heat energy from one source and become water at 00C. Any additional
absorbed heat energy causes a rise in the temperature of the water.
The constant temperature during a phase change may be explained with the molecular model
of matter. The molecules of a solid are relatively close together and rigidly held in position
by springlike forces (see figure 26.5)
Figure 26.5 Model of a Solid

Neighboring atoms in a solid interact
with each other as though they were
connected by spring.
As the temperature of the solid increases, the molecules vibrate and move farther apart: the
solid as a whole expands. At the melting point of the solid, the molecule’s increased motion
becomes great enough to overcome the attracting forces binding them rigidly together; The
molecules are now relatively free to move about. The intermolecular forces are reduced in
magnitude because the molecules are father apart. The solid become liquid. Work must be
done on the solid against the binding molecular forces in order to separate the molecules.
This work is equal to the heat energy that must be supplied to the solid ( at its boiling point)
in order to melt it.
The molecules of a gas are much father apart than the molecules of a liquid. When a liquid
becomes gas, work must also be done on it in order to separate its molecules. This work is
equal to the heat energy that must be supplied to the liquid. (at its boiling point) in order to
vaporize it.
Since early scientists could not explain the energy required to change the phase of a
substance, they called this “hidden” heat energy the latent heat. We now know that the
change in phase of a substance results from the change in potential energy of its molecules
rather than a change in kinetic energy (temperature).
26.5.1 FUSION
The amount of heat energy that must be added to a substance at its melting point (without
a temperature change) in order to melt a unit quantity of the substance is called its latent
heat of fusion Lf.. If the substance changes from liquid to solid, then each kilogram of the
substance gives off (liberates) an amount of energy equal to the latent heat of fusion. The
SI unit of Lf is the kilocalorie per kilogram (kcal/kg).
The total heat energy absorbed (or liberated) by an object that is undergoing phase change
from solid to liquid ( or liquid to solid) is given by the equation:
Qf = m Lf
where:
Qf = total heat energy absorbed (or given off) by the object undergoing the
phase change (Qf is positive for melting and negative for freezing
m = mass of the object undergoing the phase change
Lf = latent heat of fusion of the object undergoing phase change
Example: How much heat energy is required to completely melt 50.0 g of ice at 0 0C?
given: mass of the ice: m = 50.0 g = 5.00 x 10 - 2 kg

temperature: T = 00C
heat of fusion: Lf = 80.0 kcal/kg
find: heat energy required to melt the ice: Qf = ?

Solution The heat energy required to melt the ice is found directly from this equation:
Qf = m Lf
= (5.00 x 10 - 2 kg) (80.0 kcal/kg)
Qf = 4.00 kcal. Ans
Note: that if only half of the required heat energy is added, then only half of the ice melts:
the resulting mixture would be half ice half water, both at 00C. If energy is added slowly,
the temperature of the water will not increase until all of the ice is first melted.
26.5.2 VAPORIZATION
The amount of heat energy that must be added to a substance at its boiling point (without a
temperature change) in order to vaporize (boil) a unit quantity of the substance is called its
latent heat of vaporization) Lv. If the substance changes from gas to liquid, then each kilo-
gram of the substance gives off (liberates) an amount of heat energy equal to the latent heat
of vaporization. The SI unit of is kilocalories per kilogram (kcal/kg).
The total heat energy absorbed (or given off) by an object that is undergoing a phase change
from a liquid to a gas ( or a gas to a liquid) is given by an equation:
Qv = m Lv
where:
Qf = total heat energy absorbed or liberated by an object undergoing the
phase change (Qv is positive for vaporization and negative for condensation
m = mass of the object undergoing the phase change
Lv = latent heat of vaporization of the object undergoing phase change
Since the average distance between molecules in the gaseous phase of a substance is much
larger than it is in either the liquid or the solid phase, the work (energy) required to vaporize
a given amount of a substance is much greater than a required to melt it. Therefore, for a
given substance, the latent heat of vaporization is much greater than the latent heat of fusion.
For example, the latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 kcal/kg, but the latent heat of vaporization
of water is 540 kcal/kg.
Example: How much heat energy is required to completely boil 125 g of water at 1000C?
given: mass of the water: m = 125 g = 0.125 kg

