EFFECTS OF ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA

GRADE 6 CURRICULA WITH SBA ON THE

NUMBERS OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL

SCHOLARSHIP AWARDEES 2006-2009.

A Research Project

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of
Master of Education

of
The University of the West Indies

Angella Hull
2010

Department of Educational Studies

School of Education
Mona

Abstract
This main objectives of this study were to determine (a) if there had been increases in the

numbers of candidates who were awarded secondary school scholarships in Antigua and

Barbuda from selected   (i) government primary schools, and (ii) private primary schools from

2006 to 2009; (b) if more candidates from the private primary schools had gained secondary

school scholarships than their counterparts from the government primary schools from 2006 to

2009; (c) if more girls in the government primary schools had been awarded secondary school

scholarships than their male peers from 2006 to 2009; (d) if more girls in the private primary

schools had been awarded secondary school scholarships than their male peers from 2006 to

2009; and (e) if the numbers of girls in both the government and private primary schools who

were awarded secondary school scholarships were more than the numbers of  boys in both the

government and private primary schools who were awarded secondary school scholarships from

2006 to 2009.

The Chief Examinations Officer, (Mr. Patricia Collins, within the Ministry of Antigua

and Barbuda was contacted via email, telephone and personally by the researcher to collect

the data. The study’s sample consisted of Grade 6 students from thirty (30) Government

Primary Schools and twenty- five to twenty- nine (25 – 29) Private Primary Schools over a

four (4) year period (2006 – 2009) in Antigua and Barbuda.

The results of the study showed that (a) there had been increases in the numbers of

candidates who were awarded secondary school scholarships in Antigua and Barbuda from the

selected 30 government primary schools (i.e. from 456 or 47.70% in 2006 to 512 or 60.10% in

2009) and the 25-29 private primary schools (i.e. from 504 in 2006 or 79.55% to 638 or

86.33% in 2009); (b) from 2006 to 2009, more candidates from the private primary schools

(2390 or 84.01% who passed the CEE out the 2839 candidates who sat the exams),
gained secondary school scholarships than their counterparts from the government primary

schools (2047 or 53.62% who passed the CEE out of the 3831 candidates who sat the exams)

from 2006 to 2009; (c) from 2006 to 2009, more girls (1198 or 63.83% who passed the CEE

out of the 1877 girls who wrote the CEE) in the 30 government primary schools were awarded

secondary school scholarships than their male peers (849 or 43.45% out of the 1954 boys who

wrote the CCE); (d) from 2006 to 2009, more girls (270 or 88.01% who passed the CEE out of

the 1443 girls who wrote the CEE) in the 25-29 private primary schools were awarded

secondary school scholarships than their male peers (1120 or 80.02% out of the 1396 boys who

wrote the CCE); (e) from 2006 to 2009, the numbers of girls in the government and private

primary schools (2468 or 74.34% who passed the CEE and were awarded secondary school

scholarships out of the 3320 girls who wrote the CEE) were substantially more than the

number of boys in both the government and private primary schools (1969 or 58.78% of whom

passed the CEE and were awarded secondary school scholarships.

Acknowledgements
 I would like to thank all of the people who contributed in one way or the other to the

development and completion of this study.

Foremost, I wish to thank to my Heavenly Father, JEHOVAH, for His presence and the

strength that He gave me when I felt that I could not go on. Without Him, I would not have made

it this far in my educational and life’s journeys.

I express thanks and appreciation to my supervisor Professor. Kolawole Soyibo for his

patience, tenacity, encouragement, guidance and expertise in enabling me to complete this

project. Thanks also to Professor Kolawole Soyibo for his assistance in analysing the data.

I thank the officials in the Antigua and Barbuda Ministry of Education especially Mrs.

Patricia Collins and Mr. Melorne Mack for their consent and assistance in collecting the data

needed to complete this research.

Special thanks is extended to my fellow online colleagues who provided much

encouragement, advise, patience, effort and guidance throughout our two year long learning

experience, especially while completing this study.

Thanks to my family for their encouragement, patience, tolerance and support as I

worked on this study. Without them, the completion of this research would have been much

more challenging.

Table of Contents
Page
Abstract ii

Acknowledgement iii

Table of Contents iv

List of Tables vii

Chapter 1 Statement of the Problem

Introduction 1

Rationale for the Study 7

Objectives of the Study 8

Research Questions 9

Significance of the Study 9

Chapter 2 Review of Relevant Literature

Definition and purposes of assessment.

Theoretical explanations of academic performance

Public examinations and school based assessment (SBA)

Teachers and gender gaps in student achievement

Students’ gender and science achievement

Students’ socioeconomic background (SEB) and science achievement

School type and differences in students' science performance

Studies on students’ attitudes towards science

Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement

 Conclusions from the review 26

Chapter 3 Methodology

Research Design 27

Sampling 27

Data Analyses

37

Limitations of the Study 38

Chapter 4 Results and Discussion

Research Question 1 40

Research Question 2 42

Research Question 3

Research Question 4

Research Question 5

Chapter 5 Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations

Conclusions 51

Implications 52

Recommendations 53

Suggestions for Future Research 54

References
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Benefits derived from doing SBA assignments in arts

subjects
Table1.2 Benefits derived from doing SBA assignments in science
subjects

Table 1.3 Benefits derived from doing SBA assignments in

technology subjects

Table 1.4 Benefits derived from doing SBA assignments in

Business subjects

Table 3.1 Zones and names of the thirty government primary

schools for which CEE candidates results were
analysed for this study

Table 3.2 Zones and names of the twenty-five (25) Private

primary schools (2006) for which CEE candidates
results were analysed for this study.

Table 3.3 Zones and names of the twenty-six (26) Private

primary schools (2007) for which CEE candidates
results were analysed for this study.

Table 3.4 Zones and names of the twenty-eight (28) Private

primary schools (2008) for which CEE candidates
results were analysed for this study.

Table 3.5 Zones and names of the twenty-nine (29) Private

primary schools (2009) for which CEE candidates results
were analysed for this study.

Table 4.1 Numbers of candidates awarded secondary

school scholarships in government and private
primary schools in four educational zones of Antigua
and Barbuda 2006-2009

Table 4.2 Numbers of candidates awarded secondary school

scholarships in government and private primary
schools in four educational zones of Antigua and
Barbuda 2006-2009

Table 4.3 Numbers of boys and girls in the government primary

schools in four educational zones of Antigua and Barbuda
 who wrote and passed the common entrance
examinations and were awarded secondary school
scholarships from 2006-2009

Table 4.4 Numbers of boys and girls in private primary schools

in four educational zones of Antigua and Barbuda who
wrote and passed the common entrance examinations
and were awarded secondary school scholarships
from 2006-2009

Table 4.5 Total numbers of boys and girls in government and

private primary schools in the four educational
zones of Antigua and Barbuda who wrote and passed
the common entrance examinations from 2006 to 2009
and were awarded secondary school scholarships
 Chapter 1
Statement of the Problem
Introduction
Education is a vehicle of social progress and socioeconomic transformation. It is the

process by which people acquire knowledge, skills, habits, values or attitudes. The word

‘education’ is also used to describe the results of educational process. It is conceived to be an

ongoing process. During this process, it is often required to measure the progress of the learners,

how far the educational changes occurred among them or how these changes have been

organized (Begum & Farooqui, 2006).

The most likely response from any Grade 6 student, in Antigua and Barbuda, if asked,

“Do you wish to attend a secondary school?” will be a resounding “YES”! Yet, regrettably, so

many of them do not get the chance to realize this aspiration. It is mainly due to the fact that they

come up short on marks at the end of their Common Entrance Examination results. They are,

thus denied the privilege of a secondary school education! Usually, the missed opportunity is

largely due to the type of assessment that is carried out.

In many Caribbean Islands, students at the Grade 6 level receive an automatic transfer

after the completion of Grade 6 to secondary schools. Based on the teaching experience of the

researcher, however, automatic progression of Grade 6 students to secondary schools does not

exists in Antigua and Barbuda. It is mandatory that students at the Grade 6 level complete an

examination that serves to select those entering secondary schools for which only limited places

are available. This examination is known as the Common Entrance Examination (CEE) and has

played a significant role throughout the history of modern education in Antigua and Barbuda. If

the child fails this examination, he/she leaves the elementary division of the school and moves on

to the “Junior Secondary” (was called post-primary) where he/she will yet again sit another
public examination at Grade 9 before he/she is awarded a scholarship to receive secondary

education.

Over the years, it has been noted that in Antigua and Barbuda fewer and fewer students

are meeting the requirements for gaining a scholarship to secondary schools. Yearly, Zone

Officers, within the country’s Ministry of Education, conduct meetings with the Principals and

Grade 6 teachers as a way of investigating the reasons why such a large percentage of the Grade

6 students fail the CEE annually. Numerous suggestions have been voiced ranging from the

inability of teachers to motivate the students to as much as blaming the actual examination itself

and its “One-Shot” ideology!

Teachers and parents especially, base their arguments on the fact that “ONE”

examination should not be the determining factor as to whether a child is awarded a secondary

education. They reason that some children, even though they are very capable students, falter in

the CEE due to stress and anxiety of having to perform under examination conditions. Added to

that, the traditional paper and pencil tests, a single examination (summative evaluation), cannot

in all fairness, test a child’s ability thoroughly in practical, research, interaction and motor skills.

It has been argued repetitively that education should support the holistic development of

the child (Covey, 2007). “What we want is to see the child in pursuit of knowledge, and not

knowledge in pursuit of the child”, (Shaw, 2007). One way in which this can be done is through

the “introduction of assessment and reporting tools,” that is likely to effectively measure

children’s learning. The Antigua and Barbuda’s Ministry of Education needs to review its

assessment methods with a view to incorporating more school-based assessment, especially at

the Grade 6 level.

 Confronted with repeated opposition about the methodology of selecting students for

secondary education by parents, teachers and other stakeholders, the officials within the

Antiguan and Barbadian Ministry of Education introduced, for the first time in 2006, the SBA as

a complementing factor to the CEE. It is believed that this introduction will increase the

country’s Grade 6 students’ opportunity to gain scholarships to pursue secondary education.

Below are brief summaries of some of the factors that influence students’ performance in

a variety of school subjects at the primary and secondary levels, which are directly and indirectly

related to the main purpose of this study.

Several factors are known to affect students’ academic performance in various schools

subjects. The following are a review of some of the conflicting findings on this very

controversial topic of some of the factors that affect students’ performance in science that are

directly and indirectly related to some of the objectives of this study.

Gender differences in students’ science achievement

Some studies have shown that there are significant differences in the performance of

males and females in science. Females’ underachievement in science is attributed to their

experiential background. Boys seem to gain a wider experiential background through play than

girls (Greenfield, 1997). Girls tend to develop a less positive attitudes to science and science

careers; this could be due to the fact that girls participate in fewer extra-curricular activities than

boys do.

However, it is argued that a person’s attitude or performance is not determined solely by

the experiences in spatial encounters that the person may have. The physiological makeup of

boys and girls is also used to explain the differences in performance in science. The way the

brain functions is responsible for the differences in the performance of boys and girls (Tobin,
1988). Boys generally excel in mechanical and spatial abilities, creativity and performance tests

(Lord, 1997).

Socioeconomic background and students’ science achievement

The socioeconomic background (SEB) of students has been known to influence students’

performance in science. The SEB of a student determines the quality of life of that student.

Research has shown that there is a significant relationship between students’ SEB and their level

of achievement in school (Davis, 1981; Douglas, 1964). The better the person’s lifestyle the

greater is the person’s achievement (Campbell, 1981; Tamir, 1982).

Soyibo (1981) found that Nigerian grade 11 students from a high SEB performed

significantly better in biology than students from a low SEB.

Students’ performance at school is greatly influenced by the students’ parental

background. Students, whose parents had a good education and have a highly paid job, perform

significantly better than students whose parents had little or no education and have a low income.

Students tend to emulate the standards set by their parents as high standard of living leads to high

achievement in school (Parker, 1987; Williams, 1995).

Family size also influences a child’s school performance (Hamilton, 1976). Students

from a low SEB would be at a disadvantage and will be subjected to inadequate learning

materials (Marson, 1989), and therefore would not feel motivated to learn. Students from a high

SEB would have access to electronic learning devices, appropriate educational literature which

would in fact lead to high achievement in school.

Students with strong parental involvement both at home and school with the appropriate

facilities are guaranteed success over those with little or no parental involvement and basic home

facilities (Grant, 2005).

Students’ attitudes and science achievement

Studies have shown that there is a positive correlation between students’ attitudes and

science achievement (Ajewole, 1991; Pierre, 1986; Schibeci & Riley, 1986). Attitude greatly

influences the way students learn. Attitudes involve feelings towards certain people, situations

and the environment (Aitkenson et al., 1983). These attitudes will develop through one’s

perceptions of a particular activity and the consequences of participating in that activity

(Crawley & Koballa, 1994).

Students’ poor science attitudes contribute to their low science achievement (Gardner,

1986; Kelly, 1987). The attitudes of students towards science must be of great concern to science

educators if students are to improve their attitudes towards the subjects (Kelly, 1987; Lindgren,

1976).

Students’ grade level and science achievement

The influence of grade level and students’ performance in science has been investigated

by some researchers. Beaumont-Walters and Soyibo (2001) analysed the performance of a select

group of Jamaican Grades 9 and 10 students on five integrated science process skills and found

that there were statistically significant differences in their performance based on grade level in

favour of the 10th-graders.

School location and differences in students' science performance

There is a considerable body of literature (Broomhall & Johnson, 1994; Broomhall, 1993;

DeYoung, 1985) that concludes that rural students perform less well than urban students on

standardized tests, including science of educational achievement. One hypothesis for the

existence of this condition is that expenditures on education do matter, and they are smaller in

rural areas than in urban areas (DeYoung, 1985; Jansen, 1991; Mulkey, 1993; McDowell, et al.,
1992; Reeder, 1989). A second hypothesis for the existence of the difference in educational

achievement between rural and urban areas involves the relationships between the values in use

of particular inputs and the level of such achievement (Hanushek, 1991). And a third hypothesis

is that differences by location in attitudes of individuals, parents, and peers about education exist

and result in the observed differences in educational achievement by location (Broomhall &

Johnson, 1994; Hanson & Ginsburg, 1988).

