SOIL COMPOSITION

In geotechnical engineering, soil compaction is the process in which stress is applied

to a soil causes densification as air is displaced from the pores between the soil grains.

Formulas:
Void Ratio
The ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids
Vv
e=
Vs

Porosity
The ratio of volume of voids to the total volume.
e
n=
1+ e

Degree of Saturation
The ratio of Volume of water to volume of voids.
Vw
s=
Vv

Moisture Content
The ratio of weight of water to the weight of solids in a given volume of soil.
Ww
ω=
Ws
Unit Weight
The unit weight of soil per unit volume or sometimes called the moist unit weight.
W
γ=
V

Dry Unit Weight

The weight per unit volume or sometimes called the moist unit weight.
Ws
γd =
V
Moist Unit Weight
The unit weight of soil when void spaces of the soil contain both water and air.
γ =(γd )(1+w)

Dry Unit Weight

If the volume of soil solids is one:
Gsγw
γd =
1+e

Degree of Saturation
It is the percentage of water that occupies the pore spaces present in soil. According to
my research the degree of saturation only values between 0 to 100 percent.
wG s
S=
e

Void Ratio of Saturated Soil

e=wGs

Saturated Unit Weight of Soil

Which is the unit weight of a soil when all void spaces of the soil are completely
filled with water, with no air.
(Gs+e ) ρw
γsat =
1+e

Density of Soil
( 1+ w ) Gsρw
ρ=
1+e

ρw =1000 kg/m3 density of water

Dry Density
Is the ratio of total dry mass of soil to the volume of soil, it is also related to the
degree of compaction of soil mass.
Gsρw
ρd=
1+ e

Saturated Density
(Gs+e )ρw
ρsat =
1+e

Effective Unit Weight of soil submerged unit weight buoyant unit weight
( Gs−1) γw
γ '=
Vs 1+ e

Hydraulic Gradient for Quicksand Condition

Gs−1
Icr=
1+ e

Air Void Ratio

Air Void Ratio = n(1-s)
Where: s= degree of saturation
n=porosity
e−wGs
AirVoid Ratio=
1+e
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL

When a soil mass is subjected to a compressive force, its volume decreases i.e. giving
amount of settlement. The property of the soil due to which a decrease in volume occurs
under compressive force is known as the compressibility of soil.

The compression of soil can occur due to compression of solid particles and water in
the voids, compression and expulsion of air in the voids, expulsion of water in the voids.

Formulas:

Settlement

ST =SC SC SE

Where:

St = total settlement
Sc = primary consolidation settlement
Ss = secondary consolidation settlement
Se = elastic settlement

Significance
 • The amount of soil volume change that will occur is often one of the governing
design criteria of a project; • If the settlement is not kept to tolerable limit, the desire use of
the structure may be impaired and the design life of the structure may be reduced;

• It is therefore important to have a means of prediction of the amount of soil

compression or consolidation;

• It is also important to know the rate of consolidation as well as the total

consolidation to be expected.

Elastic settlement

• The elastic settlement in the soil occurs instantaneously when the load (weight of the
foundations) exerts on the soil. This is why the elastic settlement is also called immediate
settlement;

• No alternation of the moisture content of the soil by elastic settlement;

• The magnitude of the contact settlement depends on the flexibility of the foundation
and the type of soil.

Flexible and rigid foundations

• The magnitude of the contact settlement depends on the flexibility of the foundation and the
type of soil. Do

Young’s modulus E

Young’s modulus is the stress needed to compress the solid to shorten in a unit strain.

σ1
E=
∆Z / Z

Poisson’s ratio Poisson’s V

 measures the relativity of the expansion in the lateral directions and compression in
the direction in which the uni-axial compression applies.

∆r /r
V=
∆Z /Z

Total Settlement

St = Sc+Ss+Se

Where:

St = total settlement
Sc = primary consolidation settlement
Ss = secondary consolidation settlement
Se = immediate or elastic settlement

A. Primary Consolidation Settlement

For Normally Consolidated clays

Normally consolidated clays are those whose present effective overburden pressure is
the maximum pressure that the soil was subjected to in the past. The maximum effective past
pressure is called the pre-consolidation pressure.

