SPE 131137

Steady-State Heat Transfer Models For Fully And Partially Buried Pipelines
Chukwuemeka Ovuworie, Schlumberger

Copyright 2010, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the CPS/SPE International Oil & Gas Conference and Exhibition in China held in Beijing, China, 8–10 June 2010.

This paper was selected for presentation by a CPS/SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or
members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is
restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract

Approximate analytical solutions are presented for the steady-state heat transfer from fully buried and partially buried
pipelines. Although other analytical solutions exist, they suffer from limitations in the coverage of the range of burial depths and
use of unphysical boundary conditions. Naturally this leads to inaccurate results, particularly, for shallow burial depths.
Furthermore, heat transfer from partially buried pipes has received surprisingly little attention. Although accurate numerical
solutions exist, they can be difficult to implement and time-consuming to execute.

All the limitations described above have been eliminated by the approach taken in the current study. The governing diffusion
equation in this complicated geometry was solved elegantly by transformation to the bipolar cylindrical coordinate system.
Convective boundary conditions connecting the pipe and ground to the fluid and ambient temperatures, respectively, were
considered. Results include temperature fields and shape factors for the fully and partially buried configurations. The shape
factors obtained were found to be continuous across the entire range of burial depths. Furthermore, asymptotic limits of these
equations were examined to obtain expressions for when the pipe is touching the ground surface and the expressions were found to
coincide.

Good success is indicated as the fully buried shape factor was found to agree with numerical results to within 2.5%. Scarcity
of numerical data for partially buried pipes did not allow an analogous comparison to be done. However, it has been argued that
the error in the two shape factors is the same. Consequently, the formulae given are the most accurate analytical solutions
currently available. Moreover, they are computationally easier to implement and far less intensive to execute than rigorous
numerical solutions, losing little accuracy.

Introduction

The prediction of steady-state heat transfer from fully buried pipelines has been the concern of several publications (Archer and
O’Sullivan 1997; Bau and Sadhal 1982; Kreith and Bohn 1996; Schneider 1985). In the steady-state condition, the flow rate of the
fluid flowing in the pipeline and the heat transfer between the pipe wall and the surroundings is assumed to be constant at any
time. The problem is of particular interest in flow assurance due to the risk of hydrate, wax and asphaltene formation in pipelines.

Exact analytic solutions exist for steady-state heat transfer due to conduction from the outside of the pipe to the ground surface.
These are obtained from the solution of the heat equation in bipolar cylindrical coordinates with “idealized” boundary conditions.
The idealized boundary conditions include:

1. Isothermal temperatures at the pipe wall and ground surfaces, known as the Dirichlet case (Kreith and Bohn 1996).
2. Isothermal temperature at the ground surface and a convective condition at the pipe wall connecting the fluid and pipe
wall temperatures (Bau and Sadhal 1982).
2 SPE 131137

All of the equations are inaccurate for shallow burial depths as the assumption that the pipe surface and ground temperatures are
constant break down for pipes buried near the surface.

A numerical solution exists, with a correlation equation, from Schneider (1985) for a buried pipe where the boundary
conditions at the pipe and ground surface are convective conditions connecting the pipe and ground to the fluid and ambient
temperatures, respectively. The specification more closely matches the physical conditions from which heat transfer will take
place from the fluid in the pipe to the ambient fluid flowing over the ground surface. However, the solution was not considered for
very shallow burial depths.

Surprisingly, the problem of steady-state heat transfer from partially buried (trenched) pipelines has received very little
attention. However, it is an important burial configuration as a partially buried pipeline experiences more heat transfer than a
completely buried pipeline. Morud and Simonsen (2007) have considered the problem only for the Dirichlet case and
consequently their solution is also inaccurate at shallow burial depths.

All the analyses (Archer and O’Sullivan 1997; Bau and Sadhal 1982; Kreith and Bohn 1996; Morud and Simonsen 2007;
Schneider 1985) suffer from insufficient coverage of the range of burial depths and/or use of unphysical boundary conditions.
Furthermore, none of the investigators has specifically considered the special case where the pipe is just touching the ground
surface.

The purpose of this paper is to address all these limitations by deriving approximate aanalytical formulae (temperature fields
and shape factors) for the steady-state heat transfer from fully buried and partially buried pipelines. The complicated geometry
will be handled elegantly using the bipolar cylindrical coordinate system. The boundary conditions considered will be convective
conditions connecting the pipe and ground to the fluid and ambient temperatures, respectively.

Formulation

Consider a pipe of radius R with an overall heat transfer coefficient of Up. The pipe is either fully or partially buried at a depth
Z below the surface of a semi-infinite solid medium (ground) of thermal conductivity kg. Fluid with bulk temperature Tb is flowing
in the pipe and fluid with ambient temperature Ta is flowing over the semi-infinite solid (see Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Pipe buried in a semi-infinite medium

SPE 131137 3

Fig. 2 Pipe partially buried in a semi-infinite medium

The steady-state temperature distribution in the ground is governed by the two-dimensional heat conduction equation
(assuming that longitudinal conduction is negligible)

ˆ ∂ 2Tˆ ∂ 2Tˆ
∇ T = 2 + 2 =0
2
(1)
∂xˆ ∂yˆ

The boundary conditions at both the pipe surface and the ground surface are convective conditions connecting the pipe and ground
to the fluid and ambient temperatures, respectively. At the pipe surface we have the same condition for both a fully and partially
buried pipe