School type differences in students' science performance

A number of studies have taken up the question of whether private schools are truly

better than public schools in reference to their science achievements. Early studies (e.g., Chubb

& Moe, 1990; Coleman & Hoffer, 1987; Coleman, Hoffer, & Kilgore, 1982) and related studies

in sociology include Noell (1982) and Bryk, Lee, and Holland (1993). Witte (1996) provides a

critical summary of recent comparisons of public and private schools.

Parental involvement and students’ science and reading performance

The school takes over where the home leaves off. One cannot too often stress that it is

unreasonable to expect the school to succeed when the home influences tend to negate its

purpose. Riley (1998) stated that children who read at home with their parents performed better

in school. He stated that the family was the rock on which a solid education could be built.

Researchers have reported that despite different educational approaches, structure and

organisations, parents’ assistance is positively related to students’ reading ability. Henderson

(1989) reported 18 studies showing that various types of parental involvement had positive

results including measurable gains in pupils’ performance.

Students whose parents assisted with their home work had higher reading and

mathematics literacy (The Educational Observer, 1990). Parental involvement in children’s’

education is an investment of time and other resources. Research shows that school factors exert

a strong influence on parental involvement on their children’s education (Eecles & Harold,

1996). Important school factors include whether the school is a public or private school, the size

of the school, the school environment or climate, school policies and practices and teachers’

attitudes and practices (Epstein & Dauber, 1991). Children enjoy school more when their

parents are involved. Parents cannot afford to wait for schools to tell them how their children are

doing and that families who stay informed about their children’s progress at school have higher

achieving children.

Rationale for the study

The purpose of this study is to ascertain the ‘effects of Antigua and Barbuda Grades 6

curricula with SBA on the numbers of the secondary school scholarship awardees 2006-2009.”

In Antigua/Barbuda, the system of assessment of the CEE has always been guided by

curriculum though the CEE only measures the learners’ ability of memorization and

comprehension skills. Other categories of skills in the cognitive domain such application,

analysis, synthesis and evaluation are hardly included in the assessment. Besides, some of the

essential qualities such as oral presentation, leadership, tolerance, cooperative attitude, school

behaviour, co-curricular activities and social values are not included in the CEE. As a result, the

students’ tendency to rely heavily on their memorization skill renders them to become

cognitively crippled, lacking required excellence to contribute fruitfully to their society.

The researcher is of the view that too many young people are not getting a fair chance to

continue their education within the walls of secondary schools because they are not able to

obtain the required marks stipulated by the Antigua and Barbudan Ministry of Education, (during

the single sitting of their CEE), which would have gained them entry into secondary schools.
Too many of them are failing the CEE. Many stakeholders are concerned about the standards of

behaviour and the values that the students cherish. The school has an important role to play in

relation to these aspects of students’ development (NCTB, 2006).

In September 2005, the government of Antigua/Barbuda asked the schools across

the country to carry out the School Based Assessment (SBA) of students of Grades 6 and 9,

instead of the existing evaluation system that depended solely on examination – the CEE. With

the introduction of the new assessment system, students’ personal and academic performances

throughout the year along with the annual examination result will be the determining factor in

selecting them into the secondary school system.

One needs to look no further than the world of work to realize how important it is

for students to obtain a secondary school education. It is the researcher’s view that by relying

solely on a single examination - the CEE - without the contribution of the SBA or other forms of

formative assessment, students’ chances of being awarded secondary school scholarships are

likely to be severely hampered. The researcher believes that without the basics of a secondary

school education, one’s chances of securing a substantial position within a place of employment

is limited. The researcher is also of the opinion that coupled with the acquisition of a secondary

education, is the advantage of Grade 6 students having the skills (research, practical, interaction

and motor) acquired while involved in completing projects/activities for the SBA. This example

is among numerous ones which highlight the importance of the SBA in improving the chances of

Antigua and Barbuda’s Grade 6 students of securing scholarships to pursue secondary education.

The researcher thinks that as our society moves on into the next century, it will

become more apparent that a secondary school education along with skills and competencies that

students acquired while doing SBA, will prove vital to the economic performance of Antigua and
Barbuda. The researcher also believes that without these skills in one's possession, the likelihood

may result in one surely becoming lost in our rapidly changing society.

No longer can children’s future be decided according to the results of a single

examination – the CEE. What is known about individual achievement is that it is possible for an

individual to be good at one thing and not another (Gardner, 1983). Therefore, it is imperative

that students are given the opportunity to develop their potential, build on their strengths and find

ways and means of improving on their weaknesses.

The main goal of this study is to investigate the “Effects of Antigua and Barbuda

Grades 6 curriculum with SBA on the numbers of the secondary school scholarship awardees.”

With this knowledge, it is hoped that it will be a step closer to reducing or eliminating some of

the resistance to change (using SBA in public examinations) by some stakeholders in education

in our country.

Caron Weston, Education Officer for Mathematics within the Ministry of

Education (Antigua/Barbuda 2006), compiled a summative evaluation of the Mathematics

projects done by the students across the island. Weston 2006, has summarized that the

introduction of SBAs in the Grade 6 curriculum (particularly mathematics), has given the

students the opportunity to make “mathematics a living garment”. Additionally, she has stated

that the SBAs have contributed to improving students’ critical thinking and problem-solving

abilities. Importantly, Weston (2006) concurred that the SBAs have contributed significantly to

the increased passes in the subject of Mathematics.

Many studies have been done over the years by theorists, specialists and the like

to gain a better understanding of the SBA (Chapman & Snyder, 2000; Cheng, 1999; Petrie,

1987). To date, many theories concerning the understanding and effectiveness of the introduction
of the SBA into the school’s curriculum have been done. McNamara (2000) posits that new

approaches to assessments are certainly a necessity. He further elaborates that an assessment

system not only affects the learning and teaching process but that it also affects the society as a

whole. Some of these theorists, Egyud, Gal and Glover (2001) and Griffith (2009) have

conducted studies on the tremendous positive results concerning the inclusion of the SBA into

the school’s curriculum. However, these studies reveal that the success of the SBA greatly

depends on whether or not the teachers feel they have the time, knowledge and materials to

achieve the goals and whether they receive the training and encouragement to bring about the

change expected from the implementation of the SBA in their schools. Additionally, they all

reinforce the idea that a ‘one-shot’ examination is truly a cause and effect situation and is not the

best determinant of a child’s abilities or potential.

The researcher is of the opinion that the primary rationale for SBA is to enhance

the validity of the assessment, by including the assessment of outcomes that cannot be readily

assessed within the context of a one-shot public examination. Since the introduction of the SBA

into the Grades 6 and 9 curricula in Antigua and Barbuda, SBA has been noted to have reduced

the dependence on the results of public examinations, which may not always provide the most

reliable indication of the actual abilities of candidates. Obtaining assessments based on student

performance over an extended period of time (using the SBA) provide a more reliable

assessment of each student. Teachers of these classes have agreed that (a) the inclusion of the

SBA, has promoted a positive impact on the teaching and learning process; (b) it has served to

motive students by engaging them in meaningful activities; and (c) for teachers themselves, it

has served as a means to reinforce curriculum aims and good teachings practices, and provide
structure and significance to an activity that they are in any case involved in on a daily basis,

namely assessing their own students.

Broomes (1997) conducted a study to probe the practical problems and potential of the

SBA. He looked at the benefits derived from doing SBA assignments in a variety of subject

areas. Based on his findings, he reported that, to a great extent, doing SBA helped students to

obtain high marks in their respective subject areas and that doing SBA assisted students in

covering different topics in their syllabi. Broomes’ (1997) research report has shown that the

performance of many Grade 11 Caribbean students in CXC science, technology, business and

arts subjects  examinations, have improved since the introduction of the SBA into these subjects.

Based on Broomes’ (1997) findings, the researcher considered it worthwhile to find out if the

performance of selected Antigua and Barbuda Grade 6 students in their Grade 6 final

examinations in all school subjects has improved from 2006 to 2009 as shown by the increase in

numbers of the Grade 6 students who had been awarded secondary school scholarships during

this period.

Tables 1.1-1.4, display the benefits that the introduction of SBA into science, technology,

business and arts subjects had engendered in Caribbean Grade 11 students’ performance in these

subjects but also the benefits that their teachers had also derived based on Broomes’ (1997)

findings.

Table 1.1
Benefits derived from doing SBA assignments in arts subjects
       
Benefits derived from doing SBA Yes No Uncertain

1. Helping students to learn the

1378(86.2)% 135(8.4)% 86(5.4)%
subject
2. Demonstrating to teachers how 1066(67.7)% 281(17.8)% 230(14.6)%
well they know the subject
3. Obtaining high marks in the 228(14.5)
115(73.4) % 190(12.1)%
subject %
4. Covering different topics in the 244(18.9)
114(73.2) % 124 (8.0) %
syllabus %
       

Table1.2
Benefits derived from doing SBA assignments in science subjects
       

Benefits derived from doing SBA Yes No Uncertain

1. Helping students to learn the
subject 1197(83.9)% 136(9.5) % 93(6.5) %

2. Demonstrating the teachers how

well they know the subject
3. Obtaining high marks in the
subject
4. Covering different topics in the
syllabus
938(66.8)% 253(18.0)% 231(15.2)%
1023(71.8)% 251(17.6)% 151(10.6)%
1075(75.0)% 248(17.5)% 94(6.6)%

Table 1.3
Benefits derived from doing SBA assignments in technology subjects
       
Benefits derived from doing SBA Yes No Uncertain
1. Helping students to learn the
709 (73.7) % 137(14.2)% 116(12.1)%
subject
2. Demonstrating to teachers how
654(67.4)% 179(18.4)% 138(14.2)%
well they know the subject
3. Obtaining high marks in the
640(66.9)% 198(20.7)% 118(12.3)%
subject
4. Covering different topics in the
600(63.0)% 234(24.6)% 118(12.4)%
syllabus
       

Table 1.4
Benefits derived from doing SBA assignments in business subjects
       
Benefits derived from doing SBA Yes No Uncertain
1. Helping students to learn the
388(55.6)% 192(27.5)% 118(16.9)%
subject
2. Demonstrating to teachers how
329(47.8)% 223(32.4)% 137(19.9)%
well they know the subject
3. Obtaining high marks in the
348(51.9)% 208(31.0)% 114(17.0)%
subject
4. Covering different topics in the
337(51.0)% 227(34.3)% 97(14.7)%
syllabus

Objectives of the Study

This study was designed to find out

(a) if there had been increases in the numbers of candidates who were awarded secondary

school scholarships in Antigua and Barbuda from selected  

(i) government primary schools, and (ii) private primary schools from 2006 to 2009;

(b) if more candidates from the private primary schools had gained secondary school

scholarships than their counterparts from the government primary schools from 2006 to

2009;

(c) if more girls in the government primary schools had been awarded secondary school

scholarships than their male peers from 2006 to 2009;

(d) if more girls in the private primary schools had been awarded secondary school

scholarships than their male peers from 2006 to 2009; and

(e) if the numbers of girls in both the government and private primary schools who were

awarded secondary school scholarships were more than the numbers of  boys in both the

government and private primary schools who were awarded secondary school

scholarships from 2006 to 2009.

Research Questions

Answers were provided to the following questions.

1.  Had there been increases in the numbers of candidates who were awarded secondary

school scholarships in Antigua and Barbuda from selected  

(a) government primary schools, and (b) private primary schools from 2006 to 2009?

2. Did more candidates from the private primary schools gain secondary school

scholarships than their counterparts from the government primary schools from 2006 to

2009?

3. Were more girls in the government primary schools awarded secondary school

scholarships than their male peers from 2006 to 2009?

4. Were more girls in the private primary schools awarded secondary school scholarships

than their male peers from 2006 to 2009?

5. Were the numbers of girls in the government and private primary schools who were

awarded secondary school scholarships more than the numbers of boys in both the

government and private primary schools who were awarded secondary school

scholarships from 2006-2009?

Significance of the Study

1. Evidence from this study indicated that there had been increases in the numbers of candidates

who were awarded secondary school scholarships in Antigua and Barbuda from the selected

30 government primary schools (i.e. from 456 or 47.70% in 2006 to 512 or 60.10% in 2009)

and from the 25-29 private primary schools (i.e. from 504 in 2006 or 79.55% to 638 or

86.33% in 2009). These findings indicate that the introduction of School Based Assessment

(SBA) into the Grade 6 curricula had been a positive initiative which had contributed to the
 increases in the numbers of awardees gaining secondary school scholarships during the four

years under review.

2. In support of the researcher’s assumption that Antigua and Barbuda’s private primary

schools would have received more secondary school scholarships than their government

primary school counterparts, the research revealed that from 2006 to 2009, more candidates

from the private primary schools (2390 or 84.01% who passed the CEE out the 2839

candidates who sat the exams), gained secondary school scholarships than their counterparts

from the government primary schools (2047 or 53.62% who passed the CEE out of the 3831

candidates who sat the exams) during the four years. Hence, the onus is on the Ministry of

Education in Antigua and Barbuda, the officials of which are the chief supervisors of the

public primary schools on the islands, to find strategies that will enable them to bring the

level and quality of education and student-teacher relationship on par with that of their

counterparts in the private primary schools.

3. The findings that there were substantial differences in (a) the numbers of secondary school

scholarships awarded to the girls in comparison with the boys in the CEE from 2006 to

2009, (b) the numbers of the girls in the government and private primary schools (2468 or

74.34% who passed the CEE and were awarded secondary school scholarships out of the

3320 girls who wrote the CEE) and the numbers of boys in both the government and private

primary schools (1969 or 58.78% of whom passed the CEE and were awarded secondary

school scholarships, suggest that the girls might be more focused and better prepared to

perform better under examination conditions than their male counterparts. Additionally, it

could be suggested that girls performed and received better grades than their male

counterparts in their School Based Assessment (SBA) tasks.

4. Implicit in these findings is that there are other variables besides the students’ gender and

inclusion of SBA which could have contributed to the substantial differences in the numbers

of students who passed the CEE and the corresponding annualized increase in the numbers of

the secondary school awardees, which should be investigated in future studies on this topic.

They include: the differences in the in the students’ learning styles, cognitive abilities,

interest in the topic, the type of school they attend, their schools’ location, and their teachers’

qualifications, teaching experience and teaching styles.

5. It is hoped that this study will contribute to the existing knowledge on the performance of

Grade 6 students in the annual Common Entrance Examination especially as it relates to the

inclusion of SBAs where there is a dearth in available literature.

6. The findings of this study are likely to encourage the pursuit of future research on this

research topic.