temperature: T = 1000C
find: heat energy required to boil the water: Qv = ?
Solution we use the definition of latent heat of vaporization.
Qv = m Lv
= (0.125 kg) (540 kcal/kg)
Qv = 67.5 kcal. Ans
Note that if only half of the required heat energy is added, then only half of the water boils.
The resulting mixture would be half water and half steam, both at 1000C. The temperature
of the steam will not increase until all of the water is first vaporized.
Section 5 - Physics 226
SOLVING PROBLEM
1. Find the smallest metric-size wrench (in millimeter) that will fit on a 1/2 in. bolt.
2. An American wire manufacture receives an order from a Canadian company; the order
specifies the diameter of the wire as 0.356 cm. If the manufacture only has English-sized
tools, what diameter wire ( in inchesz0 should be made?
3. A wire has a cross-sectional area of 0.62 mm2. Find its cross-sectional area in square
meters (m2).
4. A highway has a sped limit of 55.0 miles per hour (mi/h). Find the speed limit in the
following units:
a. kilometers per hour (km/h)
b. Feet per second (ft/s)
5. A horizontal forces of magnitude 75.0 N and 25.0 N are applied to a 2.50 kg object (see
figure 24-11). Find the acceleration produced by these forces if they are applied (a) in the
same direction and (b) in opposite direction.
a
F2 = 25.0 N
F1 = 75.0 N
Figure 24 - 11
6. A child slides a 4.50 kg wooden toy box along a wooden floor at a constant speed by
pulling on a chord attached to the toy box (see figure 24 - 12) If the cord remains parallel
to the floor, find the tension T in the cord. Assume that µ K = 0.300
Figure 24 - 12
SOLVING PROBLEM
7. A worker slides a 250 lb. Steel crate along a horizontal concrete surface by pushing on it
with a force of 125 lb (see figure 24 - 13). Find the acceleration of the crate if the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and the concrete surface is 0.330
Figure 24 - 13
8. How much work is done in lifting a 2.5 kg package to a shelf 2 m high?
9. A child drags a sled 30.0 ft across a level sheet of ice. The child exerts a 60.0 lb force
on a rope inclined at 25.00 above the horizontal. Find the amount of work done by the
child.
10. How much work is required to (a) lift a 10.0 lb concrete block to a height of 4.00 ft
(see figure 24 - 14a) and (b) to hold it at that position for 1 h?
Figure 24 - 14)
11. What work is done in pulling a crate 20 m horizontally when a force 60 N is applied on
a rope which make an angle of 300 with the ground?
SOLVING PROBLEM
12. A motor which provides the power for the elevator of a seven-story building can lift a
fully loaded elevator to the floor in 30.0 s (see figure 25-11). If a fully loaded elevator
weights 2.00 x 103 lb, find the power rating of the lift motor in (a) foot-pounds and (b)
horsepower. Assume that the elevator is lifted through a height of 100 ft.
Figure 25-11
13. A 2.00 x 103 kg pickup truck is moving at a speed of 90.0 km/h. How fast does a 1.00
x 103 kg sports car have to be going in order to have the same kinetic energy as the
pickup truck?
14. Niagara Falls has a drop of about 160 ft

(see figure 25-12). How much work is
done by 100 gallons (gal) of water as it
hits the base of the falls? The weight of
100 gallon of water is 836 lb.
SOLVING PROBLEM
15. A machine has an energy input of 2.53 kJ. If 1.75 kJ of useful work is done by the
machine, find (a) the waste energy and (b) the efficiency of the machine.
16. What is the mass density of gasoline in slug/ft3? The weight density of gasoline is
42.4 lb/ft3.
17. A 2.00 kg block with dimension 20.0 cm x 5.00 cm x 10.0 cm is placed on three
table in three different positions. Find the pressure exerted by the block when it (a) laid
flat, (b) laid on its side, © standing on one end (see figure27-15)
Figure 27-15
18. A hydraulic jack is used to raise a 3250 lb car. The diameters of the input and output
piston are 0.500 and 1.50 in. respectively. For each stroke of the jack, the car raises by
0.750 in. Find (a) how far the input piston moves with each stroke of the jack and (b)
how much force must be applied to the input piston on each stroke to raise the car.
19. A wooden cube 10.0 cm on a side floats on a water surface. If the cube has a density of
700 kg/m3, how deep in the water does it sink? (see figure 27 - 16)
Figure 27 - 16
SOLVING PROBLEM
20. The gauge pressure of a container of gas is 52.5 kPa. If the container is connected to an
open-type, mercury filled manometer, what is the difference in the heights of its
columns ?. The density of mercury, to four significant figures, is 1.358 x 10 4 kg/m3
21. Find the temperature increase of 1.00 kg of water going over Niagara Falls, which is
51.0 m high. Assume that all of the potential energy lost by the falling water is converted
into heat energy, which is completely absorbed by the falling water.
22. A 325 g sample of an unknown substance cools from 85.50C to 25.50C when 4.00 kcal
is removed from it. What is the specific heat of the unknown substance?
23. A 200 g aluminum inner calorimeter cup holds 100 g of water at 10.00C. A 57.0 g
lead sample is dropped into inner cup, which is then quickly covered. If the final
equilibrium temperature of the mixture
0 ( lead, water, and cup) is 13.5 0C, what was (a)
the temperature change of the lead and (b) its initial temperature?
24. A piece of ice at 00C is placed into 60.0 g of water at 50.00C. If the mixture (ice and
water) is thermally insulated from its environment and the final temperature of the
mixture is 20.00C, what was the mass of the ice used?
25. Steam at 1000c is passed into 90.0 g of water at 45.00C. The mixture (steam and water)
is thermally insulated from its environment, and its final temperature is 85.50C. How
much steam was absorbed?
26. How much heat energy is required to raise the temperature of 1.00 kg of ice from
-10.00C to 1100C?
27. In a laboratory experiment, 100.0 g of iron at 80.00C was added to 53.5 g of water at
20.00C. What is the final temperature of the mixture?
28. A calorimeter has a mass of 100.0 g and sp. heat of 0.900 cal/g 0C. It contain 400.0 g
of water at 40.00C. When 91.0 g of ice at 0.00C is added and completely melted, the
temperature of the water is 18.20C. What is the heat of fusion of ice?
29. Convert - 400F to 0C
30. Convert 1150F to 0R