∂Tˆ
− kg = U p (Tb − Tˆ ) at rˆ = R (2)
∂rˆ

where r̂ is the radial coordinate. At the ground surface, we have the following convective boundary condition for a fully buried
pipe

∂Tˆ
− kg = ha (Tˆ − Ta ) at yˆ = 0 (3)
∂yˆ

and for a partially buried pipe

∂Tˆ
− kg = ha (Tˆ − Ta ) at yˆ = 0, xˆ > R 2 − Z 2 (4)
∂yˆ

where ha is the ambient fluid film coefficient. Carets denote dimensional variables which will now be made non-dimensional.
4 SPE 131137

It is convenient to introduce non-dimensional variables by scaling the length with R

rˆ xˆ yˆ
r= x= y= (5)
R R R

and temperature with Tb - Ta

Tˆ − Ta
T= (6)
Tb − Ta
Substituting equations (5) and (6) into (1)-(4) gives the following non-dimensional equations and associated boundary conditions:

Fully buried pipe

∂ 2T ∂ 2T
∇ T = 2 + 2 =0
2
(7)
∂x ∂y
∂T
− = Bg T at y = 0 (8)
∂y
∂T
− = B p (1 − T ) at r = 1 (9)
∂r

Partially buried pipe

∂ 2T ∂ 2T
∇ 2T = + =0 (10)
∂x 2 ∂y 2

2
∂T ⎛Z⎞
− = Bg T at y = 0, x > 1 − ⎜ ⎟ (11)
∂y ⎝R⎠

∂T
− = B p (1 − T ) at r = 1 (12)
∂r

where the ground Biot number is given by

ha R
Bg = (13)
kg
and the pipe Biot number is given by

U pR
Bp = (14)
kg
SPE 131137 5

Fully buried pipe solution

The configuration for a fully buried pipe is shown in Fig. 1. The aim is to determine the temperature field in the ground by
solving the system (7)-(9) and hence to use Fourier’s law to derive an expression for the rate of heat transfer per unit length of
pipe.

It is convenient to carry out the analysis using the bipolar cylindrical coordinate system. This coordinate system sketched in
Fig. 3 and has the advantage that the boundary conditions are located along the coordinates. The coordinates α=0 and α= α0
represent the medium and pipe surfaces, respectively.

Fig. 3 Bipolar cylindrical coordinate system for a fully buried pipe

The transformation into bipolar cylindrical coordinates is achieved by using the formula

⎛ α + iβ ⎞
y + ix = a tanh⎜ ⎟ − ∞ < α < 0 −π < β < π (15)
⎝ 2 ⎠

where a is a positive parameter that can be selected. The real and imaginary parts of (15) give

sin β sinh α
x=a y=a (16)
cosh α + cos β cosh α + cos β

Let us denote the lower half plane L = {−∞ < x < ∞, y < 0} and the region of the buried pipe
⎧⎪ ⎛ Z⎞
2
⎫⎪
P = ⎨ x 2 + ⎜ y − ⎟ < 1, y < 0⎬ so that our domain D = L − P . The transformation given in equation (15) conformally
⎪⎩ ⎝ R⎠ ⎪⎭
maps D in the (x,y)-plane onto the strip {α 0 < α < 0,−π < β < π } in the (α,β)-plane (see Fig. 4).
6 SPE 131137

Fig. 4 Ground region of buried pipe in the (α,β)-plane

Lines of fixed α are circles (except α=0 which is the line x=0). Lines of fixed β are circular arcs. The equation for circles with
fixed α is

a2
x 2 + ( y − a coth α ) 2 = , − ∞ < x < ∞, y < 0
sinh 2 α (17)

By setting

2
⎛Z⎞
a = abur = ⎜ ⎟ − 1 = − sinh α 0 (18)
⎝R⎠

and choosing α0 to be the negative root (α 0 <0) of

Z
a coth α 0 = (19)
R

the line α = α 0 can be used to represent a pipe of radius R buried at depth Z, namely, with pipe centre (0,Z/R) where Z is negative.
Combining (18) and (19) gives

⎛Z⎞
α 0 = cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟ (20)
⎝R⎠
SPE 131137 7

The Laplace operator takes the form

1 ⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
∇2 = ⎜ + ⎟⎟ (21)
λ2 ⎜⎝ ∂α 2 ∂β 2 ⎠

where the Lame coefficient is

a
λ= (22)
(cosh α + cos β )

It is important to note that since α 0 < 0 , (20) implies that Z R < −1 as would be expected for a fully buried pipe.

The system (7)-(9) rewritten in bipolar cylindrical coordinates has the form

∂ 2T ∂ 2T
∇T=
2
+ =0 (23)
∂α 2 ∂β 2
∂T
− (1 + cos β ) = B g a bur T at α = 0 (24)
∂α
∂T
− (cosh α 0 + cos β ) = B p a bur (1 − T ) at α = α 0 (25)
∂α

As boundary conditions (24) and (25) are located along constant α lines, we make the approximation that T can be found by
solving the one-dimensional equation

∂ 2T
=0 (26)
∂α 2

In this equation we implicitly do not allow heat flow along constant α lines. Hence our one-dimensional approximation means that
lines of constant α are isotherms (lines of constant temperature) and lines of constant β are constant flux lines (lines of constant
heat flow). Note that lines of constant α and β are orthogonal to one another.