Operational Definitions of Key Terms

Grade 6: The sixth grade (called Grade 6 in some regions) is a year of education in

many nations. The sixth grade is the sixth school year after

kindergarten. usually 11–12-year-olds. Traditionally, sixth grade is the

final year of the elementary or primary school.

Junior Secondary School: Junior secondary school or Middle school serves as a "bridge"

between the elementary school and the high school.

Secondary School Education: Secondary school is a term used to describe an educational

institution where the final stage of compulsory schooling, known

 as secondary education, takes place. It follows on from primary or

elementary education. It is a stage of academic development

where the foundation developed at the primary level is built upon

and strengthened in preparation for tertiary or vocational training.

There are many different types of secondary school, and the

terminology used varies around the world. Children usually

transfer to secondary school between the ages of 11 and14 years,

and finish between the ages of 16 and18 years, though there is

considerable variation from country to country.

Common Entrance Exam: The Common Entrance Examination (CEE) is set by the

Independent Schools Examination Board, for entry at age 11+

(normally for girls and boys in year six). They are academic

entrance examinations common to almost all private and public

schools. They are nationally standardised examinations taken by

school pupils equivalent to the Standard Assessment Tests at Key

Stages used in the state sector. In effect, CEE determines the

academic syllabus for the whole independent sector.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy: A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly

causes itself to become true. In other words, a prophecy declared

as truth when it is actually false may sufficiently influence people,

either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions

ultimately fulfill the once false prophecy.

Internal Assessment: School-based assessment (SBA) activities that are used to measure

students’ achievements as a part of the normal teaching and

learning process based on specified achievement criteria.

School-Based Assessment: Assessment done in school on a continuous basis to determine

students’ achievements of learning outcomes.

Moderation: The adjusting of students’ assessment task scores/ratings to

address inconsistencies in marking and to bring about

comparability.

Validity: The extent to which an assessment task is able to achieve the

purpose for which it is set.

Fairness: The extent to which an assessment task is free of bias (e.g.,

example cultural differences, gender, school location influences).

Reliability: An assessment method is reliable when the procedures used are

consistently interpreted over time with different people and

situations.

Competence: Achievement of a mixture of attributes (knowledge, skills, attitudes

and values) needed to be performed on a particular task in a

particular situation.

Performance Criteria: Describes the performance required for each level of competence

Private School A private or nonpublic school does not receive government

funding. Because private schools don't receive money from the

government, they are freed from most of the state's regulations for

public schools regarding personnel and curriculum.

 A uniform may or may not be part of private school education.

They generally teach a clearer value system and feature smaller

classes, better facilities, and a more challenging curriculum.

Chapter 2
Review of Relevant Literature
Introduction

It is the view of this researcher that a secondary education matters to every citizen in the

modern world! A secondary education usually sets the stage for an individual’s preparation for

employment and academic pursuits. If a child’s chances of obtaining one are reduced because

his/her chance was decided upon the results of a single examination, then in all fairness, the child

was unfairly assessed! Other variables need to be considered as well.

 Because the researcher was unable to access relevant studies on some of the variables or

factors that affect primary school students’ academic performance in various school subject, she

considered it worthwhile to review some studies that had been done on some of the factors that

affect high school students performance in science tests that are likely to be true of the sample of

this study in the various school subjects on which they were examined at the end of their Grade

6 school leaving examinations. The studies are reviewed under the following subheadings.

1. Definition and purposes of assessment.

2. Theoretical explanations of academic performance

3. Public examinations and school based assessment (SBA)

4. Teachers and gender gaps in student achievement

5. Students’ gender and science achievement

6. Students’ socioeconomic background (SEB) and science achievement

7. School type and differences in students' science performance

8. Studies on students’ attitudes towards science

9. Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement

Definition and purpose of assessment

Assessment can be defined as the systematic basis for making inferences about the

learning and development of students.  It is the process of defining, selecting, designing,

collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and using information to increase students’ learning and

development (Erwin, 1991).

 Information derived from an assessment can be used for a great variety of purposes: to

make educational decisions about students (e.g., promotion, grade retention, certification of

achievements); to give feedback to students about their progress, strengths, and weaknesses; to

motivate students by providing goals or targets; to judge instructional effectiveness and

curricular adequacy; to describe the achievements of an education system; to assess the

effectiveness of schools; to monitor student achievements over time; and to guide policy

formation and decision-making.

With all that assessment is purported to achieve, the mode of assessment used in the

Common Entrance Examinations (CEE) in Antigua and Barbuda prior to 2006 was regarded as

contrary. Fortunately, the introduction of Student Based Assessment (SBA) into the

curriculum/examination for the Grade 6 students in Antigua and Barbuda, has sought to improve

the quality of assessment given to these Grade 6students. The introduction of the SBA was

designed to give students an improved chance of being able to obtain scholarships to attend

secondary schools in the country. Professor Dr. Stafford Griffith eloquently stated in the April

26th 2009 edition of the Jamaica Gleaner newspaper, that SBA brings assessment and teaching

together for the benefit of the students and provides the teachers with the opportunity to

participate in a unique way in the assessment process that leads to the final grade obtained by

their students.

An understanding of the nature of the SBA will encourage its implementation on a wider

scale. Fung et al. (1998) concerned about how Hong Kong assessment system could be changed

to improve teaching and learning reported that HKEAA was being recommended to extend the

SBA to all subjects in both Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination (HKALE) and Hong Kong
Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE). EMB(2005, p.84) confirmed that SBA was

implemented in 13 HKALE subjects and 13 HKCEE subjects since 2006.

Theoretical explanations of academic performance

One of the most important principles of educational psychology is that teachers cannot

give students knowledge, as knowledge is constructed by learners. Students enter the formal

educational system with pre-existing ideas gained as they try to make sense of their

surroundings. These ideas are riveted in the students’ cognitive structure and are modified or

kept after instruction (Gilbert, Osbourne & Fensham, 1982).

Learning is not a passive, knowledge-consuming and externally directed process, but an

active process in which learners build up internal knowledge representations that form personal

interpretations of the learners’ experiences (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992). In short, learning activities

are under the express control of learners.

Hsiao and Oxford (2002) suggested that learning strategies help build learners’ anatomy,

which require the learners to take conscious control of their own learning process. This

construction of knowledge is enhanced by cognitive processing activities which provide the

learners with a medium to process earning contents and attain their learning goals, such as

finding relations between parts of subject matter or practical, thinking of examples, and selecting

main points (Vermunt, 1996). But despite the documented strengths of the constructivist teaching

approach, Solomon (1994) has identified some of the demerits of constructivism.

Teachers must therefore employ relevant teaching strategies to ensure that links area

formed between the incoming information and the existing knowledge framework of learners

(Edwards & Maryland, 1982; von Glaserfeld, 1989). The constructivist approach is one of the

most appropriate methods for reducing students’ misconceptions. Science teachers play pivotal
roles, as they employ various strategies to reduce the learners’ misconceptions, such as working

in small groups, followed by large group or class discussions.

In addition, Parker (1984) found that the development of students’ thinking and problem-

solving skills is emphasized in small group co-operative learning groups. Duren and Cherrington

(1992) discovered that students who worked cooperatively in small groups remembered and

applied problem-solving strategies better than those who worked independently.

At first glance, it might be thought that the plethora of extensive practical work is ideal.

Just as there are teachers who believe that all lessons should comprise the dispensing of

knowledge through notes, lectures, teacher demonstrations and structured practical exercises,

many other teachers believe that all learning goals in science are attainable through practical

work. After all, science is a practical-based subject (Willower, 2001).

Curriculum planners in the Caribbean have incorporated a practical component in the

Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) science syllabuses. This component, called

the School Based Assessment (SBA), not only contributes 20–25 % of the students’ final grade,

but serves as a means of exposing students to scientific discovery and experimental skills. This is

expected to reinforce the theoretical knowledge learnt. However, due to lack of teaching time,

teachers often focus on the covering of syllabus contents at the expense of the mastery of process

skills (Hargreaves, 1982; Lewin, 1992).

Practical work has a crucial role in the education of biology students. This is extremely

relevant at the lower grades of the secondary school system when students, who are not yet at the

abstract thinking stage, are trying to understand abstract concepts (Wellington, 1998).

Experimentation calls for the mastery of scientific processes, necessary tools in conducting

science investigations. Wellington (1998) also argues that practical work not only improves
students’ understanding of science and their manipulative skills but promotes higher level,

transferable skills such as inference, measurement, prediction and observation. Hodson and Reid

(1988) suggested the incorporation of laboratory work and other teaching strategies, to enhance

meaningful learning of scientific theory.

The most effective practical work is done in small groups (Thompson & Soyibo, 2002),

where children have increased opportunities to manipulate materials chemicals, and equipment

(Ausubel, 1968). However, the composition and willingness of the members of the group to

interact in a purposeful manner are factors that will affect the extent to which meaningful

learning occurs.

Grades 7-9 science classes in Jamaican schools are too large to conduct suitable hands-on

practical work effectively. Soyibo (1998) observed that limited equipment and materials and

large teacher/student ratio, reduced the effectiveness of practical work, as students had to work in

large groups of either five or six, with one or two members dominating the activities. The others,

lacked confidence, and, hence were passive recipients who observed and took notes on the

activity being pursued. Similarly, teachers sometimes lacked confidence in their ability to carry

out the experiments themselves, or have little confidence in the students’ ability to handle the

costly equipment with care. Hence, at this level, the lecture method and teacher demonstrations

were the main teaching strategies used.

Public Examinations and School Based Assessments (SBA)

Public examinations refer to any assessment that is set, moderated, administered and

marked by any agent other than the teacher (Black et al., 2004). These examinations are usually

administered at the end of the course and are meant for selection purposes. They do not provide

the teacher with immediate feedback on the progress of the learners during the study.
 Public examinations are designed to make judgments and provide a basis for decisions

about individual students. Data on students’ performance are in many education systems

aggregated to provide information on general standards of achievement in an examination,

strengths and weaknesses in the achievements of candidates, and differences in achievement

associated with gender, type (e.g., public/private), and location (e.g., urban/rural) of school. The

information is usually made available to schools in the chief examiners’ reports or in newsletters,

which may also identify the deficiencies in teaching and propose remedies to address them (Ho,

2005).

Furthermore, public examinations are limited to the analyses of the contents of the

examinations which are often focused on discriminating between high achieving students rather

than on representing the total range of knowledge and skills a curriculum might be designed to

foster. Thus, standards of performance, and the strengths and weaknesses they reveal will not

reflect the full range of achievements, or of problems, of students in an education system (Yip &

Cheung, 2005).

Examinations are potentially a great tool and can help students’ learning, so long as

they are well-designed and used appropriately (Ho, 2005, p.16). They can provide a scale of

achievement for students (assessment of learning) and be a reflective tool for teachers’ teaching

and learners’ learning (assessment for learning). Yet, the emphasis on examination for selection

purpose is still strong in some places (Biggs, 1996).

The implementation of the SBA is helpful to integrate assessment of learning and

assessment for learning. Much more needs to be done if this is to become a reality. However,

this precisely is the information that policymakers and education managers require. They need

data from which they can draw inferences about general standards of achievement in the
education system, not just about the achievements of students who sit examinations. They also

need data that throw light on student achievements in all areas of a curriculum, or at any rate

essential skills, such as literacy and numeracy, which public examinations are not designed to

measure (Hargreaves, 2001). This indicates a need for information about the achievements of

students, at an earlier point in their educational careers than the point at which public

examinations are normally held.

Public examinations are also deficient in what they can reveal about changes in

standards over time. Since the contents of examinations change from year to year, it is not

possible to say that the tasks which students are set are equivalent in difficulty from one occasion

to another, or that they even measure the same knowledge and skills. Furthermore, the norm-

referenced approach that underlies scoring in most examinations (a function of their focus on the

selection of candidates) will mask changes that may be recurring in the actual achievements of

students (Harlen & James, 1997; Yung, 2001).

SBA has a major role to play in the education of our children. Children spend the best

part of their young lives with teachers and it is through the teacher assessments that we can better

understand their capabilities. To rely solely or to a large extent on the one time examinations as

is common practice in most countries is to obscure the vision of teachers and deny them a voice

of creativity.

The role of the SBA in the final grading of students needs to be given an uplifted face.

Teachers in schools continue to assess students on a day to day basis but the fruits of their hard

labour are easily swallowed by the national examinations which are prepared by an external

body. This could be due to lack of confidence in the way teachers assess or that the importance

of such assessment is not readily seen (Chang, 2004; Hau, 2004; IBM, 2003).
 Introducing SBA in public examinations is believed to be one of the significant tools

for enhancing assessment for learning. In recent years, an important change in the public

examination structure of Hong Kong secondary schools is the shift from a sole focus on external

examinations to using both external and school-based assessment (Yip & Cheung, 2005, p.156).

SBA means formative tasks count towards final marks rather than grades being based entirely on

student performance in public examination (Clem, 2005). Kennedy, Chan, Yu & Fok (2006)

regard this as “to move away from examinations to a greater reliance on school based assessment

fuelled by teacher judgments is one further way of ensuring less negative ‘backwash’ from

external summative assessment.”

SBA has been adopted with an aim to improve the quality of learning, teaching and

assessment. There are, at least, three major conceptual arguments supporting the introduction of

the SBA for enhancing student learning. Firstly, one of the main objectives for introducing SBA

is that it can be constructed as assessment for learning and related to, teaching (IBM, 2003,

p.32). The guiding principle for the teachers is to use relevant evidence gathered as a part of

teaching for formative purposes but to review it, for summative purposes, in relation to the

criteria which will be used for all students (Harlen & James, 1997; Yung, 2001, p.1001).

Secondly, SBA, supplementing external examinations, provides a more holistic and

valid measurement of students’ abilities (Yip & Cheung, 2005, p.156). There is a range of

generic skills such as communication skills, higher-order thinking skills, problem-solving skills,

creativity and the ability to work independently or as a member of a team, which are highly

valued in the modern world (EMB, 2004). It is assumed that these skills can be better assessed

through SBA than through one-off paper-and-pencil examination (Chang, 2004). Another

example is that SBA can reflect the language ability of students in a more holistic view (Chan &
Cheung, 2006). Such skills are more easily assessed over a time period, and in circumstances,

that differ from those where students are restricted to a paper that must be completed within the

time and circumstances associated with external examinations.

