16th IFAC Symposium on Automation in Mining, Mineral

and Metal Processing

August 25-28, 2013. San Diego, California, USA

Hybrid Electric Haulage Trucks for Open Pit Mining

Ehsan Esfahanian* and John A. Meech**


* Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering,
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
*(Tel: 604-561-3404; email: ehsan.esfahani@gmail.com)
**(Tel: 604-822-3984; email: cerm3dir@mining.ubc.ca)

Abstract: Hybrid Electric Vehicles improve fuel economy by taking advantage of the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) peak
efficiency operating envelope and using an energy storage system to supply drive power when the ICE has lower efficiency.
To achieve this, a hybrid design requires an ICE, a generator/motor, motor controllers, and an electric energy storage system
(battery) which can be connected-up in a variety of ways such as, Parallel, and Series-Parallel configurations.

Multiple strategies have been developed for hybrid electric vehicles energy management which make decisions based on inputs
such as battery state of charge, driver torque demand, vehicle speed, and transmission gear. For example, as the state of charge
of the battery decreases, it becomes more costly to use the electricity and hence the control system tends to transition the power
source from battery to fuel.

Although hybrid-electric haulage trucks have been implemented, energy storage has not been a feature of these systems. These
trucks are typically arranged in Series configuration where the engine is completely decoupled from the wheels and used to
provide electric power through a generator which powers electric motors on each of the wheels. The absence of a battery is an
example of lost opportunity for fuel economy improvements through regenerative breaking and engine-off operation.

This paper discusses the fuel economy question with respect to road geometry data and future speeds, a condition that can be
determined for an autonomous haulage system with relative ease. Real-time access to such data can be put to advantage to
maximize fuel economy. With a look-a-head system, even if the state of charge is low, the truck can continue to use the electric
system if a downhill stretch is known to be ahead, so the system knows it can charge-up using regenerative breaking.

Keywords: Hybrid Electric, Autonomous, Mining, Haulage Trucks, Fuel Economy

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978-3-902823-42-7/2013 © IFAC 104 10.3182/20130825-4-US-2038.00042

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1. INTRODUCTION The horizontal and vertical axes represent engine speed and
torque respectively. For Figure 1, the highest efficiency point
for the engine to operate is about 1300 RPM at a torque of
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) have become popular
350 Nm. To maximize fuel efficiency on a given cycle, the
alternatives to conventional vehicles as they reduce
engine should operate as close to the lowest BSFC value for
greenhouse gas emissions as well as improve fuel economy.
as long a time as possible.
These vehicles improve fuel economy by taking advantage of
the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) peak efficiency
Essentially, the only feedback from the driver to the engine
operating envelope and using an energy storage system to
control system is the torque request which is mapped to the
supplement drive power when the engine has lower
