CONSUMPTION OF ETHNO-CULTURAL FOODS: A RESEARCH GUIDE

Bamidele Adekunle*, Glen Filson*, Sridharan Sethuratnam**

* School of Environmental Design and Rural Development, University of Guelph

** FarmStart, Guelph, Canada

June 2009
 Adekunle, Filson & Sethuratnam

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to the Ontario government for sponsoring this project through the Ontario

Market Investment Fund (OMIF). We appreciate the support of the Centre for Land and Water

Stewardship (CLAWS), Greater Toronto Area Agriculture Action Committee (GTAAAC), Toronto

Food Policy Council (TFPC) and FarmStart. We also thank Hakeem Olalekan Shittu (PhD

Candidate, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, University of Guelph) for his comments

on both scientific and ethnic issues. The views expressed in this manuscript are the views of the

authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the funding organizations.

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1. Introduction

This article intends to serve as a guide for researchers interested in studying the consumption

behaviour of ethnic1 Canadians. This is important because the demographics of Canada continue to

change and the demand for ethnic food with desirable characteristics continues to increase. A

research that analyses the preferences of these immigrants is very important because their

expenditures on food will affect the production decision of our farmers. As a result of vagaries in

weather condition and the uncertainty that are involved in agricultural production, farmers will only

be willing to produce ethno-cultural foods if they are convinced that there is a demand and market

for their products. A study that provides scientific evidence on the demand for ethno-cultural foods

will help all stakeholders to make informed decisions.

Examining the behaviour of consumer requires a detailed understanding of the unit of analysis and

the concept under study. As a result of this, we did an exploratory study (using a draft questionnaire)

to understand the behaviour of ethnic Canadians. The semi-structured questionnaire was

administered to respondents in Guelph. The five respondents used for the exploratory survey were

from India, Nigeria, China, Kenya and Ghana. Apart from pre-testing the questionnaire on these

individuals, in-depth interview was also done with people with broad knowledge on ethnicity, food

consumption and types of vegetable. For clarity, we went a bit further to look at past studies on

ethnic consumption, acculturation, demand for local foods, medicine, pharmacy and botany.

Our exploratory survey gave us insight to the appropriate way that a survey on ethnic Canadians can

be done, a better understanding of what is a vegetable, sampling procedures, analytical techniques,

vegetables consumed by ethnic Canadians and the health implication of consuming ethnic

vegetables. A detailed presentation of our discovery is given below:

1
People of distinct cultural heritage (Banks, 1996).

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2. Methods

In our exploratory survey, we discovered that to be able to make inference about the population

from the sample, probability sampling technique should be used to survey respondents. We strongly

recommend probability sampling technique, such as systematic sampling. Systematic sampling in this

context is defined as the situation where every nth person in a particular situation is interviewed

even when there is no sampling frame. Ethnic Canadians can be selected either through their ethnic

associations (we discovered that many, if not most non-English, non-French ethnic Canadians

belong to one ethnic association or the other) or they can be interviewed when they come to shop at

their ethnic grocery store (ethnic stores can be selected based on purposive sampling)

After developing an appropriate research design, the next step in the ethno-cultural food research is

to develop a questionnaire. A good questionnaire for this type of research should ask questions on

vegetable2 expenditure, consumption of ethnic vegetables3, acculturation, background information

and personal characteristics of respondent. A thorough analysis of the data collected from the

questionnaire with the format above will help to understand the behaviour of consumers of ethnic

vegetables and also estimate the demand for ethnic vegetables, thus making it easy for farmers to

decide on which type of ethnic vegetables is profitable. An acculturation4 scale should also be

included in the questionnaire because the level of acculturation of an ethnic Canadian might affect

his/her consumption of ethnic vegetables. Many authors (Jamal and Chapman, 2000; Bojanic and

Xu, 2006; Cleveland et.al, 2008) indicate that there is strong link between acculturation and

consumption. As a result of the significance of acculturation, we developed a scale which can be

2
A vegetable is the edible root, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds of a plant. It is a grocery store term and not a
botanical (scientific) classification.
3
Ethnic vegetables are vegetables that are peculiar to a particular ethno-cultural group.