Critical skills that should be developed during a course of study, but which cannot be

measured through the external examination, can be effectively measured through the SBA. This

attribute of the SBA helps to improve the validity of the assessment (Chang, 2004; Hau, 2004;

IBM, 2003).

Of the two most frequently cited technical qualities of a good examination, validity and

reliability, validity is by far the more important (Griffith, 2008). Even, Feldt and Brennan

(1993) at the end of the chapter on Reliability that they contributed in the third edition of

Educational Measurement, could not help reflecting on the pre-eminence, not of reliability of

which they were writing, but of validity! Feldt and Brennan, with commendable humility at the

end of their seminal work on reliability, wrote thus: “The authors readily acknowledge the

primacy of validity in the evaluation of the adequacy of an educational measure” (p.143) and this

was at the end of a chapter about the nature and importance of reliability, not validity! It is

worth noting that while reliability is concerned with the extent to which the scores of a test are

accurate or dependable (Berkowitz et. al), validity is concerned with the extent to which

inferences based on test scores are meaningful, useful and appropriate (Messick, 1993). School

Based Assessment makes an invaluable contribution to improving the validity of Public

Examinations (Griffith, 2008).

Thirdly, SBA meets the intentions of the education reforms that emphasize the more

real-life environment learning and assessment. It is easy to understand that terminal, written,

one-off high stakes examinations are not the way people work in the community or in
employment. In real employment situation, people interact with others and arrive at conclusions

by team-work, iteration and trial-and-error (EMB, 2004; IBM, 2003).

To make sure that SBA helps to enhance students’ learning, it is important to increase

the accuracy of classroom assessments and to provide students with frequent informative

feedback (Staginess, 2002,)

To further concretize the importance of SBAs, Chang (2004), Hau (2004) and IBM

(2003) urged even universities to join in the widened assessment base by widening their own

admissions criteria. The exclusive use of the external examination marks for university

admission should, in the longer term, be replaced by the more comprehensive assessment results.

(Chang, 2004; Hau, 2004; IBM, 2003, p.35).

Teachers and the Gender Gaps in Student Achievement

In Teachers and the Gender Gaps in Student Achievement (NBER Working Paper

No. 11660), author Thomas Dee used data from the nationally representative National Education

Longitudinal Study of 1988 to examine the consequences of gender interactions within

classrooms. The outcome measures included test scores, teacher perceptions of student

performance, and measures of students' intellectual engagement (for example, whether a student

was afraid to ask questions in a particular class, looked forward to the class, and saw the class as

useful for the future).

Dee found that gender interactions between teachers and students had significant effects

on these important educational outcomes. He argued that assignment to a teacher of the opposite

sex lowered student achievement by about 0.04 standard deviations. Other results implied that

just
 "One year with a male English teacher would eliminate nearly a third of the gender gap

in reading performance among 13-year-olds…and would do so by improving the

performance of boys and simultaneously harming that of girls. Similarly, a year with a

female teacher would close the gender gap in science achievement among 13-year-olds

by half and eliminate entirely the smaller achievement gap in mathematics."

Female science teachers appeared to reduce the probability that a girl would be seen as

inattentive in science, though this had no discernable effect on girls' science achievement.

However, female history teachers significantly raised girls' history achievement. And, boys were

more likely to report that they did not look forward to a particular academic subject when it was

taught by a female.

Overall, the data suggest that, "a large fraction of boys' dramatic underperformance in

reading reflects the classroom dynamics associated with the fact that their reading teachers are

overwhelmingly female." According to the U.S. Department of Education's 1999-2000 Schools

and Staffing Survey, 91 percent of the nation's sixth grade reading teachers, and 83 percent of

eighth grade reading teachers are female. This depresses boys' achievement. The fact that most

middle school teachers of math, science, and history are also female may raise girls'

achievement. In short, the current gender imbalance in middle school staffing may be reducing

the gender gap in science by helping girls but exacerbating the gender gap in reading by

handicapping boys.

Students’ gender and science achievement

Unger (1979) differentiated “sex” from “gender”. According to the author, sex is a

biological characteristic and gender is a cultural characteristic of females and males. Similarly,
Rennie (1998, p.959) argued that “if the issue of gender is to be considered effectively in science

teacher education, account must be taken of the way gender is constructed in terms of ethnicity,

class, religion, race and often other variables as well.” In Baker’s study (2003), gender and

equity in science education have been reviewed since 1971.

Several authors have observed that the in-school experiences of boys and girls can be

quite different. Askew and Ross (1988) noted that boys and girls may be involved in quite

different learning processes, even when the activities they are involved in are identical and that

these differences become embedded at an early age. Indeed, Delamont (1989) suggests that this

is an important (although perhaps undesirable) aspect of the socialisation that occurs within

schools. Specifically, it appears that boys demand and are given more attention and engage in

activity related discussion to a greater extent than their female peers. Although there is some

debate as to whether this holds true for all subjects (Leindhart et al. 1979). Tizard et al. (1988)

found some evidence of teachers having higher expectations of boys than of girls, whilst Evans

(1982) noted that despite teachers perceiving themselves to be liberal with respect to gender

issues, there was no evidence of any 'sustained effort by teachers to transmit anything other than

the traditional sex-role stereotypes'. This array of influences may also have an impact on the

subjects which pupils sees as being 'right' for them.

Research shows that there are marked differences in girls’ and boys’ attitudes to some

subjects (Cresswell & Gubb 1987; Gorman et al. 1982; Hendley et al. 1995). There is also

evidence that girls and boys have differing attitudes to school in general (Keys et al. 1996;

Stables & Stables 1995; Randall 1987; Stanworth 1987)

Gender differences in science have received serious attention in the science education

research for the last two decades. Boys and girls have been compared on variables such as
achievement, attitude, motivation, interest, and performance behaviours (e.g., Eccles &

Blumenfield, 1985; Erickson & Erickson, 1984; Greenfield, 1997; Jovanovich & King, 1998;

Kahle, Parker, Rennie, & Riley, 1993; Morrell & Lederman, 1998; Simpson & Oliver, 1985). In

a comprehensive review of studies about correlations among affect, ability, achievement, and

gender, Steinkamp and Maehr (1983) reported that (a) in science and cognitive ability, boys did

slightly better than girls, (b) the achievement-with-affect correlations were similar for boys and

girls, and (c) for both boys and girls, the achievement-with-cognitive ability relationship was

strongest in biology and physics.

Previous studies have reported that boys did better than girls in the physical sciences, and

the gender differences were not substantial in other subject areas (e.g., Erickson & Erickson,

1984; NAEP, 1979), but these studies did not take into account the differential effects of ability

levels and response formats. According to the sociological interpretation of some authors, the

advantage of boys in physical sciences was mostly due to their (a) previous experience from

hobbies and games and (b) greater motivation, interest, and positive attitude towards science

fostered by gender stereotypes that science is still a male domain (e. g., Erickson & Erickson,

1984; Erickson & Farkas, 1991; Johnson, 1987; Jovanovich & King, 1998; Kelly, 1988).

Beginning as early as elementary school, boys have typically possessed more interest in

studying science than girls (Clarke, 1972; Clark & Nelson, 1972; 1971; Kotte, 1992). In an initial

study of gender and students’ science interests, Kahle (1983) examined data from the National

Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and found that girls described their science classes

as “facts to memorize,” and “boring” (Kahle & Lakes, 1983). By middle school, girls’ attitudes

towards science tend to decline and this decline may persist through high school (Sullins,

Hernandez, Fuller, & Tashiro, 1995). Kotte (1992) reported that, for students from ten countries,
the differences between males and females’ attitudes towards science widened as students moved

from elementary to secondary school. Furthermore, Kotte reported that the sharpest increase

in gender differences in attitudes takes place between the ages of 10 and 14 years. In an

examination of data from 19,000 eighth grade students who participated in the National

Educational Longitudinal Study, Catsambis (1995) found that males were more likely to look

forward to science class and to think science would be useful to their future, and were less afraid

to ask questions in science classes than their female peers. Girls’ less positive attitudes,

according to Catsambis (1995), existed even though they performed as well or better than boys,

receiving better grades in science classes. In addition, Catsambis found that over twice as many

middle school boys as girls are interested in a future career in science.

In a meta-analysis study, Weinburgh (1995) reported gender differences in science

attitudes in favour of boys, particularly among low and medium achieving students. The 1976-

1977 national surveys of science achievement conducted by the National Assessment of

Educational Progress (NAEP, 1978) showed that boys outperformed girls, but gender differences

varied across objectives assessed within subject-matter areas.

Although more females than males enroll in postsecondary institutions and earn higher

grades in science and engineering courses, significantly more males than females major in the

natural sciences or engineering (Division of Research, Evaluation, and Communication,

Directorate for Education and Human Resources, 1996; Keeves, 1991; Kotte, 1992; National

Academy Press, 1991; National Science Board, 1998; Rosser, 1995).

Gender differences in science, in favour of boys, have been attributed by many authors to

factors such as girls' lack of exposure to science-related activities outside the classroom (Kahle &
Lakes, 1983), decrease in girls' science ability perception over the school year (Jovanovich &

King, 1998), gender biases of teachers with respect to strategies for asking questions and fielding

answers (Greenfield, 1997), cultural influences from society and school (Kelly, 1988), gender

differences in spatial abilities (Gray, 1981), cognitive abilities (Meyer & Koehler, 1990), and

mathematics background (Sells, 1976).

Further explanations have been offered to explain the inequity in science performance

between the genders. Jones et al. (2000) reported that there is a significant gender difference in

science experience, attitudes and perceptions of science courses and careers. The study revealed

that the out of school science experience of males was more conducive to them developing

positive attitudes towards the subject. Males reported more extracurricular experiences with a

wide variety of tools such as batteries, electric toys, fuses and pulleys for example, whereas

females reported more experience with bread-making, knitting, sewing and planting seeds. This

view is supported by Greenfield (1996) who credited the wider range of out of school science

experiences of males as contributing to their more positive attitudes to science and ultimately

their better performance in the subject.

Kahle et al. (1993) argued that neither macrolevel frameworks suggested by international

studies, nor causal models developed in mathematics provide an adequate paradigm to guide

gender and science research. They developed a model of the relationship between gender and

science in schools based on interactions between six factors: (a) student behaviour in the science

classroom, (b) teacher behaviour in the science classroom, (c) observable student outcomes, (d)

student beliefs/attitudes, (e) teacher beliefs/attitudes, and (f) previous experience in sociocultural

educational context for teachers and students. However, Kahle et al. clearly indicated the need

for still more research to analyze specific relationships among and within factors of the model.
 Regarding gender differences in science achievement, the need for more detailed analyses

is indicated in many studies (e.g., Comber & Keeves, 1973; DeMars, 1998; Erickson & Erickson,

1984; Murphy, 1982; Saner, Klein, Bell, & Comfort, 1994; Walford, 1980). For example,

Erickson and Erickson (1984) indicated that "a good understanding of the nature and pattern of

performance differences is important in order that we may attempt to explain them and thus to

suggest ways of improving science education for girls" (p. 63).

In Baker’s (2003) summary, the author tried to examine the gender issues from the aspect

of women and minorities in science. He summarized that women and minorities had limited

chance to reach school science due to country characteristics, school characteristics (instruction

type, teacher expectations, curriculum materials, access to education, policy and programme

guidelines), parental attitudes and economic conditions of family, cultural factors (cultural norms

and values), and nature of science (science is a white European male domain).

The underrepresentation of females in science professions and hence the shortage of

female role models has also been suggested as a factor that impacts negatively on the science

achievement of girls. Keeves and Kotte (cited in Jones et al., 2000) and Roychoudhury (1995)

found that males more than females, were more likely to be enrolled in physics and chemistry

courses in secondary schools and colleges, ultimately resulting in a dearth in female scientists

and engineers. In the United States for example, women comprise only 22% of all scientists and

engineers (Davis, 2001). It was proposed that this might be as a result of the obstacles that

women have to face in the field of science which is still to a very large extent male dominated

and controlled. Jegede (2007) cited similar reasons.

Trigwell (1990) reported that male students were superior over their female counterparts

in problem-solving and achievement in chemistry. This finding was corroborated by Beard et al.
(1993) who found that male students consistently achieved a higher mean score in their national

chemistry quizzes compared to their female counterparts. Similar results were reported by Eriba

and Ande (2006) and Felder et al. (1995) who found that the males in their study consistently

earned equal or higher grades than the women in chemistry. In addition their study showed that

the percentage of male students earning A’s in several courses was significantly greater than the

percentage of females doing so.

In Jamaica however, studies have shown conflicting results with respect to gender and

science achievement. Hamilton (1976) found that at the same level, the performance of boys in

science were far more superior to that of girls. Campbell (1981) observed significant differences

between scores obtained by Jamaican grade 11 boys on a science process test and the scores

obtained by their female counterparts on the same test. The boys showed superior performance.

Glasgow (1981) found no significant gender differences in scientific literacy of Grade 9 students.

Soyibo (1999) reported significantly higher performance in biology of grade 11 girls than grade

11 boys in the Caribbean. Hamilton (1976) found that Jamaican grade 11 boys performed better

than girls in co-educational institutions. Upon administering an integrated science test to

Jamaican grade 7 students, Swire (1992) found that the girls significantly out-performed the

boys.

Some researchers attempt to assess reasons for variation in male and female students’

performance in the area of science. Males do better in tests with certain scientific concepts

because they are known to possess the abilities that are superficially relevant to science such as,

numerical, mechanical and problem solving skills (Kelly, 1988). Comparative success of

females in biology may result of gender differences in cognitive style. Forrest (1992) stated that

females consistently have less favourable attitudes towards science than their male counterparts
and sometimes the negative attitudes are restricted to views about physical sciences, and that

Biology is mostly preferred by girls than boys.

Johnson and Murphy (1986) found that for practical work, girls performed better in

sections entitled ‘Planning and Investigations, and making and Interpreting Observation.’

However, when using measuring techniques and handling of the apparatus, both genders

performed equally. Boys were generally better at handling equipment such as the microscope,

meters, ammeters and voltmeters.

Some studies have shown that there is an increased participation of females in science.

This increased participation might be attributed to the schools and other individual/parties play in

motivating female students (Greenfield, 1997). A study done by Smith (1992) revealed that

Grade 7 girls who lived with both parents performed better than boys in science. However, the

gender difference was reversed among Grade 9 students living with both parents. The research

showed that females who lived with both parents were likely to be high science achievers.