CcH ∆ P+ P o
S=
1+e
log (Po )
Where:
Sc = primary consolidation settlement
Cc = compression index
Cc = 0.009 (LL-10)
eo = in situ void ratio
H = thickness of clay layer
∆ P = average increase of effective stress on clay layer
Po = average effective stress at the mid-height of clay layer.

Over Consolidated Clays

Over consolidated clays are those whose present effective overburden pressure is less
than that which the soil experienced in the past.

CsH ∆ P+ Po
S=
1+ e
log ( Po )
where:
1 1
Cs = swell index (ranges from to of Cc
5 10
When Po + ∆ P > Pc
Pc = pre consolidation pressure

CsH Pc CC H
S=
1+e o
log ( )+
P o 1+ eo
log ¿)

B. Secondary Settlement

Cα H T2
SS =
1+ e p
log ( )
T1

Where:
Ss = secondary settlement
C α = Secondary Compression Index
T 2 = time after completion of primary settlement.
T 1 = time for completion of primary settlement
e p = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation

e p=eo −∆ e

Po+∆ P
∆ P=Cc log ( ¿)¿
Po
Where:
e o = in situ void ratio

Immediate or Elastic Settlement

1.
1−μ 2
Se =C s qB ( )
Es

2.
1−μ2
Se =qB ( )
Es
Ip

Where:
Cs = shape and foundation rigidity factor
B = width of foundation or diameter
P
q = 2 = (net vertical pressure applied)
B
μ = Poisson’s ratio of soil
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil
Ip = influence factor

Compression Index:
C c =0.009 ( ¿−10 )

For other formula of Compression Index check:

 Rendon Herrero
 Nagaraj and Murty
 Park and Koumoto

Swell Index:
 0.0463 ( ¿ )
1. C s= Gs
100

1 1
2. C s= to C
5 10 c
Where: Cc = compression index

Surcharge needed to eliminate the entire primary settlement for a period of time “t” by
precompression

Precompression
Precompression of spoil is used to minimize post construction settlement for highly
compressible normally consolidated clay which produces depth and large consolidation
settlements as a result of construction of dams, highways, embankments and large bldgs. If
the temporary total surcharge load ∆P is only applied that is if ∆ P f is removed and only ∆P is
acting, no appreciable settlement will occur, the process is known as precompression.

Degree of Consolidation:

S c1 if only ∆ P is acting
U=
Sc 2 if only ∆ P is acting

CcH ∆ P+ Po
Sc 1 =
1+ e
log
Po ( )
CcH [ ∆ P+ Pf ]+ P o
Sc 2=
1+ e
log (Po )
∆ P+ P o

U=
log
[ Po ]
( ∆ P+ ∆ Pf ) + P o
log [ ¿]¿
Po

∆P
log 1+
Po
U=
∆P ∆ Pf
log [1+
Po
1+ (
∆P
¿]¿ ¿ )
¿
Where:
U = degree of saturation
∆ P f = additional surcharge needed to eliminate settlement for a period of time “t” by
precompression
∆ P = surcharge (average increase of effective stress on clay layer)

∆ P+ ∆ P f

sand
Ground Water Table

sand

clay H/2

H Po

(Recommended: For more formulas you can check Besavilla/Guillesana reviewer book
as a reference.)

Boussinesq Stress Distribution

(Point Loading)
Boussinesq assume a homogeneous, isotopic material (properties the same in all
directions) of semi-infinite extent (unlimited depth) and developed equations for stress
distribution resulting from point lead. The vertical stress increases ∆ σ v resulting at a depth Z
and a distance r measured horizontally from where point a point loading Q is applied is equal
to:

3Q
∆ σv= 2 5
r

2 π Z2
( ( ))
1+
z
2
Another formula is
Q
∆ σ v= IB
Z2
where: IB = influence factor
This equation indicates that as the depth increases, the stress decreases similarly, the
stress decreases as the horizontal distance from the point of loading is increased.