4 The exchange of cultural values and assimilation of new ideas when different ethnic groups interact. This might affect
the behaviour of members of the ethnic groups but they still maintain their cultural heritage.

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used to measure acculturation for all types of ethnic Canadians – Ethnic Canadian Dietary

Acculturation Scale (Table 1). Unlike Satia et.al. (2001) who developed the Western Dietary

Acculturation Scale and Chinese Dietary Acculturation Scale or Bojanic and Xu’s (2006) Chinese

Acculturation Scale, this new scale can be used to measure the level of acculturation of any ethnic

Canadian.

Table 1: Ethnic Canadian Dietary Acculturation Scale

Statement Strongly Agree Neither Disagree Strongly

agree agree nor disagree
disagree

I enjoy speaking 5 4 3 2 1
English

Most of my friends 5 4 3 2 1
are outside my
ethnic group

I enjoy English 5 4 3 2 1
language movies
and TV
programmes

I learn a lot from 5 4 3 2 1

people outside my
ethnic group

I welcome most of 5 4 3 2 1
the values held by
people outside my
ethnic group

I have difficulty 5 4 3 2 1
accepting most of
the values held by
my ethnic group

I prefer food that 5 4 3 2 1

are not my ethnic

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 Adekunle, Filson & Sethuratnam

food

The scale above will be tested for reliability and uni-dimesionality by the use of Cronbach’s alpha.

Principal component analysis will also be used to assess the factors that underlie acculturation based

on commonalities. The data set collected through the survey of respondents in Greater Toronto

Area (GTA) will be analysed by SPSS. Since the study will be done through probability sampling

technique, inference about the population can be made from the sample. Descriptive statistics such

as frequencies and means will be used to describe the characteristics of respondents and their

consumption of and expenditure on ethnic vegetables. Analysis of Variance will be used to compare

the means of three ethnic groups (Chinese, South Asia5 and Afro-Caribbean6) covered by the study.

A model of consumption expenditure will be developed to identify the factors that determine the

consumption of vegetables. The elasticity of different variables included in the model will be

estimated and used in the further explanation. Three functional forms (Linear, Semi-Log, Double

Log) will be estimated and the best fit will be selected based on R 2 , t-values/standard error and

‘reasonableness’ of the parameter estimates (Adekunle, 1998) or simply use semi-log based on its

popularity for a consumption study (Adekunle, 2002). Another alternative is to use logistic

regression to identify the factors that predict expenditure on vegetables. Logistic regression will

resolve all issues pertaining to heteroscedasticity as are commonly seen in cross-sectional data set

(Adekunle, 2007). Finally, Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), a Generalized Linear Model will also

be used to determine whether there is a significant difference in the consumption of /expenditure

on ethnic vegetables among the three ethnic groups after taking into consideration personal

characteristics of respondents.

5 South Asia includes Bangladesh, The Indian Ocean Territories, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
6
A person from Sub-Saharan Africa or African descends from the Caribbean/West Indies.

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 Adekunle, Filson & Sethuratnam

Another important part of the survey is the estimation of market demand for the preferred

vegetables discovered from the descriptive analysis of the dataset. To estimate the demand for a

particular vegetable, the authors will use the approach below:

Assume vegetable y is preferred by the respondents and the monthly expenditure per household on

y is Xy. In this case, the average monthly expenditure per household (Xa) will be (Σ Xy) ⁄ N. In the

equation above, (Σ Xy) is the summation of the monthly expenditure for the whole sample and N is

the sample size. Once the average monthly expenditure (Xa) is estimated, the yearly expenditure can

be calculated by multiplying with the number of months in a year. In other words:

Xay (average annual expenditure) = Xa * 12 (This equation assumes that there are 12 months in a

year and respondents purchase vegetables throughout the year).