Solving equation (26) gives the general solution

T = Mα + N (27)

where M and N are constants to be determined from boundary conditions (24) and (25). These give, respectively:

− (1 + cos β ) M = B g abur N (28)

8 SPE 131137

− (cosh α 0 + cos β + B p abur α 0 ) M = B p abur (1 − N ) (29)

Solving (2.14) and (2.15) for M and N yields

− B p abur
M = (30)
⎡ Bp ⎤
⎢cosh α 0 + cos β − B p a bur α 0 + (1 + cos β )⎥
⎢⎣ Bg ⎥⎦

Bp
(1 + cos β )
Bg
N= (31)
⎛ B ⎞
⎜ cosh α 0 + cos β − B p abur α 0 + p (1 + cos β ) ⎟
⎜ Bg ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Finally using (30) and (31) in (27) gives the following expression for the temperature field

Bp
− B p abur α + (1 + cos β )
Bg
T≈ (32)
⎡ Bp ⎤
⎢cosh α 0 + cos β − B p abur α 0 + (1 + cos β )⎥
⎣⎢ Bg ⎦⎥

Another matter of interest for engineering purposes is the shape factor which is defined by the ratio

Qˆ
S=
2πk g (Tb − Ta )
(33)

where the heat transfer per unit length of pipe surface is given by Fourier’s law

k π ⎛ ∂T ⎞
Qˆ = − g ∫ ∇Tˆ • dSˆ = −k g (Tb − Ta ) ∫ ⎜ ⎟dβ (34)
R S − π ∂α
⎝ ⎠

Differentiating equation (32) gives

−1
⎛ Bp ⎞
− B p abur ⎜1 + ⎟
∂T ⎜ Bg ⎟
= ⎝ ⎠ (35)
∂α A + cos β
SPE 131137 9

where

−1
⎛ Bp ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞
A = Abur = ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜ cosh α 0 − B p abur α 0 + p ⎟ (36)
⎜ B ⎟ ⎜ B g ⎟⎠
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝

is a constant. Note that since α 0 < 0 , Abur is a positive constant greater than 1. Furthermore, as the pipe and ground surfaces
approach one another such that α 0 → 0, Abur → 1 .

As the integrand is a rational function of cos β, the substitution t = tan (β/2) can be used to transform the integrand into a
rational function of t. So

1− t2 2dt
cos β = and dβ = (37)
1+ t 2 1+ t 2

Then

2dt
dβ 1+ t2 2 dx 2 ⎛ A −1 ⎞
tan −1 ⎜ t bur ⎟+C
∫A + cos β ∫
=
1− t 2
= ∫
Abur − 1 2 Abur + 1
=
2
−1
⎜ A +1 ⎟
(38)
bur
Abur + t + Abur ⎝ bur ⎠
1+ t2 Abur − 1

⎛ Abur − 1 ⎞
where C is a constant of integration. Note that as β → ±π, t → ±∞ and tan ⎜ t
−1 ⎟ → ± π . Using this gives
⎜ Abur + 1 ⎟⎠ 2
⎝

π dβ 2π
∫π A
−
bur + cos β
=
2
Abur − 1
(39)

Using (39), (36) and (35) in (34) gives

−1
⎛ Bp ⎞
2πB p abur ⎜1 + ⎟
⎜ B ⎟
Qˆ = k g (Tb − Ta ) ⎝ g ⎠
1
(40)
⎡⎛ B ⎞ ⎛ −2
B ⎞ ⎤ 2 2

⎢⎜1 + p ⎟ ⎜ cosh α 0 − B p abur α 0 + p ⎟ − 1⎥

⎢⎜⎝ B g ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ B g ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
10 SPE 131137

Finally, substituting (40) in (33) yields the following expression for the shape factor

B p abur
S= 1
(41)
⎡⎛ B ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞ ⎤
2 2 2
⎢⎜ cosh α 0 − B p abur α 0 + p ⎟ − ⎜1 + p ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎜⎝ B g ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ B g ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Bp
Note from equation (41) that as B g → ∞, S → which is the expression given by Bau and
(1 + B α )
1
2
p
2
0 + 2 B pα 0 coth α 0 2

Sadhal (1982) for an isothermal ground surface and convective pipe surface. Furthermore, as
1 1
B g → ∞ and B p → ∞, S → = which is the expression given by Kreith and Bohn (1996) for an isothermal
α0 ⎛Z⎞
−1
cosh ⎜ ⎟
⎝R⎠
ground surface and isothermal pipe surface.

Approximation for shape factor when the pipe is touching the ground surface

As the pipe and ground surfaces approach one another such that α0 → 0 we can find an asymptotic expression for the shape
factor using Taylor series. Using

sinh α 0 = α 0 + O(α 03 )
α 02 (42)
cosh α 0 = 1 + + O (α 04 )
2

in equation (41) gives

− B pα 0
S~ 1
(43)
⎡⎛ α 2 B ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞ ⎤
2 2 2

⎢⎜1 + 0 + B pα 02 + p ⎟ − ⎜1 + p ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎜⎝ 2 B g ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ B g ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Simplifying equation (43) results in the following expression for the shape factor as α 0 → 0

Bp
S~ 1
(44)
⎡⎛ B p ⎞ ⎤ 2

⎢⎜⎜1 + ⎟(1 + 2 B p )⎥
⎢⎣⎝ B g ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦

Equation (44) may be used to provide an approximation O (α 0 ) for the shape factor when the pipe is touching the ground surface.
2
SPE 131137 11

Partially buried pipe solution

The configuration for a partially buried pipe is shown in Fig. 2. The aim is to determine the temperature field in the ground by
solving the system (10)-(12) and hence to use Fourier’s law to derive an expression for the rate of heat transfer per unit length of
pipe.