7 Physics Nos. 162-232

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162

• Identify the system of unit of measurement

21.1.1 Fundamental Quantities and Unit System

TABLE 1-1 Standard Metric Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Meaning Example

Prefix Symbol Meaning Example

Deka D 10 or 10 1 dekagram (dag)

Equivalent of Certain Metric Units

Metric -English System Equivalent

1 m = 3.281 ft 1 kg = 2.2 lbs

The following examples illustrate the unit conversion process.

Example 1-1 Convert 80.0 kilometers to miles.

1 kilometer = 0621 mile or 1 km = 0.621 mi

d = (80.0 km)(0.621 mi/km) = (80.0 x 0.621)(km x mi/km) = 49.7 mi.

FORCE AND MOTION

• State the Newton’s law of motion.

22.1 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW: LAW OF INERTIA

acceleration: a = 6.00 m/s2

Fig. 22-2 The Law of Inertia

22.2 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW: THE LAW OF ACCELERATION

The acceleration of an object is directly is directly proportional to the net force

Force = mass x acceleration where:

22.3 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW: LAW OF INTERACTION

Fig. 22 - 4 Action- Reaction Forces

22.4 WEIGHT AND APPARENT WEIGHT

Fig. 22 - 5 Direction of Weight

F = ma but for a freely falling object, F = w and a = g

Substituting w for F and g for a in equation F = ma yields the relationship between

Example: A 10.0 kg object rests on a horizontal surface see figure 22 - 7.

find: (a) its weight

given: mass: m = 10.0 kg

= ( 10.0 x 9.81 ) ( kg x m/s2 )

Fig. 22 - 8 Kinetic Frictional Force

Equation for the following frictional forces

Kinetic frictional force f k = µk N

w = mg = (15.0 kg) (9.81 m/s2 ) = 147.1 N

• Define the technical definition of work, power and energy

23.1 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Work = Force x Distance W = FxD

Work = force x distance

Where: W = work done by the applied force

Solution: W = µFN . d W = F x D however, F = µFN

1 hp = 746 W = 0.746 kW 1 kW = 1.34 hp

23.3 WORK AND ENERGY

work done on object = change in kinetic energy

The work done on the object is

W = Fs cos ø = Fs cos 00 (the force is horizontal)

But from the study of constant-acceleration motion, recall that

m ( v2f v02 ) m ( v2f v02 )

So the kinetic energy of a moving object becomes

KE = kinetic energy of the object

= 1.00 x 103 kg . m2/s2

23.4 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Figure 23 - 4 A Pile Driver Work is done by the

= (5.00 lb) (5.00 ft)

23.5 MACHINES AND EFFICIENCY

Figure 23 - 7 A Car Jack as a Machine

Figure 23 - 8 A Pulley System as a Machine

Figure 23 - 9 The Three Basic Machines

All machines have three basic characteristics:

Input Work, Wi Output Work, W0

Figure 23 - 10 The Black-Box Representative of a Machine

If we apply energy conservation to a machine, we see that