With the Boussinesq equation for vertical stress, the modulus of elasticity and
Poisson’s ratio are not required, which indicates that the stress is independent of these
properties as long as the material is homogenous and isotropic.
Q

Z σv

Westergaard Stress Distribution

(Point Loading)
Westergaard equations provide a better means of evaluating the subsurface stresses
where some sedimentary soil deposits consists of alternating thin layers of sandy soil
( coarse, relatively incompressible material) and fine grained silt-clay soils (compressible
material) for example, stratified deposits such as laminated clays , Westergaard assumed that
thin layers of homogenous and anisotropic material were sandwiched between closely
spaced, infinitely thin sheets of rigid material that would permit compression but no lateral
deformation. For this case where Poisson’s ratio is zero, the equation for subsurface stress
resulting from a concentrated point loading is equal to:
 Q
∆ σ v= 2 3
r

Z2 π
( ( ))
1+
z
2

Q
∆ σ v= Iw
Z2
where: Iw = influence factor
This equation indicates that as the depth increases, the stress decreases. Similarly, the
stress decreases as the horizontal distance from the point of loading is increased.
Q

Z σv

TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY

In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support
the loads applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average
contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure
in the soil. Ultimate bearing capacity (qf) is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be
supported without failure; allowable bearing capacity (qa) is the ultimate bearing capacity
divided by a factor of safety. Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large settlements may occur under
loaded foundations without actual shear failure occurring; in such cases, the allowable
bearing capacity is based on the maximum allowable settlement.
Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory:

Based on Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory, column load P is resisted by shear stresses at
edges of three zones under the footing and the overburden pressure, q (=gD) above the
footing.  The first term in the equation is related to cohesion of the soil. The second term is
related to the depth of the footing and overburden pressure. The third term is related to the
width of the footing and the length of shear stress area. The bearing capacity factors, Nc, Nq,
Ng, are function of internal friction angle, f.

 Formulas:

General Shear Failure

Strip footings: 

 Qult = c Nc + qNq + 0.5 δ B Ny

Square footings:

Qult = 1.3 c Nc + qNq + 0.4 δ B Ny

Circular footings:

 Qult = 1.3 c Nc + qNq + 0.3 δ B Ny

Rectangular footings:

0.3 B 0.2 B
Qult = c Nc (1+
L (
)+qNq + 0.5 δ  B Ny 1−
L )

Where:

Qult = ultimate bearing capacity

c = cohesion of soil
c = qu/2
qu = unconfined compressive strength
δ = unit weight of soil
q = δDf

Nc, Nq, and Ny = bearing capacity factors that are non-dimensional and are only functions of
the soil friction angle θ.
B = dimension of each side of foundation or for circular footing it is equal to its diameter.
θ = angle of internal friction
Bearing Capacity Factor
(if no table)

θ πtan ∅
Nq= tan2 (45+ ¿ e
2
Nc = (Nq-1) cot θ
Ny = 2 (Nq + 1) tan θ
Ny = (Nq – 1) tan 1.4θ

Modification of Bearing Capacity Equations due to Presence of Water Table

Case 1
If water table is located so that
D1 < Df. the factor q in the bearing capacity equations takes the form.

q = D1γ +D2 (γsat −γw ¿

where:
q = effective surcharge
γ = unit weight of soil
γ sat = saturated unit weight of soil

Also, the value of γ in the last term of the equations has to be replaced by.
γ ' = γ sat - γ w

σ all

Ground Surface

Water Table D1

Df D2
 B
q ult ¿ = 1.3 cNc + qNq + 0.4 γ BNy
¿

Use:
q = D1γ +D2 (γsat −γw ¿

Change γ in the 3rd term to:

γ ' = γ sat - γ w

Case 2:
For water table located so that d < B.

σ all

Ground Surface

Df

B
d γ B

Water Table

B-d γ ' =γ sat −γ w

γ
q = 1.3 cNc +qNq + 0.4 γ BNy

Use:
q = γ Df
change γ B in the third term to:

γB=[γd −γ ' ( B−d ) ]

γ ' =γ sat −γ w

Note:
This is based on the assumption that there is no seepage force on the soil.
Case 3
For water table located so that d > B.
The water will have no effect on the ultimate bearing capacity.