It is convenient to carry out the analysis using the bipolar cylindrical coordinate system. This coordinate system sketched in
Fig. 5 and has the advantage that the boundary conditions are located along the coordinates. The coordinates β=-π and β = β0
represent the medium and pipe surfaces, respectively.

Fig. 5 Bipolar cylindrical coordinate system for partially buried pipe

The transformation into bipolar cylindrical coordinates is achieved by using the formula

⎛ α + iβ ⎞
x + iy = a tanh⎜ ⎟ − ∞ <α < ∞ −π < β < 0 (45)
⎝ 2 ⎠
where a is a positive parameter that can be selected. The real and imaginary parts of (45) give

sinh α sin β
x=a y=a (46)
cosh α + cos β cosh α + cos β

Let us denote the lower half plane L = {−∞ < x < ∞, y < 0} and the region of the buried portion of the pipe
⎧⎪ ⎛ Z⎞
2
⎫⎪
P = ⎨ x 2 + ⎜ y + ⎟ < 1, y < 0⎬ so that our domain D = L − P . The transformation given in equation (45) conformally
⎪⎩ ⎝ R⎠ ⎪⎭
maps D in the (x,y)-plane onto the strip {−∞ < α < ∞,−π < β < β 0 } in the (α,β)-plane (see Fig. 6).
12 SPE 131137

Fig. 6 Ground region of partially buried pipe in the (α,β)-plane

Lines of fixed β are circular arcs (except β=0 which is the line y=0 for x < a and β=-π which is the line y=0 for x > a ).
Lines of fixed α are also circular arcs. The equation for circular arcs with fixed β is

a2
x 2 + ( y + a cot β ) 2 = , − ∞ < x < ∞, y < 0 (47)
sin 2 β

By setting

2
⎛Z⎞
a = a par = 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = − sin β 0 (48)
⎝R⎠

and choosing β0 to be the negative root (β0 <0) of

Z
a cot β 0 = (49)
R

the line β=β0 can be used to represent a pipe of radius R buried at depth Z, namely, pipe centre (0,Z/R) where Z is negative.

Combining (48) and (49) gives

⎛Z⎞
β 0 = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ (50)
⎝R⎠
SPE 131137 13

The Laplace operator takes the form (21) where the Lame coefficient is given by (22). It is important to note that since
− π < β 0 < 0 , (3.6) implies that − 1 < Z R < 1 as would be expected for a partially buried pipe. For − π 2 < β 0 < 0 we
have 0 < Z R < 1 and the centre of pipe is above the x-axis (ground). For − π < β 0 < − π 2 we have − 1 < Z R < 0 and
the centre of pipe is below the x-axis (ground). For β 0 = − π 2 we have Z R = 0 and the centre of pipe is on the x-axis
(ground).

The system (10)-(12) rewritten in bipolar cylindrical coordinates has the form

∂ 2T ∂ 2T
∇ 2T = + =0 (51)
∂α 2 ∂β 2
∂T
(cosh α − 1) = B g a par T at β = −π (52)
∂β
∂T
(cosh α + cos β 0 ) = B p a par (1 − T ) at β = β 0 (53)
∂β

As boundary conditions (52) and (53) are located along constant β lines, we make the approximation that T can be found by
solving the one-dimensional equation

∂ 2T
=0 (54)
∂β 2

In this equation we implicitly do not allow heat flow along constant β lines. Hence our one-dimensional approximation means that
lines of constant β are isotherms (lines of constant temperature) and lines of constant α are constant flux lines (lines of constant
heat flow). Note that lines of constant α and β are orthogonal to one another.
Solving equation (54) gives the general solution

T = Xβ + Y (55)

where X and Y are constants to be determined from boundary conditions (52) and (53). These give, respectively

(cosh α − 1 + πB g a par ) X = B g a par Y (56)

(cosh α + cos β 0 + B p a par β 0 ) X = B p a par (1 − Y ) (57)

Solving (56) and (57) for X and Y yields

B p a par
X = (58)
⎡ Bp ⎤
⎢cosh α + cos β 0 + B p a par (π + β 0 ) + (cosh α − 1) ⎥
⎣⎢ Bg ⎥⎦
14 SPE 131137

Bp
(cosh α − 1) + πB p a par
Bg
Y= (59)
⎡ Bp ⎤
⎢cosh α + cos β 0 + B p a par (π + β 0 ) + (cosh α − 1)⎥
⎢⎣ Bg ⎥⎦

Finally using (58) and (59) in (55) gives the following expression for the temperature field

Bp
B p a par (π + β ) + (cosh α − 1)
Bg
T≈ (60)
⎡ Bp ⎤
⎢cosh α + cos β 0 + B p a par (π + β 0 ) + (cosh α − 1)⎥
⎢⎣ Bg ⎥⎦