Once Xay is estimated, the market demand in terms of monetary values can be calculated. Let us

assume that the population of Chinese in the GTA at a given year (i) is C i, and the average

household size from the survey (s) is Hs, then the number of Chinese households for the period (i)

and as a result of survey (s) will be Ci ⁄ Hs.

Finally, the demand for a vegetable (y) by the Chinese ethnic group in monetary terms will be Xay *

(Ci ⁄ Hs).

3. Vegetables

A study of preference for vegetables is very important issue because of its health implications and

the fact that Ontario farmers stand to benefit from its production. A critical analysis of the demand

for vegetables will be incomplete without an adequate understanding of what constitute vegetables.

The term ‘vegetable’ is difficult to define but it can be defined as an herbaceous plant, which may be

leafy, planted because of its edible parts (roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds). It must be

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stated that botanists do not have a classification called a vegetables, it is a grocery store term. For

example, tomatoes are a fruit (ripened or swollen ovary of a flower as a result of fertilization) and at

the same time a vegetable. Amaranth is a leafy vegetable while carrot is a vegetable and we consume

its root.

To aid our understanding on the type of vegetables consumed by ethnic Canadians, we did a pre-test

and in-depth interview with a few ethnic Canadians. The result of the interviews indicates that there

are misconceptions about the name of certain vegetables, some vegetables are consumed across

ethnic groups and most people have failed to realize the medicinal effect of some of these ethnic

vegetables. A proper introduction of these ethnic vegetables into the Ontario market will contribute

significantly to cancer research (some of these vegetables have very high anti-oxidant effect) and

increase the revenue of farmers (most of these vegetables are usually imported and consumers want

fresh vegetables).

Our investigation on the type of ethnic vegetables consumed by ethnic Canadians lead to the list

below: This is based on our exploratory survey. We may discover more after the main survey.

 Afang leaves (Gnetum africanum) – Eru/Kok (Cameroon), Koko (Central African Republic),
Ntoumou (Gabon), Afang/Ukazi/Okazi (Nigeria), Fumbwa (Democratic Republic of
Congo – DRC, Republic of Congo, Angola, Mozambique).

 African Egg plant – Garden Eggs ( Solanum melongena) – Ngilo (Swahili), Nakasuga/Nakati
(Uganda), Njilu (DRC), Gboma (Togo), Ikan/Igba (SW Nigeria), Ntorowa/Ntrobu (Ghana).

 Baby Bok choy ( Brassica rapa sub-specie : chinensis)

 Bamboo Shoots ( Bambusa vulgaris or Phyllostachys edulis)

 Basil (Ocimum basilicum)

 Bean Sprouts ( Vigna unguiculata)

 Beet Roots (Beta vulgaris)

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 Adekunle, Filson & Sethuratnam

 Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum)

 Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) – Ewuro/Orugbo (Nigeria), Mojunso (Tanzania/East

Africa), Ndole (Cameroun).

 Bitter Melon (Momordica charantia)

 Bok Choy ( Brassica chinensis)

 Broccoli (Brassica oleracea : Italica Group)

 Butternut squash (Cucurbita moschata)

 Cabbage (Brassica oleracea : Capitata Group)

 Carrots (Daucus carota )

 Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea : Bortrytis Group) – Gobi ( India)

 Chilli pepper (green or red) (Capsicum sp.)

 Chinese Broccoli (Brassica oleracea : Alboglabra Group) – Gai lan

 Chinese Cabbage (Brassica rapa)

 Chinese Greens (Choy Sum) ( Brassica rapa sub-specie : chinensis)

 Chives (Allium schoenoprasum)

 Cilantro - Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) – Yun tsai (China)

 Cocoyam leaves/corm (Colocasia esculenta) – Taro, Dalo (Fiji), seppankizhangu (Tamil), Gabi
(The Philippines), Karkalo (Nepal), Nduma (Kikuyu – Kenya), Ala (Maldives),
AmaDumbe/Madumbi (Zulu – South Africa), Dasheen (West Indies/Caribbean), coco
(Nigeria), Kontomire (Ghana).