On the contrary, a smaller number of studies have shown that the performance of girls in

science is superior to that of boys. Figueroa (2004) stated that underachievement in Jamaican

boys and men, is seen as one aspect of maleness in Jamaica and is also prevalent in other

Caribbean territories. Statistical data on the gender breakdown for registration at the University

of the West Indies (UWI) showed that in 1994 to 1995 women represented just over 60% of

students registered at the institution and this trend continues to the present. He found that this

situation was paralleled by that occurring at the University of Technology (UTech) where in

1993 women represented 69% of the total number of students registering. In terms of academic

achievement, Whiteley (1995) found that women dominated in biology achievement and

achieved more or less equality in chemistry. The trend differed for physics, however, where male
students were superior to their female peers. Kotte (as cited in Jones et al., 2000) in a study

looking at attitudes and science performance of students from ten countries, found that girls

performed as well as or better than boys receiving better grades in science classes even though

the attitudes of the girls towards science was less positive than that of the boys.

Caribbean studies show similar patterns of achievement. Examiners in both Jamaica and

Trinidad and Tobago have to use a high cut-off score for girls to ensure a balance in the numbers

of boys and girls passing the CEE and entering high schools. The performance of girls at this

level is far superior; therefore, girls would outnumber boys at the secondary level. Despite this

high level of performance of girls, the SECE results for the period 1987- 1990 showed that boys

out-performed girls in biology, physics and mathematics. The difference in performance in

chemistry was small but still in favour of boys.

Despite the preceding findings there were a number of studies that showed that there is

no significant difference in science achievement as it relates to gender (Bloomfield & Soyibo,

2008; Greenfield, 1996; Ogunkola et al., 2009; Rainford, 1997; Soyibo & Pinnock, 1997).

Opinions on the significance of gender differences on students’ achievement in science differ

significantly. Since there is no consensus on the impact of gender differences on science

performance and based on the arguments above this variable continues to remain a source of

debate and conflict amongst researchers and an area continually open to further research.

A study done in Fiji proved that there is no significant differences in the boys’ and girls’

perceptions and attitudes towards science (Dunne & Rennie, 1995). Greenfield (1996) stated

that boys and girls displayed similar opinions on science and the participation level was the same

in all the sciences.

 It should be noted, however, that most previous results about gender differences in

science achievement were based on multiple-choice items and need to be revisited in the light of

the increased use of both multiple-choice and open-ended items in many national and statewide

assessment programs. Also, very little is known about differential effects of student related

factors (e.g., ethnicity and science ability) and test-related factors (e.g., item format and learning

outcomes) on gender differences in science. When such effects are not taken into account, the

results related to gender differences may be of little value or even misleading. The knowledge

about patterns of gender differences across levels of other factors is important for revealing the

dynamic nature of these differences and their interpretation.

Students’ socioeconomic background (SEB) and science achievement

Socioeconomic background (SEB) refers to a position on an economic hierarchy based

upon income, education, and occupation. SEB influences one's lifestyle, prestige, power, and

control of resources (Clauss-Elhers, 2006). According to Duncan, Featherman and Duncan (cited

in Sirin, 2005) SEB has a tripartite nature. It incorporates parental income, parental education

and parental occupation as the three main indicators of SEB.

The findings of many studies on the relationship between students’ SEB and their

academic achievement are mixed. Several research findings have demonstrated that students

from a high SEB significantly outperformed their peers from a low SEB in science (Field, 1998;

Flemming & Malone, 1983; Ugwu & Soyibo, 2004). But, a few studies’ findings indicated no

significant SEB differences in students’ science performance (Blair-Walters & Soyibo, 2004;

Houtz, 1995).

Whereas, Clayton-Johnson and Soyibo (2004) reported that some Jamaican 11th-graders

from a high SEB performed significantly better in biology than their peers from a low SEB,
Soyibo and Pinnock (2005) reported the absence of significant SEB differences in the biology

performance of some Jamaican 11th graders. Socioeconomic background (SEB) had also been

found to influence students’ academic achievement in science. Mashile (2001) found that

parental socioeconomic status had an influence on students’ achievement in science. Kremer and

Walberg (1981) reported a positive relationship between students’ SEB and their science

learning. They found that students from higher socioeconomic status homes scored higher on

science achievement measures than their peers from lower socioeconomic status homes.

In a meta-analysis, Sirin (2005) reviewed the literature on SEB and academic

achievement in journal articles published between 1990 and 2000. He purported that SEB is

quite possibly the most widely used contextual variable in education research as it relates to

academic achievement. Family SEB was found to be one of the strongest correlates of academic

performance. This finding was supported by Coleman et al. (1966) who asserted that SEB is a

strong predictor of student achievement, in addition it was found that the influence of student

background was greater than anything that goes on within schools. Hobbs (cited in Ginthier and

Caldwell, 1996) also stated that SEB is the single best predictor of academic achievement, with

low SEB predicting low achievement. Similar results were found by Haahr et al. (2005) where a

strong relationship was found to exist between students’ SEB and academic achievement.

The findings from research conducted by Israel et al. (2001) reaffirmed the significant

role of parents’ SEB in shaping their children’s educational performance. The study found that

children born into more affluent homes or born to well-educated parents tend to perform well

academically. These homes tend to foster an environment where educational achievement is

esteemed and considered the norm. In addition parental income promotes a child’s educational

achievement further. In this instance the parents are able to provide the resources that the child
needs in order to do well academically. Further it was stated that when young people are

provided with a nurturing environment and with direction on behaviour that is considered to be

appropriate or inappropriate the effects on their educational progress are powerful and positive.

Kremer and Walberg (1981) reported a positive relationship between parental SEB and

science learning. Specifically it was found that students from higher SEB homes scored higher

on achievement measures of logical operations, science attitudes and interests, general cognitive

learning in science, critical thinking and factual learning. This was supported by research done

by Brantliger (cited in Mashile, 2001) where it was found that low income science students,

compared to their more affluent peers had less positive school experiences and outcomes which

included achievement test scores.

The socioeconomic status of parents in one way or the other affects the academic

performance of school children in science. The above fact was further justified in the statement

of Ezewu (1981) who stated that the socioeconomic status of a family affects the schooling of the

children either positively or negatively. He stated further that the higher the socioeconomic status

of the family, the more likely it will motivate their children to learn thereby preparing them for

highly regarded vocations. "Children with rich parents have certain needs physical and

psychological which when met, contribute positively to their academic performances" (e.g.

Avwata, Oniyama & Omoraka, 2001; Russel, 1977). These needs may include: a conducive

reading atmosphere, good food, a play ground, provision of books and other material, and

attendance at the best schools available. Students’ performance at school is greatly influenced by

the students’ parental background. Students, whose parents had a good education and have a

highly paid job, perform significantly better than students whose parents had little or no
education and have a low income. Students tend to emulate the standards set by their parents as

high standard of living leads to high achievement in school (Parker, 1987; Williams, 1995).

Students with strong parental involvement both at home and school with the appropriate

facilities are guaranteed success over those with little or no parental involvement and basic home

facilities (Grant, 2005).

Family size also influences a child’s school performance (Hamilton, 1976). Students

from a low SEB would be at a disadvantage and will be subjected to inadequate learning

materials (Marson, 1989), and therefore would not feel motivated to learn. Students from a high

SEB would have access to electronic learning devices, appropriate educational literature which

would in fact lead to high achievement in school.

Being a common factor of poverty poor nutrition affects children’s ability to

conceptualize information. Protein is essential for the proper functioning of neurotransmitters in

the brain that boosts memory skills. A diet deficient in protein will therefore affect the memory

and performance of students from a low SEB (Dooley & Prause, 1998). Also, fetal alcohol

syndrome appears to be the leading cause of mental retardation in children from a low SEB

where alcohol abuse and unemployment tend to be linked. Mental retardation affects children’s

ability to gather, process and store information in long term memory in the brain (Le Francois,

2001). Research has shown that there is a significant relationship between students’ SEB and

their level of achievement in school (Davis, 1981; Douglas, 1964). The better the person’s

lifestyle the greater is the person’s achievement (Campbell, 1981; Tamir, 1982).

It should however be pointed out that the relationship between SEB and student

performance is not as simple as it appears. SEB is not only linked directly to academic
achievement but is also indirectly linked to it through multiple interacting systems, including

students’ grade level and school location (Sirin, 2005).

The results from studies about the effect of grade level on the relationship between SEB

and academic achievement are not consistent. Coleman et al. (1966) found that as students

became older, the correlation between SEB and school achievement weakens. White (cited in

Surin, 2005) proposed two explanations for this effect. Firstly, schools provide equalising

experiences and thus the longer the students stay in school, the more the impact of family SEB

on student achievement is diminished. Secondly, more students from lower SEB’s drop out of

school, thus reducing the magnitude of the correlation. These findings were contradicted by

White (cited in Sirin, 2005) who demonstrated that the gap between the academic performance

of high and low SEB students is most likely to remain the same as students get older. Results

from a study conducted by Ginthier and Caldwell (1996) showed that while low SEB is highly

correlated with low academic achievement, some low SEB students are academically successful.

The authors suggested that this achievement was due to differences in the learning styles of these

low SEB students compared with their peers which caused them to do well in spite of their

existing SEB.

The findings from a small number of Jamaican studies have shown that there no

significant differences between SEB and students’ science performance (Blair-Walters &

Soyibo, 2004; Bloomfield & Soyibo, 2008). In addition Soyibo and Pinnock (2005) reported an

absence of significant SEB differences in the biology performance of some selected Jamaican

11th-grade students. Lack of consensus amongst the researchers about the influence of SEB on

science achievement means that it lends itself to further research..0

School location and differences in students' science performance

 The location of a school has a significant effect on the academic performance of the child

according to Ezewu (1987) who stated that it is obvious that the location of a school (rural or

urban) affects a child's ability to study and perform at the level expected of him/her. 

Mkpugbe (1998) noted that different aspects of school environment influence students’

achievement. She further stated that the individual students’ academic behaviour is influenced

not only by the motivating forces of his home, scholastic ability, and academic values but also by

the social pressure applied by the participants in the school setting. For example, in Nigeria, most

rural based schools lack enough qualified teachers, are poorly equipped and lack basic amenities-

all serving as inhibiting factors of good academic performance. 

Okunrontifa (1973) observed that most students living in rural environments of Nigeria

had significantly lower entry behaviour than their urban -centred counterparts. He further

elaborated that male students, attending urban-centred secondary schools were better equipped

with skills to perform significantly higher than female students coming from rural based

secondary schools. This is in agreement with the view of Ukeje (2000) who opined that in

Nigeria, there is a well defined dichotomy between urban and rural centres in terms of

educational facilities and social amenities and that most teachers, indeed, strive to teach in urban-

centred schools. 

Simmelkjaer (1979), Friedman (1962), Bell (1971), Kostman (1977) and Bell (1975), in

their studies reported that educational institutions in the urban areas, share common features of

learning impediments such as reading retardation, high absenteeism, drug abuse,  students’

vandalism, and apathy. These vices as well as overcrowding, account for the causes of

poor performance in the urban school as compared to schools in the rural areas. However, in

contrast, Ogunlade (1973), Lawin (1973), Obot (1991) and Anwana (1979) all disagreed on this
view. They maintained that schools in the urban are well staffed, and with good facilities. Hence

these factors induce better performance in the urban than the rural areas.

School type and differences in students' science performance

By comparing public and private schools (especially Catholic Schools), it is often the

finding that Catholic schools outperform public schools in the sciences, even with the inclusion

of extensive controls. Critics of these findings (e.g., Goldberger & Cain, 1982) argue that they

might be driven by selection bias. Students and parents, by the very act of seeking out a private

school, may signal attributes, both observed and unobserved, that are conducive to higher

educational achievement. Opponents argue that the decision by parents to enroll their children in

the private-schools will drain public schools of many of the best students, leaving public schools

with a disproportionate share of the students most difficult to educate.

The Washington Post (April 13, 1981) reported that private schools were more integrated

than public schools and that private schools produced better cognitive outcomes even as they

controlled for student quality. It is evident that opinions and positions of many researchers have

shifted with time.

Several authors have sought to control for sector selection in modelling the treatment

effect of private schools. For instance, Evans and Schwab (1995, 1996), Sander and Krautmann

(1995), Sander (1996, 1997), Goldhaber (1996), and Neal (1997) compared the effects of public

and Catholic schools (or all private schools, in the case of Goldhaber) on standardized test

scores, high-school dropout probabilities, and other outcomes. These authors used a variety of

instruments to identify the selection into Catholic (or private) schools, including average tuition

levels, religious affiliation, percentage of Catholics in the county of residence, the density of

Catholic schools in the area, and interactions between religion and the region of the country and
urbanicity, depending upon the study. The results of these efforts were mixed. Evans and

Schwab (1995, 1996) and Neal (1997) found strong evidence that private schools, mostly

Catholic schools, increased student achievement, especially for minorities and initial low

achievers, but Sander (1996) found no significant effect. Goldhaber (1996) found little evidence

of either a positive treatment effect for private schools (religious and nonreligious combined) or

of significant selection bias.

The mixed evidence on the effects of private schools (and particularly, Catholic schools)

might be due to differences in dependent variables or particular samples, but might also be due to

the differences in the instruments used by the varying authors to identify sector selection. In

particular, the differences might be due to the presence of weakly correlated instruments. Bound,

Jaeger, and Baker (1995) illustrated how weak instruments might lead to biased estimates of

treatment effects. In researching school type and its effects on students’ science achievements,

previous authors’ specifications rarely explained a substantial portion of the selection into the

relevant private school sector, raising the possibility that the weak-instrument critique might hold

for this literature. This point is corroborated in the work of Ludwig (1997), who also found

compelling evidence that prior authors’ instruments were weak.

Contrastingly, Betts (1996) reported that student academic achievement (holistically) was

strongly positively related to the amount of homework assigned, provided that some of the work

was graded and returned irrespective of school type.

Studies on students’ attitudes towards science

Extensive research has shown that a person’s attitudes are learned, as opposed to

being inherited. Many factors can influence a person’s attitude, including previous experiences

and social influences. Attitude towards science can be defined as, “favourable or unfavourable
feelings about science as a school subject” (Morrell & Lederman, 1998). The type of science

courses taken, previous science experiences, science teachers, and various other factors can

influence these attitudes towards science (Morrell & Lederman, 1998). The impact of a

student’s attitude towards science is incredibly important. Research has shown that nearly 50%

of students may lose interest in science by the third grade (Weinburgh, 1998). Participation in

science is also being affected, as the number of students preparing for a science-related career is

on the decline (Chapman, 1997).