Another matter of interest for engineering purposes is the shape factor which is defined in equation (33). In this case the heat
transfer per unit length of pipe surface is given by Fourier’s law:

k ∞ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
Qˆ = − g ∫ ∇Tˆ • dSˆ = k g (Tb − Ta ) ∫ ⎜⎜ ⎟dα (61)
R S − ∞ ∂β ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Differentiating equation (3.16) gives

−1
⎛ Bp ⎞
B p a par ⎜1 + ⎟
∂T ⎜ Bg ⎟
= ⎝ ⎠ (62)
∂β A + cosh α

where

−1
⎛ Bp ⎞ ⎡ B ⎤
A = A par = ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎢cos β 0 + B p a par (π + β 0 ) − p ⎥ (63)
⎜ B g ⎟⎠ ⎢⎣ B g ⎥⎦
⎝

is a constant. Note that since − π <

β 0 < 0 , Apar can be a positive or negative constant greater than -1. Furthermore, as the pipe
(centre below ground) and ground surfaces approach one another such that β 0 → −π , A par → −1 . As the pipe (centre above
SPE 131137 15

−1
⎛ Bp ⎞ ⎛ Bp ⎞
ground) and ground surfaces approach one another such that as β 0 → 0, A par → ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟.
⎜ B ⎟ ⎜ B ⎟
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠

As the integrand is a rational function of cosh α, the substitution t = tanh (α /2) can be used to transform the integrand into a
rational function of t. So

1+ t2 2dt
cosh α = and dα =
1− t2 1− t2
(64)

Then

⎧ 2 dt
⎪1 − A ∫ 1 + A ; − 1 < A par < 1
⎪ par par
+t 2

2dt ⎪ 1 − A par
dα 1− t2 ⎪⎪
∫A + cosh α ∫
=
1 + t 2 ⎪∫
= ⎨ dt ; A par = 1
par
A par +
1− t2 ⎪ 2 dt
∫
⎪ A par − 1 A par + 1 2
; A par > 1
⎪ −t
⎪⎩ A par − 1 (65)
⎧ 2 ⎛ 1 − A par ⎞
⎪ tan −1 ⎜ t ⎟ + C; − 1 < A par < 1
⎪ 1− A 2 ⎜ 1 + A par ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎪⎪ par

= ⎨t + C ; A par = 1
⎪
⎪ 2 ⎛ A par − 1 ⎞
⎪ tanh −1 ⎜ t ⎟ + C; A par > 1
⎜ ⎟
⎝ A par + 1 ⎠
2
⎪⎩ A par − 1

where C is a constant of integration. Note that as α → ±∞, t → ±1 and

⎛ 1 − A par ⎞ ⎛ 1 − A par ⎞ ⎛ 1 − A par ⎞
tan −1 ⎜ t ⎟ → tan −1 ⎜ ± ⎟ → ± tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ and
⎜ 1 + A par ⎟ ⎜ 1 + A ⎟ ⎜ 1 + A ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ par ⎠ ⎝ par ⎠

⎛ A par − 1 ⎞ ⎛ A par − 1 ⎞ ⎛ A par − 1 ⎞

tanh −1 ⎜ t ⎟ → tanh −1 ⎜ ± ⎟ → ± tanh −1 ⎜ ⎟ as these are odd functions. Using this gives
⎜ A par + 1 ⎟ ⎜ A + 1 ⎟ ⎜ A + 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ par ⎠ ⎝ par ⎠
16 SPE 131137

⎧ 2 ⎛ 1 − A par ⎞
⎪ 2 tan −1 ⎜ ⎟; − 1 < A par < 1
⎜ ⎟
⎪ 1− A ⎝ 1 + A par ⎠
2

∞ dα ⎪⎪ par

∫ −∞ A par
= ⎨2;
+ cosh α ⎪
A par = 1

⎪ 2 ⎛ A par − 1 ⎞
−1 ⎜
2 tanh ⎟; A par > 1
⎪ 2 ⎜ A + 1 ⎟
⎩⎪ A par − 1 ⎝ ⎠
par

(66)

Using expressions (66), (63) and (62) in (61) gives

⎧
⎪
⎪ ⎛ 1 − A par ⎞
⎪ 4 B p a par tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎪
k (T − T ) ⎝ 1 + A par ⎠ ; − 1 < A par < 1
⎪ g b a
⎪ ⎛ Bp ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟ 1 − A par 2
⎪ ⎜ B g ⎟⎠
⎪ ⎝
⎪⎪ 2 B p a par
Qˆ = ⎨k g (Tb − Ta ) ; A par = 1 (67)
⎪ ⎛ B ⎞
⎜1 + p ⎟
⎪ ⎜ B g ⎟⎠
⎪ ⎝
⎪ ⎛ A par − 1 ⎞
⎪ 4 B p a par tanh −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎪ ⎜ A par + 1 ⎟
⎪k g (Tb − Ta ) ⎝ ⎠; A par > 1
⎪ ⎛ Bp ⎞
⎪ ⎜1 + ⎟ A par 2 − 1
⎪⎩ ⎜ B g ⎟⎠
⎝

Finally substituting (67) in (33) yields the following expression for the shape factor
SPE 131137 17