accelerator pedal and translated to an engine torque request
efficiency. The hybrid electric powertrain technology has
based on the current transmission gear. In a conventional
mainly been implemented for vehicles and small to medium
vehicle with an automatic transmission, the primary factor by
sized trucks. The technology is yet to emerge in very large
which the control system selects the appropriate gear is the
trucks such as haulage trucks used in open pit mining.
BSFC map barring any speed or torque limitation. Shifting up
Although some commercially available mining haulage
for example, allows the engine speed to be lowered while the
trucks have electric drives incorporated into their powertrain
load request is increased to compensate for the additional
such as the 960E offered by Komatsu or the 795F AC model
torque needed at the engine to provide the same torque at the
offered by Caterpillar Inc., they do not provide the true fuel
wheels because of a lower gear ratio. If the new operating
saving potential of hybrids due to the absence of an energy
point is at a lower BSFC value, it is more economical to
storage system. In 2008, GE teamed with Komatsu and the
change gears. Note that, generally, the ICE has relatively low
U.S. Department of Energy to demonstrate the world’s first
efficiency at low engine speeds and low to medium loads, a
hybrid electric drive system in a mining haulage truck. This
condition that occurs during idling with the transmission
paper discusses the incremental fuel economy improvement
selector in drive mode. Although each engine has different
in a hybrid electric vehicle achieved by having prior
BSFC data, the condition mentioned applies to the majority
knowledge of road geometry and speeds, a condition possible
of gasoline internal combustion engines.
with an autonomous haulage system.
A hybrid electric power-train essentially works by providing
2. OVERVIEW OF HYBRID ELECTRIC POWERTRAIN
additional flexibility in operating the engine close to the
maximum efficiency point to minimize losses. The aim is to
An HEV’s power-plant consists of a combustion engine, an
run the engine close to the optimum point with the storage
electric motor/generator, motor controllers, and an energy
system acting as a buffer to compensate for minor variations
storage system (battery, ultra-capacitors, etc.).
in driver torque requests. A positive compensation results in
power being drawn from the battery to supplement
The efficiency of an internal combustion engine changes with
mechanical power from the engine; a negative compensation
operating speed and torque. The torque produced by the
leads to charging-up the battery through the generator using
engine is controlled by adjusting the air and fuel mixture
the excess engine torque. In addition, the hybrid power-train
feeding the engine. The engine speed is a function of the net
allows for engine-off operation at slow speeds and
torque and the load governed by laws of kinetics. Efficiency
regenerative braking which stores some of the vehicle's
data of an engine are usually presented in the form of Brake
kinetic energy in the battery during braking. An overview of
Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC), representing fuel
the Series, Parallel, and Series-Parallel hybrid systems are
consumption per unit energy at different operating speeds and
given below.
loads. BSFC values are inversely proportional to the engine
efficiency. Figure 1 is an example of a BSFC map.
2.1 Series Hybrid Electric Power-train