σ all

Ground Surface

Df

B
d>B

Water Table

q = 1.3 cNc +qNq + 0.4 γ BNy

Use:
q = γ Df

Factor of Safety
 Generally, a factor of safety of 3 or more is applied to the ultimate soil bearing
capacity to arrive at the value of the allowable bearing capacity.

Allowable Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations

1. Gross allowable bearing capacity
qult
q all =
F. S.
Case 4
For water table located at the bottom of the foundation.

σ all

Ground Surface

Df
Water Table

q = 1.3 cNc +qNq + 0.4 γ BNy

Use:
q = γ Df

Change γ in the 3rd term to:

γ ' = γ sat - γ w

2. Net Allowable Bearing Capacity

qult−q
q all(net) =
F. S.
q = γ Df (vertical effective stress at the foundation.

σ all

Df

Allowable Loads Carried by the Foundation

1. Gross Allowable Load:

q ult
σ all= xA
F.S .

Where:
A = cross sectional area of the footing
A = B2

2. Net allowable Load:

q ult −q
σ all(net )= xA
F.S .

Where:
A = cross sectional area of the footing
A = B2

σ all

Df

B
 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
Shear strength is a term used in soil mechanics to describe the magnitude of
the shear stress that a soil can sustain. The shear resistance of soil is a result of friction and
interlocking of particles, and possibly cementation or bonding at particle contacts.

Direct shear stress

The soil specimen is placed in a metal shear box as shown in the figure. The soil
specimens maybe square or circular in cross sections with sizes usually 50 mm X 100 mm
and 25 mm high. The metal shear box is split into halves. The normal stress is applied from
the top of the shear box, then a shear force is applied by moving one half of the box relative
to the other to cause failure in the soil specimen.

Normal Force

Soil Shear Box

Material

Figure: Direct Shear test to determine interface friction angle

A. Normal Stress is computed as follows:

P
P
σ=
A
P
σ=
π
(100)2
4

100mm of length
B. If there is shortening
 P
Ao ∆L
A= ; ϵ=
1−ϵ L

π D2
Ao =
4
P
σ=
A

100mm

C. Resisting Shear stress computed as follows

F
τ=
A F
P
τ=
π
(100)2
4

100mm

Relation of Normal Stress and Sher Stress

A. For normally consolidated clay, c=0

Shear strength at fixture

γ
 ∅
σ
Effective normal stress

τ
Tan θ = σ

τ =σ tanθ

Where:
τ = shearing stress
σ = normal stress
θ = angle of internal friction

b. For over consolidated clay

Sheer stress at fixure

h τ
Ø

C C

σ
Effective Normal
Stress

h=σ tan θ
τ =C+ σ tan θ

Where:
τ = shearing stress
σ = normal stress
C = cohesion of clay
1. In loose sand, the resisting shear stress increases with shear displacement until a
failure shear stress is reached. After that the shear resistance remains approximately
constant for any further increase in shear displacements.
2. In dense sand, the resisting shear stress increases with shear displacements until it
reaches a failure stress. This stress is called the peak shear strength. After failure
stress is attained, the resisting shear stress gradually decreases as shear displacement
increases until it finally reaches a constant value called ultimate shear strength.
 TRI – AXIAL TEST
A. Consolidated-drained Test (CD Test)

The figure shows a diagram of a

Tri-axal test equipment. soil specimen about 35 mm in diameter. (1.4 inches) and 75mm (3
inches) long is generally used. It is encased by a thin rubber membrane and placed inside a
plastic cylindrical chamber that is usually filled with water glycerin. The soil specimen is
then subjected to a confining pressure by compression of the fluid in the chamber, an axial
stress is applied through a vertical loading ram in equal increments until it causes failure, this
stress is known as the deviators stress.

In this test, the specimen is first subjected to an all-around confining pressure by

compression of the chamber fluid. As the deviator stress on the specimen is increased at a
very slow rate, the drainage connection is kept open and the slow rate of deviator stress
application allows complete dissipation of any pore water pressure, thus consolidation will
occur.