⎧
⎪
⎪ ⎛ 1 − A par ⎞
⎪ 2 B p abur tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎪ ⎜ 1 + A ⎟
⎝ par ⎠
; − 1 < A par < 1
⎪
⎛
⎪ π ⎜1 + B ⎞
p
⎟ 1 − A par 2
⎪ ⎜ B ⎟
⎝ g ⎠
⎪
⎪⎪ B p abur
S =⎨ ; A par = 1 (68)
⎪ ⎛⎜ B p ⎞⎟
⎪ π ⎜1 + B ⎟
g ⎠
⎪ ⎝
⎪ ⎛ A par − 1 ⎞
⎪ 2 B a tanh −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎪ p bur
⎜ A par + 1 ⎟
⎪ ⎝ ⎠; A par > 1
⎪ ⎛ Bp ⎞
⎪ π ⎜⎜1 + ⎟ A par 2 − 1
⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ Bg ⎠

Approximation for shape factor when the pipe (with centre below ground) is touching the ground surface

As the pipe (with centre below the ground) and ground surfaces approach one another such that β 0 → −π (as the partially
buried pipe approaches being fully buried) we can find an asymptotic expression for the shape factor using Taylor series. Using

β 0 = −π + ε
(69)

where ε << 1 gives

sin β 0 = sin(−π + ε ) = − sin ε ~ −ε + O(ε 3 ) (70)

⎛ ε2 ⎞
cos β 0 = cos(−π + ε ) = − cos ε = −⎜⎜1 − + O(ε 4 ) ⎟⎟ (71)
⎝ 2 ⎠

Substituting (69)-(71) in (63) yields

−1
⎛ Bp ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞
A par = ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜ − cos ε + B p ε sin ε − p ⎟
⎜ B g ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ B g ⎟⎠
⎝
−1 −1
(72)
⎛ Bp ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ Bp ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ B ⎞
~ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎢ − ⎜1 + ⎟ + ε 2 ⎛⎜ 1 + B p ⎞⎟⎥ = −1 + ε 2 ⎛⎜ 1 + B p ⎞⎟⎜1 + p ⎟
⎜ B ⎟ ⎢ ⎜ B g ⎟⎠ ⎝2 ⎠⎥⎦ ⎝2 ⎠⎜⎝ B g ⎟⎠
⎝ g ⎠ ⎣ ⎝

and letting ε → 0 we have to leading order

18 SPE 131137

⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎛ 1 − A par ⎞ ⎢ 2 ⎥ π
tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥= (73)
⎜ 1 + A par ⎟ ⎢
−1
2
⎝ ⎠ 2⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ B p ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎢ ε ⎜ + B p ⎟⎜⎜1 + ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝2 ⎠⎝ B g ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎦
1
⎛ B ⎞2
⎜ 1+ p ⎟
− sin β 0 ε ε ⎜ Bg ⎟
= = =⎜ ⎟ (74)
(1 − A par )(1 + A par ) ⎜ 1 + 2B p
2 −1
1 − A par ⎛1 ⎞⎛ B p ⎞⎟ ⎟
2ε 2 ⎜ + B p ⎟⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟
⎝2 ⎠⎜⎝ B g ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Finally using (73) and (74) in the top expression of (68) results in the following expression for the shape factor as β 0 → −π

Bp
S~ 1
(75)
⎡ ⎛ B p ⎞⎤ 2
⎢(1 + 2 B p )⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎥
⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ B g ⎠⎥⎦

Equation (75) may be used to provide an approximation O ( β 0 ) for the shape factor when the pipe (with centre below the
2

ground) is touching the ground surface. Moreover, as expected, equation (75) is identical to equation (44). So the fully buried and
partially buried solutions approach one another in the limit where the pipe and ground surfaces approach one another.

Discussion

The fully buried pipe shape factor for Z/R = -1.01, -2, -5 and -10, Bp = 0.1, 1, 10 and 100, and Bg = 1, 2, 10 and 100 is shown in
Fig. 7. The partially buried pipe shape factor for Z/R = 0.99, 0.5, 0, -0.5 and -0.99, Bp = 0.1, 1, 10 and 100, and Bg = 1, 2, 10 and
100 is shown in Fig. 8. It is evident that at the lowest values of pipe Biot number, the shape factor is governed almost entirely by
this parameter. The ground Biot number has very little effect on the heat transfer. As the pipe Biot number increases, the effect of
the ground Biot number on the shape factor becomes more pronounced. Eventually, at the highest values of pipe Biot number, the
shape factor becomes essentially independent of this parameter. This corresponds to an asymptotic approach to the limiting case
of an isothermal pipe surface ( B p → ∞ ) where the heat transfer has no dependence on the pipe Biot number.

Figs. 7 and 8 also reveal that as the pipe is buried deeper relative to its radius, going from shallow partially buried to deeply
fully buried, the effect of the ground Biot number diminishes. In fact, at Z/R = -10, there is hardly any variation in the shape factor
due to ground Biot number. So for deeply buried pipes, the heat transfer is primarily driven by the geometry of the problem and
pipe boundary condition.

Shape factor is plotted against the entire range of burial-depth-to-diameter ratio in Fig. 9 for pipe and ground Biot
numbers of unity. Although, the numerical values of shape factor differ, the characteristic shape of the curve is the same for all
pipe and ground Biot numbers between zero and infinity. The shape factor, and hence heat transfer, starts off at a minimum value
for a shallow partially buried pipe just touching the ground surface (with pipe centre above ground). The shape factor increases in
an S-shape fashion, through the half-buried configuration, to a maximum value when the shallow fully buried pipe is just touching
SPE 131137 19

the ground surface (with pipe centre below ground). The shape factor then decreases, exhibiting a tail shape, as the pipe becomes
buried deeper and deeper relative to its diameter.