Figure 2 shows a generic schematic of a Series HEV power-

plant.

Figure 2: Series hybrid power-train

Figure 1: Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (g/kWh)
(Xiong, Zhang, Yin, 2009)

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In a Series system, the engine is completely decoupled from
the wheels and attached to a generator instead. The generator
provides electricity which in turn powers the traction motor
coupled to the wheels usually through a constant gear
reduction unit. Since the ICE is not connected to the wheels,
it can operate in a narrow region at near peak efficiency. This
eliminates the need for a complex clutch and multi-speed
transmission, increasing fuel economy and decreasing
emissions in comparison to a conventional vehicle (Ganji and
Kouzani, 2010). Based on electric power required at the
traction motor (controlled by a driver torque request), the
engine delivers the required power at the most efficient point
possible taking into account energy conversion losses. The
minor variations in driver torque requests are compensated by
the energy storage system as the buffer. A slightly higher
torque request would use energy stored in the battery to
supply the motor with additional energy while a slightly
lower torque request would be compensated by the surplus
electrical energy being stored in the battery. If there is a
major change in torque request, engine operation may shift to
a new relative optimum point which can meet the electrical
demand required. As well, at slow speeds and idle, the engine
is shut-off and the battery used to power the electrical motor
saving additional fuel. Some of the disadvantages to the
system include the need for a large high-power motor and
generator set able to drive the vehicle over all speed ranges.
Another disadvantage is for highway operations where even
though the engine is operating at near peak efficiency, the
conversion losses of mechanical to electrical and back to
mechanical energies are always present.
2.2 Parallel Hybrid Electric Power-train
Figure 3 shows a schematic of a Parallel HEV. In a Parallel
system, the engine is coupled to the traction motor and
wheels through a clutch, such that both the engine and the
traction motor can transfer mechanical power to the wheels.
Figure 3: Parallel hybrid power-train
There are different ways to configure the transmission. As
opposed to the Series HEV, the engine doesn't have full
flexibility in operating independently of the wheels. The
traction motor is smaller compared to the Series system, since
it is meant only to propel the vehicle at slow speeds and assist
the engine with minor torque request variations. The engine
comes on during acceleration and operates similar to a
conventional vehicle. During periods of idle or low speeds,
the engine can shut down and the clutch disengaged for the
battery to be the only power source through the motor.
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Similar to a Series HEV, energy can be saved during
regenerative braking. The significant advantage of Parallel
topology compared to the Series topology is that less energy
is wasted during conversion stages (Ganji and Kouzani,
2010). Furthermore, in addition to not needing a generator,
the traction motor size requirement is significantly reduced,
so capital costs and weight are lower. During city driving,
efficiency is less than the Series type since the engine has
less flexibility in operating near the optimum points
especially during 'stop-and-go' conditions (Ganji and
Kouzani, 2010).
2.3 Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Powertrain
This system combines the advantages and complexities of the
Series and Parallel HEVs. It has the potential for better fuel
economy than either of the other systems; however, due to its
added complexity and additional components, it is more
costly. Figure 4 shows a typical Series-Parallel HEV power-
plant topology.
Figure 4: Series-Parallel hybrid power-train
2.4 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Powertrain
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) are a more recent
addition to the HEV family. Their power-train essentially
shares the same topology with any of the three systems
identified above with the differences occurring during
operation. They are designed to provide pure electric
operation for a certain range with an engine and generator
onboard to supply backup electrical power when the battery
becomes depleted. The battery is charged using a charging
station while the vehicle is parked. Regenerative braking is
also incorporated into these systems. The energy storage
systems in PHEVs are much larger due to the nature of their
operation. These systems are not meant for continuous
operation due to the long time currently required to charge
the batteries.
3. SIZE SCALABILITY OF HEV FUEL ECONOMY
In 2008, GE teamed with Komatsu and the U.S. Department
of Energy to demonstrate the world’s first hybrid electric
drive system in a mining haulage truck. GE claims a fuel
economy improvement of up to 10% with increased power
boost and productivity of 20% and 5% respectively.
(http://www.getransportation.com/resources/doc_download/287-
ges-hybrid-drive-systems.html). Details of the hybrid system in
use, the type of Komatsu truck used, or the sources of data
for the claimed improvements have not been given.
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Table 1 displays the reported US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) fuel economy of some vehicles compared
with their hybrid electric counterparts.
Table 1: EPA fuel economy levels for some recent vehicles
(http://www.auto123.com/en/), (http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/),
(http://www.newswire.ca/fr/story/457367/azure-dynamics-receives-
record-truck-order-from-purolator-couriers)
chair of the transit commission, "they have been
underperforming. [The company] thought [it would] get a lot
more fuel efficiency out of these hybrid propulsion systems
than [they] have gotten."
(http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/story/2012/10/25/ottawa-
hybrid-bus-retrofit-pilot-project.html)
4. HEV ENERGY MANAGEMENT