The teaching of science in schools should foster students’ positive attitudes towards

science and result in their improved performance in science. In Jamaica, however, students’

attitudes towards science have been declining over the past few decades and this is reflected in

their grades in the annual Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) exams.

Slee (1964) indicated that students’ attitudes and interests could play substantial role

among pupils studying science. Several studies (e.g., Simpson, 1978; Wilson, 1983; Soyibo,

1985) reported that students’ positive attitude to science correlated highly with their science

achievement. Several studies done also indicated that students who were taught science using

practical work displayed better attitudes towards science and also displayed superior science

achievement than their counterparts who were taught science using the lecture/teacher

demonstration method (Ugwu & Soyibo, 2004).

Educators realize that students’ self- confidence is essential for success in any

subject area. One’s self-confidence is determined by one’s self- esteem and self-efficacy.

Bandura (1997) stated that high self-efficacy will positively affect one’s performance; good

performance will affect one’s self-efficacy and enhance one’s self-esteem which ultimately

influences one’s attitude.

 As students progress from Grade 7 there is an increase in negative attitudes towards

science, but this improves by Grade 11 (Hough & Peter, 1982). This might be due to the more

specialized science knowledge at this level in high schools. Students’ feelings about the

emotional climate, physical environment and interactions within the classroom are all important

factors affecting their attitudes towards science. Osborne and Wittrock (1983) stated that the

relationship between classroom environment and students’ attitudes towards science is stronger

than the relationship between the classroom environment and their academic achievement.

Teachers can easily influence students’ attitudes towards a subject by using effective

instructional strategies such as providing hands-on activities that is enjoyable and give credit to

students who perform well on tasks. The traditional lecture method of instruction also contributes

to poor work attitude as students do not get the opportunity to take part in a more hands-on

approach towards their learning of science (Esiobu & Soyibo, 1995).

Other attitudinal research has focused on gender and related issues. Simpson et al. (1994)

reported that gender is one of the most significant factors related to student attitudes towards

science. Cannon and Simpson (1985) and Weinburgh (2000) researched gender, as did Simpson

and Oliver in 1990. In 1985, Cannon and Simpson found that gender was not a significant factor

in determining students’ attitudes. Simpson and Oliver (1990) found that gender was not as

significant a factor as they had expected, although males exhibited more positive attitudes

towards science and females were more motivated to achieve in science. However, Weinburgh’s

study (2000) concluded that gender was significant when predicting students’ attitudes towards

their teachers and enjoyment of science.

Osborne (2003) stated that more educational research is needed in the area of students’

attitudes to science and perceptions. He wrote:

 For lest it be forgotten, attitudes are enduring while knowledge

often has an ephemeral quality. The price of ignoring this simple fact and

its implications is the potential alienation of our youth and/or a flight

from science – a phenomenon that many countries are experiencing.

There can, therefore, hardly be a more urgent agenda for research.’

(2003, p. 1074).

Parental Involvement and Student Achievement

Over the last two decades, there has been a growing body of research evidence

suggesting that there are important benefits to be gained by elementary age, school children

when their parents provide support, encouragement and direct instructions in the home, as well

as maintain good communication with the school. Such findings have led researchers and school

personnel to apply parent involvement techniques at higher grade levels and with limited

English-proficient and non-English proficient (EP/NEP) students as well. The results, to date,

have been encouraging (Epstein, 1985).

Research has shown that one of the most promising ways to increase students’ academic

achievement is to involve their families in their education (Chaukin, 1993; Henderson & Berla,

1994). While Walberg (1984) found that family participation in education was twice as

productive of academic learning as family socioeconomic status, Esptein (1995) observed that

the main reason to create such a partnership was to help all youngsters succeed in school and in

later life. Chaukin (1993) argues that educators must truly believe and act on the belief that

parents are their children’s first teachers who the only teachers that remain with the children for a

long period of time.

 Partnership with parents requires all participants to share the responsibility for

educational outcomes. Moles (1993) found that parents with less than a high school education

and very low incomes were the most likely to have low levels of contact with teachers and

schools. However, these same parents indicated a strong interest in their children’s education by

communicating regularly with teachers. The parents of young at-risk children appeared anxious

to co-operate with teachers despite all the stresses in their environment and their difficulties in

doing so (Countryman, 1994).

Additional studies have found that parental involvement is more important to students’

success, at every grade level than family income or education (Herman, 1980). However, Strong

Families, Strong Schools, a report that reflected 30 years of research on family involvement in

education, revealed the sad fact that in many instances, parents did not feel as if teachers

welcomed them in school (Herman & Yeh, 1980). Research done by these same researchers

overwhelmingly demonstrated that parental involvement in children’s learning was positively

related to their children’s achievement.

Further, research shows that the more intensively parents are involved in their children’s

learning, the more beneficial are the achievement affects. This holds true for all types of parental

involvement in children’s learning and for all types and ages of students. Powell (1988), for

example, states that parents’ listening to children’s reading at home has a clear impact on

students’ reading improvement.

Parental involvement improves student morale, attitudes and academic achievement

across all subject areas. By getting involved, parents reduce children’s risk of academic failure

and dropping out before graduation (Becher, 1984).

 Involvement varies from family to family and can take many different forms from

communicating with teachers and helping children with homework to participating in school

policy making. Parents’ willingness to contact teachers on a regular basis about their children’s

progress is perhaps the first step to becoming involved in their children’s education (Moles,

1994). Armed with good information about a child’s performance, parents can proceed in both

direct and indirect ways to influence the child’s progress.

According to the US Department of Education, research findings (2001), children’s

success in reading comprehension was directly related to the availability of reading materials in

the home. It was also been found that children responded positively when parents set high but

realistic standards for their achievement.

Numerous studies had shown that parental involvement in schools promoted school

success (Henderson & Berla, 1994). It seems likely that it is not attendance at school activities

per se that leads directly to improved school outcomes, but rather that such attendance is a

marker for other important factors that contribute to children’s success (Zill & Nord, 1994).

Parents who are involved may be more familiar with the school and with their children’s

teachers. This familiarity may lead to better parent-teacher relations and more personal attention

for their children. It may also enable the parents to intervene earlier if problems in their

children’s behaviours or academic work should arise. Along similar lines, as stated earlier,

researchers have found that parental involvement in children’s learning is positively related to

their children’s achievement.

Conclusions from the review

The literature points to the inclusion of definition and purposes of assessment, theoretical

explanations of academic performance, public examinations and school based assessment (SBA),
teachers and gender gaps in student achievement, students’ gender and science achievement,

students’ socioeconomic background (SEB) and science achievement, school type and

differences in students' science performance, studies on students’ attitudes towards science and

parental involvement and students’ academic achievement. The researcher was unable to find

any published local studies on Effects of Antigua and Barbuda grade 6 curricula with SBA on

the numbers of secondary school scholarship awardees 2006-2009. However, the researcher

was able to find studies dealing with some aspects of the literature pertaining to students’ success

in relation to some factors including; Socio- Economic Background, school type, school location,

students attitudes and parental involvement. Findings of studies tend to contradict each other

hence the conclusion drawn from studies reviewed must not be accepted as law. The conclusions

drawn from the studies reviewed are such:

1. The type of assessment used could have significant effect on the grades an assessee

is awarded.

2. Gender of teacher and students, the cognitive level of the students, school type and

grade level are factors which influence science teachers’ assessment practices.

3. The incorporation of School Based Assessments (SBAs) in the administering of

Public examinations may assist in the holistic increase of quality of examination

results.

4. The assignment to a teacher of the opposite sex may result in lowered student

achievement in science.

5. Research results proved to be inconclusive as to whether school type is a

contributing factor among students' science performance

6. The findings on the relationship between students’ gender and performance in

science are inconsistent.

7. Students from a high socioeconomic background are more likely to perform better

in science than students from a low socioeconomic background.

8. The impact of a student’s attitude towards science is incredibly important. The type

of science courses taken, previous science experiences, science teachers, and various

other factors can influence these attitudes towards science.

9. Researchers have found that parental involvement in children’s learning is positively

related to their children’s achievement.

Chapter 3

Methodology

Type of Research

The best research design is one that adds to knowledge no matter what the results

are (Slavin, 1992). Because in this study, the researcher had to use data on issues relating to

the past which the researcher could not observe, the type of research used for this study could

be referred to as retrospective research (Gay, 1996, p. 224).

When we think of research, we often think of a laboratory or classroom where

two or more groups receive different treatments or training.  We would then determine if

the treatment or training had an impact on some outcome measures.  This type of

research is the best at predicting cause and effect relationships and is often cited as the
 most rigorous and standardized form.

While the experiments described above have a definite place in the research

arena, sometimes we gain the best knowledge by looking into the past rather than into

the future.  Retrospective research attempts to do just that.  Through a detailed analysis

of historical data, we can determine, perhaps to a lesser extent, cause and effect

relationships.  We can also help prevent the present day teachers, managers, and other

users of research from making the same mistakes that were made in the past.

Retrospective research can also mean gathering data from situations that have

already occurred and performing statistical analyses on existing data just as we would in

a traditional experiment.  The one key difference between this type of research and the

type described in the second paragraph concerns the manipulation of data.  Because

retrospective research relies on data from the past, there is no way to manipulate it.  

Sample
For this study, the researcher collected data from the Antigua and Barbuda

Ministry of Education in respect of the numbers of primary school students in the

Government and Private primary schools who sat and passed the Common Entrance

Examinations (CEE) in the four education zones of the nation from 2006 to 2009.

The numbers of males and females and the percentages of the students who passed the CEE

were indicated in the documents that the researcher collected from the Ministry of Education.

It would be recalled that one of the main justifications for this study was to find out if the

numbers of primary school students who were awarded secondary school scholarships in

Antigua and Barbuda had increased from the year 2006 to 2009 because it was in the year

2006 that the School-Based Assessment (SBA) was introduced into the nation’s primary six

school curricula..
 Table 3.1 shows the zones and names of the 30 government primary schools for which

data were collected from 2006 to 2009, while in Table 3.2 – 3.5 are the names of the private

primary schools for which data were collected for, 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009.

(a) For each of the four years, data were collected for 30 government schools.

(b) For 2006 data were collected from 25 private primary schools.

(c) For 2007 data were collected from 26 private primary schools.

(d) For 2008 data were collected from 28 private primary schools.

(e) For 2009 data were collected from 29 private primary schools.

Table 3.1
Zones and names of the thirty government primary schools for which CEE candidates results
were analysed for this study

Zones Name of Schools

Zone 1 Golden Grove Primary

Green Bay Primary
Five Islands Primary
Jennings Primary
Bolans Primary
Urlings Primary
Old Road Primary

Zone 2 Parham Primary

Pares Primary
Willikies Primary
Bethesda Primary
Freetown Primary
Potters Primary
Newfield Primary

Zone 3 Bendals Primary

 Buckleys Primary
Cobbs Cross Primary
Freemansville Primary
Irene Primary
J.T. Ambrose Primary
John Hughes Primary
Liberta Primary
Sea View Farm Primary

Zone 4 Cedar Grove Primary

Holy Trinity Primary
Mary E. Pigott Primary
New Winthorpes Primary
Pigotts Primary
T.N Kirnon Primary
Villa Primary

Table 3.2
Zones and names of the25 private primary schools (2006) for which CEE candidates results
were analysed for this study.

________________________________________________________________________
Zones Name of schools
Zone 1 Gray’s Crescent Primary
St. Peter’s Primary
T.O.R Memorial School
Zion Primary
St. John’s Temple Primary
Christian Faith Academy

Zone 2 Sunnydale Primary

Kids Unlimited
St. Micheal’s Primary
Christian Union Junior Academy
Sunnyside Tutorial
St. John’s Catholic Primary

Zone 3 Baptist Academy

Foundation Mixed
Greensville Primary
Island Academy
Minoh Magnet Academy
 Seventh-Day Adventist Primary
St. John’s Lutheran Primary

Zone 4 Better Chance Primary

Goodwill Preparatory
Grace Christian Academy
St. Andrew’s Primary
St. Nickolas Primary
Wesleyan Junior Academy

Table 3.3
Zones and names of the26 private primary schools (2007) for which CEE candidates results
were analysed for this study.
________________________________________________________________________
Zones Name of schools
Zone 1 Gray’s Crescent Primary
St. Peter’s Primary
T.O.R Memorial School
Zion Primary
St. John’s Temple Primary
Christian Faith Academy

Zone 2 Sunnydale Primary

Kids Unlimited
Sea View Acdemic Founation
St. Micheal’s Primary
Christian Union Junior Academy
Sunnyside Tutorial
St. John’s Catholic Primary

Zone 3 Baptist Academy

Foundation Mixed
Greensville Primary
Island Academy
Seventh-Day Adventist Primary
 St.John’s Lutheran Primary

Zone 4 Better Chance Primary

Goodwill Preparatory
Grace Christian Academy
St. Andrew’s Primary
St. Nickolas Primary
Wesleyan Junior Academy

Table 3.4
Zones and names of the 28 private primary schools (2008) for which CEE candidates results
were analysed for this study.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Zones Name of schools
Zone 1 Gray’s Crescent Primary
St. Peter’s Primary
T.O.R Memorial School
Zion Primary
St. John’s Temple Primary
Christian Faith Academy

Zone 2 Sunnydale Primary

Kids Unlimited
Sea View Academy Founation
St. Micheal’s Primary
Christian Union Junior Academy
Sunnyside Tutorial
St. John’s Catholic Primary

Zone 3 Baptist Academy

Foundation Mixed
Greensville Primary
Island Academy
Minoh Magnet Academy
 New Bethel SDA Primay
Seventh-Day Adventist Primary
St.John’s Lutheran Primary

Zone 4 Better Chance Primary

Goodwill Preparatory
Grace Christian Academy
Gospel Light Elementary
St. Andrew’s Primary
St. Nickolas Primary
Wesleyan Junior Academy

Table 3.5
Zones and names of the (29 Private primary schools (2009) for which CEE candidates results
were analysed for this study
______________________________________________________________________________
Zones Name of schools
Zone 1 Gray’s Crescent Primary
St. Peter’s Primary
T.O.R Memorial School
Zion Primary
St. John’s Temple Primary
Christian Faith Academy
Visionaries for Christ Academy

Zone 2 Sunnydale Primary

Kids Unlimited
Sea View Academy Founation
St. Micheal’s Primary
Christian Union Junior Academy
Sunnyside Tutorial
St. John’s Catholic Primary

Zone 3 Baptist Academy

Foundation Mixed
Greensville Primary
Island Academy
 Minoh Magnet Academy
New Bethel SDA Primay
Seventh-Day Adventist Primary
St.John’s Lutheran Primary

Zone 4 Better Chance Primary

Goodwill Preparatory
Grace Christian Academy
Gospel Light Elementary
St. Andrew’s Primary
St. Nickolas Primary
Wesleyan Junior Academy

Pilot Study

Pilot studies are needed when certain instruments are used to collect data (e.g.,

questionnaires and interviews). A pilot study is often used to test the design of the full-scale

experiment. Due to the nature of this research, the researcher thought that the carrying out of

a pilot study was not required. In this retrospective study, the outcome of interest had

already occurred at the time that this study was initiated.