Fig. 7 Shape factor for Z/R=-1.01, -2, -5 and -10

20 SPE 131137

Fig. 8 Shape factor for Z/R=0.99, 0.5, 0, -0.5 and -0.99

SPE 131137 21

Fig. 9 Shape factor as a function of Z/R for Bp = 1 and Bg = 1

Comparison with numerical results

Schneider (1985) conducted a numerical investigation into the heat loss characteristics of buried pipes. Similar to the present
study, Schneider considered the problem where the boundary conditions at the pipe and ground surface are convective conditions
connecting the pipe and ground to the fluid and ambient temperatures, respectively.

The problem was solved for burial depth to diameter ratios of D/d = 1, 2, 5 and 10, for pipe Biot numbers of Bip = 0.1, 1, 10
and 100, and for ground Biot numbers Big = 1, 2, 5, 10 and 100. Tabulated values and a correlation equation were produced for
non-dimensional heat flow values Q* from the entire pipe surface to the entire ground surface.

If the current problem is cast in Schneider’s variables then we find the following relationship

Q* = 2πS (76)

By using the shape factor equation (41) in equation (76), one can compare the heat transfer values predicted in the current
investigation with those predicted by Schneider’s numerical results. Schneider claims that the error in the numerical computations
is within 1% of an exact solution to the problem. Fig. 10 shows excellent agreement with the findings of Schneider, the difference
being within 2.5% for the entire range of burial depths and pipe and ground Biot numbers considered.

Unfortunately, Schneider did not consider the buried pipe solution for very shallow burial depths (D/d < 1). The deviation of
the predicted heat transfer values between the current and Schneider’s studies can be seen to increase slightly with decreasing
burial depth in Fig. 10. However, a maximum error of 2.5% at the minimum burial is so small that any error at shallower burial
depths would probably still be well within engineering accuracy.
22 SPE 131137

The author knows of no published numerical studies on the heat transfer from partially buried pipelines. However, the analysis
in Appendix A, demonstrates that the error in the fully and partially buried pipe solutions are identical when the following affine
transformation is used

β → −π + iα (77)

Physically, the affine transformation given in (77) corresponds to a 90° rotation coupled with a translation by − π (to account for
the branch cut in the plane) of the temperature field.
SPE 131137 23

Fig. 10 Comparison with Schneider (1985) heat transfer rate for D/d=1, 2, 5 and 10
24 SPE 131137

Conclusion

Approximate analytical formulae have been derived for the steady-state heat transfer from fully buried and partially buried
pipes. Convective boundary conditions connecting the pipe and ground to the fluid and ambient temperatures, respectively, were
considered. The temperature fields and shape factors developed are valid for all burial depths and pipe and ground Biot numbers.
The shape factors given are continuous across all burial depths. Asymptotic limits of these equations were analysed to obtain
expressions for when the pipe is touching the ground surface and the expressions obtained were found to coincide.

The fully buried shape factor has been compared with numerical solutions in the literature and the deviation is found to be
within 2.5%. Unfortunately, no such published numerical solutions are available for partially buried pipes. However, it was
argued that the error in the fully and partially buried pipe solutions is identical, when an affine transformation is used. The
formulae presented are currently the most accurate analytical solutions available. They are computationally easier to implement
and less time-consuming to execute that rigorous numerical solutions, loosing little accuracy.

The use of a more sophisticated model could improve the predictions of the analytic formulae obtained in this investigation.
Important effects to consider, which may be significant in the partially buried and shallow fully buried configurations, for future
investigations include:

1. Two-dimensional heat flow in the ground, such that heat flow can occur along both constant α and constant β lines.

2. Circumferential heat conduction in the pipe and coatings.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank Reading University for holding a Mathematical Modelling Week which inspired the approach taken
in this study. The author also expresses gratitude to Dr Jim Bennett, Schlumberger, for his help in familiarising him with the
bipolar cylindrical coordinate system and his support throughout the project. Finally, the author would like to thank Dr Peter
Robinson, Quintessa Ltd, for providing him with the original solution to the buried pipe problem with isothermal boundary
conditions.

Nomenclature

a Scale factor for bipolar cylindrical coordinates [dimensionless], abur = -sinh α0 for fully buried pipes, apar = - sin β0 for
partially buried pipes.
−1
⎛ Bp ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞
A Auxiliary thermo-geometrical quantity [dimensionless], Abur = ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜ cosh α 0 − B p abur α 0 + p ⎟ for fully
⎜ B ⎟ ⎜
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ B g ⎟⎠
−1
⎛ Bp ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞
buried pipes, A par = ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜ cos β 0 + B p a par (π + β 0 ) − p ⎟ for partially buried pipes.
⎜
⎝ B g ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ B g ⎟⎠
hR
B Biot number [dimensionless], .
k
hd
Bi Biot number after Schneider (1985) [dimensionless], .
k
D Ground domain, L − P .
Burial depth, after Schneider (1985) [m].
d Pipe diameter, after Schneider (1985) [m].
h Local heat transfer coefficient [Wm-2K-1].
i Imaginary unit, − 1 .
k Thermal conductivity [Wm-1K-1].
SPE 131137 25