There are tremendous complications in designing a control

system to optimize fuel economy over any given cycle.
Control heavily depends on a number of variables including
battery state of charge, vehicle speed, driver torque request,
driving style, engine temperature, etc. There have been
multiple attempts to develop a suitable control system which
include: rule-based, fuzzy logic, Deterministic Engine
Optimal Operating Line (OOL), Line Quadratic Regulator
(LQR), neural network, genetic algorithm, and optimal
The data suggests fuel economy improvements can be
control (Ganji and Kouzani, 2010). Depending on driving
achieved regardless of vehicle weight which suggests that
conditions, road geometry, and other factors one control
hybrid technology is scalable. Of course, the components will
method may be more economic than others on a specific
increase in size with an increase in vehicle weight. It should
cycle.
be noted that these data are from tests where the vehicle is
driven on a dynamometer according to a specific drive cycle
As mentioned previously, the objective is to use fossil fuel
such as the 'EPA Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule
only when the ICE is at its peak efficiency. Since all the
(UDDS) city-cycle'. These cycles are speed vs. time
energy originally comes from the fossil fuel, it would be
schedules that represent a typical city drive cycle. The energy
impossible to achieve HEV cycle fuel efficiency higher than
management strategy used may or may not perform at its
the peak efficiency of the ICE. This assumes the same level
actual intended performance during this test. In fact, real life
of battery charge and elevation at the beginning and the end
fuel economy can be quite different from the numbers
of the cycle. The goal is to stay as close to the peak efficiency
reported from EPA testing. There is evidence for the effects
point as possible and capture as much energy as possible
of driving conditions on fuel economy performance of a
through regenerative braking. This is the main challenge in
hybrid vehicle. To demonstrate this, the following example is
designing a HEV control system. In a conventional HEV, all
presented. Top Gear, a popular British television show about
the decisions of the control system are based on current and
motor vehicles, conducted a test comparing the fuel economy
past data (speed, state of charge, transmission gear, driver
of a Toyota Prius XW20 (HEV with a 1.5L 4 cylinder
torque request) to maximize the efficiency over the cycle.
engine) and a BMW M3 E90 (conventional 4L V8 engine).
These can be statistical approaches. The major restriction
The test was conducted on a race track with 10 continuous
here is the lack of knowledge about future conditions and
laps where the Prius was driven at its maximum performance
driver decisions. In other words, a decision made now about
limits and the M3 kept up behind. The results came out to
the best course of action by the HEV system may end up
17.2 miles per gallon (MPG) and 19.4 MPG for the Prius and
being suboptimal because of certain actions by the driver.
M3 respectively (http://www.topgear.com/au/videos/compass42).
This is evident in the example of fuel economy of a Toyota
The reported EPA fuel economy test results for the two
Prius on a race track. Another example of this problem is the
vehicles are 45 MPG and 20 MPG respectively
shifting tendency of an HEV to use the ICE to charge the
(http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/). While the M3 numbers
batteries if the state of charge is approaching the minimum
from the test and EPA are very close, the Prius fuel economy
level. This action is suboptimal if there is a long downhill
on the track was 260% poorer than that reported by EPA and
stretch up ahead where the battery can be charged using
much worse than the M3 on the track. The test, which is a
regenerative braking. Of course, this wouldn’t be the case if
case of an exaggerated and highly unlikely driving scenario,
the battery had infinite capacity and the ICE is running
shows how driving conditions affect fuel economy.
efficiently to charge the battery since the energy would
eventually be used later. But due to the capacity limit of the
Under most driving conditions, HEVs will certainly have
energy storage system, any downhill travel on a full battery is
better fuel economy than their conventional counterpart, but a
a lost opportunity to capture potential energy. This is where
marginally better performance in fuel consumption does not
real time knowledge of conditions up ahead can serve to
justify the higher capital costs associated with these more
improve the decisions of the control system. As Ganji and
environmentally-friendly machines. In Oct 2012, four years
Kouzani concluded “investigation on road or driving cycle
after OC Transpo, the urban transit service for the city of
information and applying them in a control strategy has a
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, bought 170 hybrid electric transit
considerable impact on fuel consumption and decreasing
busses, there was a potential plan to turn the buses back into
emissions.” (Ganji and Kouzani, 2010).
conventional diesel-operation. According to Diane Deans,