 Collard Greens (Brassica oleracea : Acephala Group) - Kaanul haak (Kashmir – South Asia),
Sukuma wiki (Kenya).

 Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)

 Daikon (Raphanus sativus subsp. Longipinnatus)

 Eggplant (Solanum melongena) – Various varieties based on colour and shape identified.

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 Adekunle, Filson & Sethuratnam

 Fluted Pumpkin Leaves (Teleferia occidentalis) – Ugwu (Nigeria)

 Garlic (Allium sativum)

 Garlic Stem (Allium sativum)

 Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

 Green Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) – Phalli (India)

 Green Onion ( Allium cepa)

 Green Peas (Pisum sativum )

 Green Pepper (Capsicum annuum)

 Indian Arvi (Colocasia esculenta)

 Indian Karela (Momordica charantia) – Bitter melon

 Indian Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)

 Indian Squash (Cucurbita sp.) - Tinda

 Leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. Porrum )

 Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)

 Locust Bean (Carob) (Ceratonia siliqua) – Iru (Nigeria)

 Lotus Root ( Nelumbo necifera)

 Mushroom ( Agaricus bisporus )

 Okro (Abelmoschus esculentus)

 Onion ( Allium cepa)

 Pea Sprouts (Pisum sativum )

 Peanut (Groundnut) (Arachis hypogaea)

 Pear (Pyrus sp.)

 Plantain (Musa paradisiaca )

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 Adekunle, Filson & Sethuratnam

 Plumed Cockscomb (Celosia argentea) – Prince of Wales Feathers, Sokoyokoto (Nigeria).

 Potato (Solanum tuberosum )

 Pumpkin (Cucurbita sp.) – Kaddu (South Asia)

 Red Pepper (Capsicum sp.)

 Rocotillo Pepper ( Capsicum baccatum)

 Shanghai Bok Choy (Brassica rapa)

 Shiitake Mushrooms (Lentinula edodes)

 Smooth Amaranth (Amaranthus hybridus) – Efo tete (SW, Nigeria), Bitekuteku (DRC),
Callalou/Kallaloo (Jamaica), Yin choi, Chinese spinach (China), Thotakura, Cheera (India),
Mchicha (East Africa).

 Spinach (Spinacia oleracea)

 Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas)

 Sweet Yams ( Dioscorea batatas)

 Thickhead (Crassocephalum rubens) – Fireweed, Regleaf, Ebolo/Ebire (Nigeria), Worow (Sierra

Leone)

 Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)

 Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum, syn. Lycopersicon lycopersicum & Lycopersicon esculentum)

 Tossa Jute Leaves ( Corchorus olitorius) – Ewedu (Nigeria), Moroheiya (Japan),

Melokheya/Malukhia (Egypt), Jew’s mallow, Fakohoy (Songhay – Mali), Saluyot
(Philippines), Mrenda/ Murere (Luya – Kenya)

 Vine of Sodom (Colocynth) (Citrullus colocynthis) / Melon seeds, Bitter apple, Bitter cucumber
– Egusi (West Africa), Agusi (Niger).

 Water Cress (Nasturtium officinale )

 Water leaf ( Talinum triangulare)

 Yellow Yams ( Dioscorea batatas)

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 Adekunle, Filson & Sethuratnam

As seen above it is very important to always include the scientific name of ethnic vegetables because

of misconceptions about names and cross ethnic impact. A typical case of misconception is the

name spinach; a lot of consumers from different ethnic groups refer to all leafy vegetables as

spinach. The problem is particularly pronounced with Amaranth (a leafy vegetable with more than

70 species). To clear this misconception, scientific names will show that the two vegetables belong

to two different Genuses. Amaranth (Amaranthus hybridus) belongs to the Genus Amaranthus while

spinach (Spinacia oleracea) is a member of the Spinacia Genus, although the two belong to the family