L Lower half plane {−∞ < x < ∞, y < 0} ,

Length of pipe [m].
⎧⎪ ⎛ Z⎞
2
⎫⎪
Region of the fully buried pipe ⎨ x + ⎜ y − ⎟ < 1, y < 0⎬ ,
2
P
⎪⎩ ⎝ R⎠ ⎪⎭
⎧⎪ 2 ⎛ Z⎞
2
⎫⎪
Region of the buried portion of a partially buried pipe ⎨ x + ⎜ y + ⎟ < 1, y < 0⎬ .
⎪⎩ ⎝ R⎠ ⎪⎭
Q Heat transfer rate per unit length of pipe [Wm-1].
r Radial distance from centre of pipe [m].
R Radius of the pipe [m].
Qˆ
S Shape factor [dimensionless], .
2πk g (Tb − Ta )
T Temperature [K].
U Overall (combined) heat transfer coefficient [Wm-2K-1].
x,y Cartesian coordinates.
Z Burial depth [m].

Greek
α,β Bipolar cylindrical coordinates.
a
λ Lame coefficient, .
(cosh α + cos β )
1 ⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
∇2 Laplace operator, ⎜ + ⎟.
λ2 ⎜⎝ ∂α 2 ∂β 2 ⎟⎠

Superscripts
^ Dimensional quantities.
* Non-dimensional quantity after Schneider [2]

Subscripts
0 Values at pipe surface in bipolar cylindrical coordinates.
a Ambient fluid values.
b Bulk fluid values.
bur Buried pipe values.
g Ground values.
p Pipe values.
par Partially buried pipe values.

References

Rosalind A. Archer and Michael J. O’Sullivan, June 1997. Models for Heat Transfer from a Buried Pipe. SPE Journal 36763. Vol.
2, 186-193.

H.H. Bau and S.S. Sadhal, March 1982. Heat losses from a fluid flowing in a buried pipe. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, Vol. 25(11), 1621-1629.

Frank Kreith and Mark Bohn, 1996. Principles of Heat Transfer. 5th edition, Wadsworth Publishing Company.
26 SPE 131137

J.C. Morud and A.Simonsen. Heat transfer from partially buried pipes. 16th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference, Crown
Plaza, Gold Coast, Australia, 2-7 December 2007, 1182-1186.

G.E. Schneider, August 1985. An Investigation Into the Heat Loss Characteristics of Buried Pipes. Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol.
107, 696-699.

Appendix A: Error in the Fully and Partially Buried Pipe Solutions

The affine transformation

The fully buried pipe temperature field is given by equation (32). If the following affine transformation is used

β → −π + iα (A1)

then equation (32) becomes

⎛ π + β ⎞ Bp
− B p abur ⎜ ⎟+ [1 + cos(− π + iα )]
⎝ i ⎠ Bg
T≈ (A2)
⎧⎪ ⎛ π + β0 ⎞ ⎛ π + β0 ⎞ Bp ⎫
⎨cosh⎜ ⎟ + cos(− π + iα ) − B p abur ⎜ ⎟+ [1 + cos(− π + iα )]⎪⎬
⎪⎩ ⎝ i ⎠ ⎝ i ⎠ Bg ⎪⎭

Now using (A1) in (18) gives

abur = −[− i sin(iα 0 )] = i sin (π + β 0 ) = −i sin β 0 = −ia par (A3)

Substituting (A3) in (A2) finally yields

Bp
B p a par (π + β ) + (cosh α − 1)
Bg
T≈ (A4)
⎡ Bp ⎤
⎢cosh α + cos β 0 + B p a par (π + β 0 ) + (cosh α − 1)⎥
⎣⎢ Bg ⎥⎦

Equation (A4) is identical to equation (60) which is the temperature field for a partially buried pipe.

Physically the affine transformation given in (A1) corresponds to a 90° rotation coupled with a translation by − π (to account
for the branch cut in the plane) of the temperature field.
SPE 131137 27

The error in the fully buried pipe solution

The temperature field given by equation (32) is an approximate solution and therefore does not satisfy equation (23) exactly.
An expression for the error in the solution can be found by evaluating the derivatives of equation (32) which gives

−1
⎛ B ⎞ ⎡ B ⎤
⎜1 + p ⎟ (A )
cos β + 1 + sin 2 β ⎢− B p aburα + p (1 − Abur )⎥
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎜⎝ Bg ⎟⎠
bur
⎣⎢ Bg ⎦⎥
∇ 2T = + = (A5)
∂α 2 ∂β 2 ( Abur + cos β )3

The error in the partially buried pipe solution

The temperature field given by equation (60) is an approximate solution and therefore does not satisfy equation (51) exactly.
An expression for the error in the solution can be found by evaluating the derivatives of equation (60) which gives

−1
⎛ B ⎞ ⎡ Bp ⎤
⎜1 + p ⎟ (A )
cosh α + 1 − sinh 2 α ⎢− B p a par (π + β ) + (1 + Apar )⎥
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎜⎝ B g ⎟⎠
par
⎢⎣ Bg ⎥⎦
∇ 2T = + = (A6)
∂α 2 ∂β 2 (Apar + cosh α )3

Once again equation (A6) can be obtained directly from equation (A5) if the affine transformation given in equation (A1) is used.