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In the case of Autonomous Haulage Trucks in an open pit
mine, not only is the road geometry known, but the speeds in
each segment of travel are known to reasonable accuracy
since there is minimal interruption in the travel cycle and
other traffic is accounted for which minimizes unplanned
situations to which the truck must respond.
4. HYBRID ELECTRIC AUTONOMOUS HAULAGE
TRUCKS IN MINING
Given the complete drive cycle profile, a hybrid control
system can be designed to manage energy between the ICE
and the battery to maximize fuel efficiency over the entire
cycle. Achieving this is not possible without having access to
such future data. Performing this analysis requires process-
power intensive simulations to find the solution which
maximizes efficiency for each specific drive cycle profile, but
given today's hardware capability, this is unlikely to be
problematic for simulations done onboard the machine.
Given a specific hybrid power-plant and drive cycle, the
efficiency problem can be resolved, but the improvement in
efficiency is bottle-necked by the physical limits of the
components of the power-plant. For example, the battery has
a limited capacity beyond which regenerative braking can't
store any further energy. As another example, if the system
decides to use the battery as 100% of the energy source for a
specific segment, this decision can only stand if the battery
power draw limit is sufficient for the segment. Otherwise the
system is forced to turn on the ICE to provide additional
energy. So, for a significant improvement in fuel economy,
proper hardware is needed in a hybrid electric power-train
propelling a haulage truck.
First, all components must be scaled to handle the mass of a
haulage truck. This includes the motor/generator set, the
converters, and the battery to name just a few of the main
items. But scaling is not enough; a typical haul cycle profile
is quite different from that of a car driving in the city. The
battery capacity of a city-driven HEV is sized and selected to
be able to supply electrical power at a stop (e.g., a traffic
light) for a few minutes to power the hydraulic steering,
brakes, air conditioning, 12V battery, and manoeuvring at
slow speeds while the engine is off. It also supplements
engine power to compensate driver torque request variations.
Driving down an extended downhill stretch will fully charge
the battery. The remaining potential energy past that point is
all wasted as heat generated during mechanical or engine
braking.
An extended downhill is part of almost any major open pit
mining haulage cycle.
The energy storage system must have enough capacity to
absorb as much potential energy as possible during
regenerative braking. This energy can then be used at the
bottom of the pit for engine-off driving during loading, to
assist the engine in the subsequent uphill segment and
provide engine-off operation during the dump cycle. The
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traction motor(s) will need to have a sufficient power limit to
provide complete electrical retarding such that the application
of mechanical brakes is not required. This will minimize
losses and maximize the life of the service brakes. Once the
components are sized and selected appropriately, control
software can become the focus.
A haul truck manufacturer may have customers from all
around the world where the road conditions, pit slopes,
speeds, climate conditions, etc. are all different. So how can
one create a unique control system for every drive cycle?
Given today's advancements in computer hardware
technology, it is suggested that upon delivery of each truck, it
can be driven through the drive cycle in a calibration mode in
which the onboard computer will gather data about road
geometry, conditions, speeds, etc., and then run the
optimization simulation once the run is complete. The output
will be a complete schedule of the energy management
strategy over the entire drive cycle to maximize fuel
efficiency. Once done, the strategy can be used at the mine as
long as conditions remain unchanged. Upon change of
parameters such as an increase in pit depth, creation of
alternate roads, etc., the calibration can be run again with the
new energy management strategy over-riding the old one.
This method is not particularly practical for city driving since
conditions are constantly changing (speeds, road geometry,
load, etc.). The consistency of these variables for autonomous
haulage in a mine can be put to great advantage to maximize
fuel economy of the HEV system over the drive cycle.
Obviously, other complexities must be taken into account.
However, if HEV technology is offered for mining haulage
trucks, the factors discussed above can be considered and a
full cost analysis done to understand the economic impact of
such a system and if it will pay for the added capital costs in
fuel savings over the operational life of the truck.
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Auto123.com. http://www.auto123.com/en/. (Visited Jan 30,
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receives-record-truck-order-from-purolator-couriers.
(Visited Jan 2013).
CBC News, City could pay to turn hybrid buses into diesel
buses. Oct 25, 2012.
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ottawa-hybrid-bus-retrofit-pilot-project.html. (Visited Feb
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d/287-ges-hybrid-drive-systems.html. (Visited Jan 2013).
IFAC MMM 2013
August 25-28, 2013. San Diego, USA

M3 vs. Prius video. Top Gear Australia.

http://www.topgear.com/au/videos/compass42. (Visited
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