This type of study design allowed the researcher to formulate ideas about

possible associations and investigate potential relationships as opposed to prospective

research. With retrospective research, sources are explored in depth; in particular, looking

back upon an event or issue by reviewing records from the past (e.g., birth and death

certificates, medical records, school records, or employment records). Retrospective research

attempts to gather information about events that occurred and determine if a pattern of

problems emerges.
Procedure for data collection

Retrospective study can be defined in several different ways. It is often seen as a

“looking backwards in time,” to determine causal factors (NEDARC 2006), but how study

data or participants get selected can vary greatly.

In collecting the data for this research, the researcher contacted the Chief

Examination’s Officer within the Antigua and Barbuda Ministry of Education (MOE),

initially in person with follow-ups via telephone calls and email, in order to collect the

Common Entrance Examinations (CEE) results for Grade 6 from the period 2006 – 2009.

Having an understanding of the required data, the Chief Examination’s Officer at

the MOE then forwarded the requested data via email to the researcher. After the receipt of

the relevant data, the researcher then edited the data to indicate the school type (public/

private) and also school location (rural/ urban).

Data analyses

Raw figures and percentages were used to analyse the data for each of the five

research questions that were explored in this study.

Limitations of the Study

1. The sample was not randomly selected; thus, generalizations could only be made with

respect to the sample engaged in this study. However, the findings of this study are likely

to ring true yearly in Antiguan and Barbudan Grade 6 students onwards from 2006, who

are not yet sampled for this study with respect to their performance on the CEE.
2. It was not possible for the researcher to obtain data on the CEE results for 30 private

primary schools for each of the four year (2006-2009) like those that she had for the 30

government primary schools for each of the four years.

3. Because of the request of confidential data from the Ministry of Education, the

researcher had to sequence a chain of command in order to get approval for the release of

the data. The procedure was very time-consuming.

Chapter 4

Results and Discussions

Presented in this Chapter are the results and discussions of the data collected from the

Antigua and Barbuda ‘s Ministry of Education in respect of the 30 Government Primary

Schools and 25-29 Private Primary Schools in the four educational zones of the country

whose students sat the Common Entrance Examinations (CEE) as a result of which they

secured secondary school scholarships into the nation’s secondary schools from 2006 to 2009

when School-Based Assessment (SBA) was introduced into the primary six school curricula.

The data were analysed to answer each of the five research questions.

Research Question 1. Had there been increases in the numbers of candidates who were

awarded  secondary school scholarships in Antigua and Barbuda from selected  

(a) government primary schools, and (b) private primary schools from 2006 to 2009?
 To answer this question, the numbers of students in the 30 government and 25-29

private primary schools who sat the CEE and the numbers of those who passed in the four

educational zones of Antigua and Barbuda (and hence were awarded) secondary school

scholarships into the nation’s secondary schools from 2006 to 2007 were calculated. The

results are shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1
Numbers of candidates awarded secondary school scholarships in government and
private primary schools in four educational zones of Antigua and Barbuda 2006-2009
______________________________________________________________________
Government primary schools Private primary schools
Nos. Nos. % Nos. Nos. % n
sitting awarded sitting awarded
Year CEE SSS CEE SSS
______________________________________________________________________
2006 956 456 47.70 632 504 79.75 25

2007 1010 517 51.19 728 592 81.32 26

2008 1013 562 55.48 740 656 88.65 28

2009 852 512 60.10 739 638 86.33 29

______________________________________________________________________ Total
3831 2047 53.43 2839 2390 84.19
______________________________________________________________________
For the Government schools n = 30 for each year
SSS = Secondary school scholarships CEE = Common entrance examinations
 Table 4.1 shows that overall there had been increases in the numbers of candidates who

had been awarded secondary school scholarships in (a) government and (b) private primary

schools in all the four educational zones of Antigua and Barbuda from 2006 to 2009. Although

Table 4.1 suggests that more candidates sat the CEE in each of the four years in the

government primary schools than in the private primary schools, more students in the private

primary schools passed the CEE and were awarded the secondary school scholarships than the

students in the government primary schools during the four years.

These findings were expected by the researcher having been exposed to the CEE results

over the years. The introduction of the School-Based Assessment (SBA), gives candidates an

advantage where they are able to accumulate some measure of grades, by doing several

formative assessments tasks throughout the year prior to the summative assessment which is

the actual CEE.

According to Broomes (1997), School Based Assessment may be described as a process

where “students as candidates undertake specified assignments during the course of the school

year, under the guidance of the teacher.” SBA brings assessment and teaching together for the

benefit and provides the teacher with the opportunity to participate in a unique way in the

assessment process that leads to the final grades obtained by his or her students. SBA allows

the score awarded by the class teacher to be used as a part of the final scores or grades of the

students in determining their success in the CEE.

SBA includes formative assessment, while public examinations such as the CEE are

typically summative. Formative assessment provides feedback to the teachers on what students

have learned and the effectiveness of their teaching. On the basis of this feedback, teachers can
plan interventions to guide students in improving their knowledge and skills in areas where they

are weak. In addition, formative assessment assists in students’ self-assessment of their work by

providing them with critical feedback and this, in turn, provides opportunities for them to

improve in their learning and academic achievement (Airasian, 1997; Nitko, 1994). The

researcher is therefore of the view that the formative component of the SBA that Antigua and

Barbuda Grade 6 students were exposed to from 2006 to 2009, was likely to have contributed to

the improved performance of many of the students in the CEE as a result of which there had been

appreciable increases in the numbers of secondary school scholarship awardees from 2006 to

2009.

Sadly, the researcher could not find any studies that had investigated the effects of the

introduction of the SBA into Grade 6 students’ curricula on the numbers of the Grade 6

graduates who were awarded secondary school scholarship in any country with which this

study’s finding could be directly compared.

Research Question 2 Did more candidates from the private primary schools gain secondary

school scholarships  than their counterparts from the government primary schools from 2006 to

2009?

To answer this question, the numbers of students who sat and passed the CEE in the 30

government and 25-29 private primary schools in the four educational zones of Antigua and

Barbuda from 2006 to 2009 and were therefore awarded secondary school scholarships to the

nation’s secondary schools were calculated. In Table 4.2 are the results.

Table 4.2
Numbers of candidates awarded secondary school scholarships in government and
private primary schools in four educational zones of Antigua and Barbuda 2006-2009
 ______________________________________________________________________
Government primary schools Private primary schools
Nos. Nos. % Nos. Nos. %
sitting awarded sitting awarded
Year CEE SSS CEE SSS
______________________________________________________________________
2006 956 456 47.70 632 504 79.75

2007 1010 517 51.19 728 592 81.32

2008 1013 562 55.48 740 656 88.65

2009 852 512 60.10 739 638 86.33

______________________________________________________________________
Total 3831 2047 53.43 2839 2390 84.19
______________________________________________________________________
SSS = Secondary school scholarships

Table 4.2 shows that more candidates from the private primary schools gained secondary

school scholarships than their counterparts from the government primary schools from 2006 to

2009, although more candidates in the government primary schools sat for the CEE than their

peers from the private primary schools during the four years.

The researcher also expected this finding because, as is the norm, public schools must

accept all students within their jurisdiction with few exceptions. Students’ bad behaviour is one

of those exceptions and this must be well-documented over time. Also, physical disability is

another exception within the public school’s acceptance policy. A private school, on the other

hand, accepts any student it wishes to according to its academic and other standards. It is not

required to give a reason why it has refused to admit anyone. Its decision is final. Both private

and public schools use some kind of testing and review transcripts to determine the grade level

for new students.

 Over the years, it has been established that private schools screen their students and if any

student is found to be performing below academic standards dictated by the school, that student

is asked to leave the school because the academic standard is not being maintained by the

student.

Additionally, the researcher is of the view that school and class size matter in

the overall effectiveness and success of a school. According to a report done by National

Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), school size and class size are smaller in

private schools than public schools. According to the report,

Research suggests that small/intermediate sized schools and relatively small classes

can have advantages, including possibly leading to higher achievement. Placing students in

small groups tends to foster close working relationships between teachers and students,

thus enhancing learning, particularly among at-risk students and those in the early

grades.

Again, the researcher was unable to find any previous studies which had compared the

effects of introducing SBA into Grade 6 science curricula on the numbers of Grade 6 graduates

who gained secondary school scholarships in private primary schools compared with those who

were awarded secondary school scholarships  in public or government primary schools over a

period of four years with which this study’s finding could have been compared.

Research Question 3 Were more girls in the government primary schools awarded secondary

school scholarships than their male peers from 2006 to 2009?

To answer this question, the numbers of girls in the 30 government and 25-29 private

primary schools in the four educational zones of Antigua and Barbuda who wrote and passed
the CEE and who were awarded secondary school scholarships into the nation’s secondary

schools from 2006 and 2009 were calculated for comparison. The results are shown in Table

4.3.

Table 4.3
Numbers of boys and girls in the government primary schools in four educational zones of
Antigua and Barbuda who wrote and passed the common entrance examinations and were
awarded secondary school scholarships from 2006-2009
______________________________________________________________________
BOYS GIRLS
Sat Awarded Sat Awarded
Year CEE SSS % CEE SSS %
______________________________________________________________________
2006 480 189 39.38 476 267 56.10

2007 508 195 38.39 502 322 64.14

2008 529 244 46.12 484 318 65.70

2009 437 221 50.57 415 291 70.12

______________________________________________________________________
Total 1954 849 43.45 1877 1198 63.93
______________________________________________________________________
SSS = Secondary school scholarships

Table 4.3 suggests that although more boys in the government primary schools

wrote the CEE from 2006 to 2009 than their females peers in the government primary schools,

more girls passed the CEE and were awarded secondary school scholarships into Antigua and

Barbuda secondary schools every year during the four years.

Having been teaching at the primary school level for well over 18 years, the researcher

expected the results of the yearly CEE passes to be in favour of the girls compared with the

boys based on the academic performance of both genders over the years. “Girls are getting an

immense amount of support at home and are encouraged to advance academically, while boys

hear that the way to shine is athletically. And boys get a lot of mixed messages about what it

means to be masculine and what it means to be a student,” says Dr. Michael Thompson(2002)
 a school psychologist who writes about the academic problems of boys in his book, "Raising

Cain.” He further went on to say that, “Girls outperform boys in elementary school, middle

school, high school, and college, and graduate school.” He says that after decades of studying

the performance between both sexes that, girls are soaring, while boys are stagnating. 

In a study involving more than 8,000 males and females ranging in age from two to 90

from across the United States, Vanderbilt researchers Stephen Camarata and Richard Woodcock

(2005) discovered that females have a significant advantage over males on timed tests and tasks.

Camarata and Woodcock (2005) found the differences were particularly significant among pre-

teens and teens. Below is an excerpt of their findings;

We found very minor differences in overall intelligence, but if you look at the ability of someone

to perform well in a timed situation, females have a big advantage,” Camarata said. “It is very

important for teachers to understand this difference in males and females when it comes to

assigning work and structuring tests. To truly understand a person’s overall ability, it is

important to also look at performance in un-timed situations. For males, this means presenting

them with material that is challenging and interesting but is presented in smaller chunks without

strict time limits.” “Consider that many classroom activities, including testing, are directly or

indirectly related to processing speed,” the researchers wrote. “The higher performance in

females may contribute to a classroom culture that favors females, not because of teacher bias

but because of inherent differences in sex processing speed.”

“Processing speed’ doesn’t refer to reaction time or the ability to play video games,”

Camarata said. “It’s the ability to effectively, efficiently and accurately complete work that is of

moderate difficulty. Though males and females showed similar processing speed in kindergarten
and pre-school, females became much more efficient than males in elementary, middle and high

school.”

The researchers found that males scored lower than females in all age groups in tests

measuring processing speed, with the greatest discrepancy found among adolescents. However,

the researchers also found that males consistently outperformed females in some verbal abilities,

such as identifying objects, knowing antonyms and synonyms and completing verbal analogies,

debunking the popular idea that girls develop all communication skills earlier than boys.

The research has been published in the May/June 2006 issue of the journal Intelligence.

Camarata and Woodcock compiled their results through an evaluation of three sets of data

collected from 1977 to 2001 as a part of the Woodcock-Johnson Series of Cognitive and

Achievement Tests.

Incidentally, the researcher could not find any previous studies which had compared the

effects of introducing the SBA into the Grade 6 curricula on the numbers of Grade 6 girls in

government primary schools who were awarded secondary school scholarships compared with

their male counterparts in government primary schools over a four-year period with which this

study’s finding could have been compared.

Research Question 4 Were more girls in the private primary schools awarded secondary school

scholarships than their male peers from 2006 to 2009?

To answer this question, the numbers of girls in the 25-29 private primary schools in the

four educational zones of Antigua and Barbuda who wrote and passed the CEE and who were
 awarded secondary school scholarships into the nation’s secondary schools from 2006 and

2009 were calculated for comparison. The results are shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4
Numbers of boys and girls in private primary schools in four educational zones of Antigua and
Barbuda who wrote and passed the common entrance examinations and were awarded
secondary school scholarships from 2006-2009
______________________________________________________________________
BOYS GIRLS
Sat Sat
Year CEE Awarded % CEE Awarded %
______________________________________________________________________
2006 325 237 72.92 307 267 86.97

2007 345 271 78.55 383 321 83.38

2008 348 295 84.77 392 361 92.09

2009 378 317 83.86 361 321 88.92

______________________________________________________________________
Total 1396 1120 80.23 1443 1270 88.01
______________________________________________________________________

Table 4.4 suggests that more girls than boys in the private primary schools sat and passed

the CEE and were awarded secondary school scholarships into Antigua and Barbuda secondary

schools from 2006 to 2009. Again, as with the comparison of girls and boys in the government

schools, the researcher had expected this result of more passes amongst the girls compared with

the boys in the private primary schools.