Amaranthaceae. The cross-ethnic impact of vegetables can also be identified with the aid of scientific

names. Onion is referred to as onion in most parts of the world so its cross-ethnic impact is

pronounced, on the other hand the cross-ethnic impact of a vegetable like Tossa Jute Leaves (

Corchorus olitorius), Garden Eggs ( Solanum melongena), Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) and Smooth

Amaranth (Amaranthus hybridus) may be difficult to decipher without the inclusion of scientific

names.

We conclude this section by stating the medicinal effect of consuming ethnic vegetables. This is

important because the availability of fresh ethno-cultural vegetables can be beneficial to all

Canadians. This benefit can be harnessed if there is public education about the impact of these

vegetables and their availability. A brief description of the health implication of some vegetables is

given below:

Onion, a member of the Allium family has blood sugar lowering effects, cardiovascular benefits,

support gastrointestinal health, protective against many cancers, boost bone density, and has anti

inflammatory/bacteria ability (Sheela et. al, 1995; Yang et.al, 2004; Galeone et. al, 2006; Gates et.al,

2007; WHFoods, 2009). The benefits from the consumption of onion above indicate that both

ethnic and non-ethnic Canadian will benefit from the consumption of onion. Onion is a known

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 Adekunle, Filson & Sethuratnam

vegetable and it has very high cross-ethnic impact, so the demand is significant, though consumers

might not be aware of the health benefits. To contribute significantly to our understanding of the

impact of ethnic vegetables, it is better to use an unknown vegetable in Canada, consumed by ethnic

Canadians which might be beneficial to people outside the ethnic group. Examples of such

vegetables are Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygydalina Del.) and Thickhead (Crassocephalum rubens Benth);

both are edible vegetables in African. A study by Iwalewa (2005) suggests that the antioxidant level

of Thickhead is the highest when compared with eight other edible vegetables (Bitter leaf, Catholic

vegetable, Water leaf, Fluted pumpkin leaf, African egg plant, Nigthshade, Sweet Pigweed and

Cockscomb). Although, Thickhead has a better anti-oxidant ability than Bitter leaf, extensive

research on Bitter leaf indicates that its aqueous extract have both hypolipidaemic and antioxidant

properties (Nwanjo, 2005). Low concentration of water soluble leaf extract of Bitter leaf also

potently retards the proliferation of ER+ human breast cancerous cells and other type of cancers

(Kupchan et.al. 1969; Jasaka et.al. 1992; Izevbigie, 2003; Gresham, Ross and Izevbigie, 2008).

Another ethnic vegetable that has medicinal effect is Bitter melon (Momordica charantia), although

research on its efficacy is still in progress. Bitter melon extract improves insulin sensitivity and

signalling (Sridhar et.al. 2008), has the ability to lower blood glucose and appears to be safe (Virdi

et.al. 2003). Basch et.al. (2003) in their review of efficacy and safety of bitter melon suggests that the

vegetable may have hypoglycaemic effects but its use must be administered with care because of its

various side effects (see Basch et.al. 2003). Since consumption of these ethnic vegetables is

medicinal, it will be desirable for patients to have them as a dietary supplement. In other words, the

benefits from the production and consumption of ethnic vegetables are pareto efficient (nobody will

be worse off) and all stakeholders especially farmers will benefit significantly.

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 Adekunle, Filson & Sethuratnam

4. Conclusion

This guide presents the reason why a market research on the demand for ethnic vegetables is

important. We also present the appropriate sampling methods, survey instruments, list of vegetables

(with their scientific names) consumed by ethnic Canadians, the medicinal effect of these vegetables

and why public awareness will increase their consumption. Our propositions at this point are based

on our exploratory survey and we intend to make more discoveries as we proceed on our main

survey.

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 Adekunle, Filson & Sethuratnam

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