It is believed by many people that boys have the ability to thrive in school. There are more

"boy geniuses" than "girl geniuses" and there are more boys in the top one percent of the IQ

scale than there are girls (Barr, 2008).

“It's no secret boys and girls are different and from the youngest pirates or ballerinas, to

adults, those differences are visible in the classroom. Girls like to sit down and talk
about things, maybe read the books together. Boys are more you know they love explosions and

science," says Patty Bachmann, a teacher at Barbour Elementary School (2008) .

However, some experts say the modern education system doesn't play to boys' strengths, because

it focuses much more on verbal learning and that's creating a divide, says Dr. Judith Kleinfeld,

(2008) psychology professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks and director of "The Boys

Project," an organization that analyzes and works to close the gender gap.

Radzi (2008), a guidance counsellor at Auburn High School, says boys can get bored when

there's not enough interaction in the classroom, making them more likely to be over-diagnosed

with learning disabilities and end up discouraged. Some experts say that parents and teachers

need to understand every child's strengths and weaknesses and mould education to them, to make

sure half the population doesn't fall off the page. Some research shows that boys respond better

to male teachers. But because educators are more often women, they need to work extra hard to

vary their teaching styles, so that one day they can focus on verbal lessons, the next do

something more active to keep everyone engaged says Seymour (2008).

But many boys don't fare as well — and for the majority of them, school may not be as a good

a fit as it is for girls. "There is no single boy experience at school because there is a wide range

of boys — and some take to school and some don't," says Michael Thompson, co-

author, Raising Cain. "But for the average boy, school is not as good a fit as it is for the average

girl. More boys have problems with attention and focus than girls. Because of their higher

activity level, boys are likely to get into more trouble than girls. And they are not given enough

opportunities to move around — both in actual physical activity and in how they

learn — because they spend too much time sitting and not enough time learning by doing,

making and building things," Tobin (1992)..

 Boys and girls, Sax (2008) argues, develop at different paces when they are very

young. By the time they are teenagers, those difference virtually disappear. But in

elementary school, he says, they are pronounced enough that educators should be

accounting for them.

Again, the researcher could not find any previous studies which had compared the effects

of introducing the SBA into the Grade 6 curricula on the numbers of Grade 6 girls in private

primary schools who were awarded secondary school scholarships compared with their male

counterparts in private primary schools over a four-year period with which this study’s finding

could have been compared.

Research Question 5 Were the numbers of girls in the government and private primary schools

who were awarded secondary school scholarships more than the numbers of boys in both the

government and private primary schools who were awarded secondary school scholarships from

2006-2009?

To answer this question, the total numbers of boys and girls in the (a) 30 government

primary schools and (b) 25-29 private primary schools in the four educational zones of Antigua

and Barbuda who wrote the CEE and passed and were therefore awarded secondary school

scholarships into the nation’s secondary schools from 2006 to 2009 were calculated. The

results are shown in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5
Total numbers of boys and girls in government and private primary schools in the four
educational zones of Antigua and Barbuda who wrote and passed the common entrance
examinations from 2006 to 2009 and were awarded secondary school scholarships
Boys in Govt and Private Girls in Govt and Private
Primary Schools Primary Schools
Sat Awarded Sat Awarded
Year CEE SSS % CEE SSS %
2006 805 426 52.92 783 534 68.20
 2007 853 466 54.63 885 643 72.66

2008 877 539 61.15 876 679 77.51

2009 815 538 66.01 776 612 78.87

Total 3350 1969 58.78 3320 2468 74.34

Table 4.5 shows that the numbers of girls in the 30 government and 25-29 private

primary schools in the four educational zones of Antigua and Barbuda who passed the CEE and

were awarded secondary school scholarships into the nation’s schools between 2006 and 2009

are substantially more than the numbers of their male peers in both types of schools.

Yet again, the researcher had expected this finding, having followed the trend of the

CEE passes over the four year period in Antigua and Barbuda. From the researcher’s teaching

experience at the Government and Private primary schools level for over 18 years, beginning at

the Green Bay, J.T. Ambrose, Old Road, Bolans, Five Islands Government Primary Schools and

Sunny Side Tutorial Private Primay school , in both rural and urban areas, she has observed that

girls usually do better in school (as evidenced in the girls’ report card grades), while boys tend

to have unrealistically high estimates of their own academic abilities and accomplishments.

Educational psychologists have found fundamental differences in the factors motivating girls

vs. factors motivating boys. Researchers have consistently found that "girls are more concerned

than boys are with pleasing adults, such as parents and teachers" (Pomerantz, Altermatt, &

Saxon, 2002). Most boys, on the other hand, will be less motivated to study unless the material

itself interests them. Girls tend to look on the teacher as an ally. Given a little encouragement,

they will welcome the teacher's help.

 Girls and boys experience academic difficulties very differently. Here are the findings of

Pomerantz, Alterman and Saxon (2002, p. 402):

"Girls generalize the meaning of their failures because they interpret them as

indicating that they have disappointed adults, and thus they are of little worth. Boys,

in contrast, appear to see their failures as relevant only to the specific subject area

in which they have failed; this may be due to their relative lack of concern with

pleasing adults. In addition, because girls view evaluative feedback as diagnostic of

their abilities, failure may lead them to incorporate this information into their more

general view of themselves. Boys, in contrast, may be relatively protected from such

generalization because they see such feedback as limited in its diagnosticity."

Sadker (1994) when asked what is the reason for the disparity in grades between

genders responded,

“Sitting in the same classroom, reading the same textbook, listening to the same teacher,

boys and girls receive very different education. In fact, upon entering school, girls

perform equal to or better than boys on nearly every measure of achievement, but by the

time they graduate from high school or college, they (boys) have fallen behind.”

As with so many other experts’ opinions, he is of the view that, the discrepancies between the

performance of girls and the performance of boys in elementary education leads some critics to

argue that boys are being neglected within the education system:

Across the USA, boys have never been in more trouble: They earn 70% of the D's and F's

that teachers dole out. They make up two thirds of students labelled "learning disabled." They are
the culprits in a whopping nine of ten alcohol and drug violations and the suspected

perpetrators in four out of five crimes that end up in juvenile court. They account for 80 % of

high school dropouts and attention deficit disorder diagnoses (Mulrine, 2001).

This performance discrepancy is notable throughout Canada as well. In Ontario,

Education Minister Janet Ecker said that the results of the standardized Grade 3 and Grade 6

testing in math and reading showed, "...persistent and glaring discrepancies in achievements and

attitudes between boys and girls." (O'Neill, 2000) In British Columbia, standardized testing

indicates that girls outperform boys at all levels of reading and writing and in Alberta testing

shows that girls, "...significantly outperform boys on reading and writing tests, while almost

matching them in math and science" (O'Neill, 2000).

There are gender-specific personality traits which affect how children learn. In the 1960s

and 1970s and even into the 1980s, it was fashionable to assume that gender differences in

personality were "socially constructed." Back then, many psychologists thought that if we raised

children differently -- if we raised Johnny to play with dolls and Sally to play with trucks -- then

many of these gender differences would vanish. However, cross-cultural studies over the past 30

years have provided little support for this hypothesis. On the contrary, a report from the National

Institutes of Health (NIH) found that gender differences in personality were remarkably robust

across all cultures studied, including China, sub-Saharan Africa, Malaysia, India, the Philippines,

Indonesia, Peru, the United States, and Europe (including specific studies in Croatia, the

Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Yugoslavia and

western Russia). "Contrary to predictions from the social role model, gender differences were

most pronounced in European and American cultures in which traditional sex roles are

minimized," the authors concluded ( Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001).

 Educational psychologists have consistently found that girls tend to have higher standards

in the classroom, and evaluate their own performance more critically. Girls also outperform boys

in school (as measured by students' grades), in all subjects and in all age groups ( Feingold,

1997).

Again, the researcher could not find any previous studies which had compared the effects

of introducing the SBA into the Grade 6 curricula on the numbers of Grade 6 girls in

government and private primary schools who were awarded secondary school scholarships

compared with their male counterparts in government and private primary schools over a four-

year period with which this study’s finding could have been compared directly.
 Chapter 5

Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations

Conclusions

The following conclusions were drawn from the main findings of this study.

1. There had been increases in the numbers of candidates who were awarded secondary

school scholarships in Antigua and Barbuda from the selected 30 government primary

schools (i.e. from 456 or 47.70% in 2006 to 512 or 60.10% in 2009) and the 25-29

private primary schools (i.e. from 504 in 2006 or 79.55% to 638 or 86.33% in 2009).

2. From 2006 to 2009, more candidates from the private primary schools (2390 or 84.01% )

who passed the CEE out the 2839 candidates who sat the exams), gained secondary

school scholarships  compared with their counterparts from the government primary

schools (2047 or 53.62% who passed the CEE out of the 3831 candidates who sat the

exams) from 2006 to 2009.

3. From 2006 to 2009, more girls (1198 or 63.83% who passed the CEE out of the 1877

girls who wrote the CEE) in the 30 government primary schools were awarded secondary
 school scholarships compared with their male peers (849 or 43.45% out of the 1954 boys

who wrote the CCE).

4. From 2006 to 2009, more girls (270 or 88.01% who passed the CEE out of the 1443

girls who wrote the CEE) in the 25-29 private primary schools were awarded secondary

school scholarships compared with their male peers (1120 or 80.02% out of the 1396

boys who wrote the CCE).

5. From 2006 to 2009, the numbers of girls in the government and private primary schools

(2468 or 74.34% who passed the CEE and were awarded secondary school scholarships

out of the 3320 girls who wrote the CEE) were substantially more than the number of

boys in both the government and private primary schools (1969 or 58.78% of whom

passed the CEE and were awarded secondary school scholarships.

Implications

1. The findings indicate that the number of passes steadily increased since the introduction

of the School-Based Assessment (SBA) into the Grade 6 curricula. This suggests that the

introduction of the SBA into the Grade 6 curricula assisted the students to experience a

more meaningful learning experience. The SBA assisted the students to explore many of

the concepts they had been taught more thoroughly and in addition, the SBA facilitated

appropriate and timely feedback between the students and their teachers.

2. The finding that private primary schools had more passes than their counterparts in the

government primary schools even though the government primary schools entered more

students than the private primary schools into the CEE, implies that students in the

private primary schools were likely to have been in classes in which the student- teacher
 ratio was relatively low. This implies that students in the private primary schools were

likely to have experienced more individual student-to-teacher time and attention than

their counterparts in the public primary schools. Moreover, from the researcher’s

teaching experience, over eighteen years at the primary school level, Antigua and

Barbuda government schools are well known for their overcrowding and shortage of

teachers. Consequently, many weak students get left behind in the public primary schools

because all students have to compete for the teachers’ time and attention in their

classrooms. Additionally, the socioeconomic background (SEB) and parental

involvement of students might have had some effects on the numbers of passes in the

CEE. Students who attend private primary school usually enjoy a high SEB and

increased parental involvement in their children’s education than their counterparts in the

public primary schools.

3. Because more female students passed the CEE and were awarded the secondary school

scholarships than their male peers between 2006 and 2009, this implies that the females

had a better grasp of the concepts that the Grade 6 students were taught and were likely

to have obtained better grades in the SBA done in preparation for the CEE than their

male counterparts. This implies that the teachers of the Grade 6 students need to ensure

that measures are put in place to ensure that the male students receive instruction that is

geared specifically towards them understanding the concepts associated with being

successful in the Common Entrance Examinations like their male counterparts.

Recommendations

1. Promoting children’s learning is the principal aim of schools. Assessment lies at the heart

of this process. It provides a framework in which educational objectives may be set and
 pupils’ progress charted and expressed. It can yield a basis for planning the next

educational steps in response to children’s needs. It should be an integral part of the

educational process, continually, providing both feedback and feed forward. It therefore

needs to be incorporated systematically into teaching strategies and practices at all levels.

Assessment should be equated to teaching and the two cannot be separated. Feedback on

the individual schools’ and students’ analyses of the results for the CEE along with the

analyses of the Antiguan and Barbuda’s Grade 6 students’ performance in the SBA

components of their final examinations should be made available to the respective

primary schools. This should be done to ensure that Grade 6 teachers are given the

opportunity to review their teaching for the previous year so that they could identify their

strengths and weaknesses. This will help the teachers to pin point and improve on their

areas of weaknesses and maintain their areas of strengths while teaching the current

Grade 6 classes. 

At the end of the CEE, the examination bodies in Antigua and Barbuda should

provide feedback to schools, parents, policymakers, and students themselves on the

Grade 6 students’ performance on both the CEE and the SBA. The analyses of the

their performances should indicate league tables showing how schools are ranked in

terms of the proportion of students who reached the target level. This is likely to

encourage competition among the primary schools and the teachers themselves. 

2. Based on the researcher’s teaching experience of over eighteen years within the primary

school, she is aware that the most prevalent instructional methodology that most teachers

use is the traditional lecture approach along with discussions and the use of questions. In

order to improve the performance of Antiguan and Barbudan Grade 6 students in the
 CEE, their teachers should make use of other types of teaching methodologies which are

student-centred or activity-based. These approaches are likely to make the Grade 6

students’ learning of the concepts they are taught easier to learn or less difficult and more

meaningful for them.

3. Antiguan and Barbudan Grade 6 teachers need to ensure that their teaching strategies are

geared towards not only the girls in their classes but also should take into consideration

the unique learning styles of boys in order to improve the performance of the male

students on the CEE. Antiguan and Barbuda Grade 6 teachers must also continually

reinforce the concepts covered by the Grade 6 syllabi which are tested on the CEE.

4. Many educators are of the belief that the SBA should be introduced to students in

advance (i.e. say in Grade 5) before entering Grade 6 so that students are familiar with

the procedure of SBA, so that more time is spent on the actual SBA in contrast to the

current practice of introduction the SBA at the Grade 6 level.

Suggestions for future research

In conducting future studies on this study’s topic, consideration should be given to the

following issues.

1. Convenient sampling was used for this study. For future studies the sample should be

randomly selected.

2. Larger representative samples should be engaged.

3. Areas outside of Antigua and Barbuda should be sampled.

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