This type of test may take several days to complete, because it is necessary to apply
deviator stress at a very slow rate to ensure full drainage from the soil specimen.

1. For Normally Consolidated Clay

(non-cohesive soil c = 0)
 Effective stress failure envelope from drainage tests in sand and normally
consolidated clay.

σ 3 = chamber confining stress, cell stress, lateral stress

∆ p = deviators stress (diameter of semi-circle)

σ 1 = major principal stress at failure

∅ = angle of internal friction

σ 1 =σ 3 +σ D
σ 1−σ 3
r=
2
OA=σ 3 +r

σ 1−σ 3
OA=σ 3 +
2

σ 1+ σ 3
OA=
2

r
sin ∅=
OA

σ 1−σ 3
2
sin ∅=
σ 1 +σ 3
2

σ 1 −σ 3
sin ∅=
σ 1+ σ 3
Inclination of the plane of failure caused by the shear
∅ 90+180−2θ=180o
2θ = 90 + θ
∅
θ = 45 +
2

where:
θ = angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal stress.

2. Over consolidated clay

(cohesive soil)

x = c cot ∅
 AB
sin ∅ =
OA

σ 1−σ 3
2
sin ∅=
σ 1+ σ 3
x+
2

σ 1−σ 3
sin ∅=
2 c cot ∅ σ 1 +σ 3

2 c cos ∅ sin ∅
σ 1 −σ 3= +σ 1 sin ∅+ σ 3 sin ∅
sin ∅

σ 1 −σ 1 sin ∅=σ 3 + σ 3 sin ∅+2 c cos ∅

σ 3 (1+sin ∅) 2 c cos ∅
σ1= +
(1−sin ∅ ) ¿¿

But

1+sin ∅ ∅
1−sin ∅
=tan 2 45+ (
2 )
cos ∅ ∅
1−sin ∅
=tan 45+
2( )
∅ ∅
(
σ 1 =σ 3 tan 2 45+
2) (
+2 c tan 45+
2 )

B. Consolidated Undrained Test

(CU Test)

This is the most common type of tri-axial test. The saturated soil specimen is first
consolidated by an all-around chamber fluid pressure. After the pore water pressure generated
by the application of confining pressure is completely dissipated, the deviator stress on the
specimen is increased to cause shear failure. During this phase of the test, the drainage line
from the specimen is kept closed. Since drainage is not permitted in this test during the
application of deviator stress, they can be performed rather quickly.
C. Unconsolidated Undrained Test
(UU Test)

In unconsolidated – undrained test. Drainage from the soil is not permitted during the
application of chamber pressure. The test specimen is sheared to failure by the application of
the deviator stress without allowing drainage. Since drainage is not allowed at any stage, the
test can be performed very quickly. The added deviator stress at failure is practically the same
regardless of the chamber confining pressure. The failure envelope for this type of test
becomes a horizontal line thus giving a value of ∅ (angle of friction) equal to zero.

Note:

The ∅ = 0 concept is applicable only to saturated clays and silts.

∆ ud = pore pressure
∆ σ = deviator stress

Minor effective stress failure:

σ 3 ' = σ 3 -∆ ud

Major effective stress failure:

σ 1 ' =( σ 3 -∆ σ d ) - ∆ ud
σ 1 ' = σ 1 - ∆ ud

Cu = undrained shear strength and is equal to the radius of the Mohr’s Circles.

Unconfined Compression Test of Saturated Clay

 This is a special type of unconsolidated undrained test. In this test the confining
pressure is zero. An axial load is rapidly applied to the specimen to cause failure. At failure
the total minor principal stress is zero and the total major principal stress is σ 1 .

Cu = ½ σ 1
Cu = ½ qu

qu = unconfined compression strength

Cu = undrained shear strength

Note:
Theoretically, for similar saturated clay specimens, the unconfined compression test
and the unconsolidated – undrained tri-axial tests should yield at the same values of
undrained shear strength Cu. But in practice, the unconfined clays yield slightly lower values
of Cu than those obtained from unconsolidated undrained tests.
Consolidated – Drained Tri- Axial Test (CD Test) sample problem:
 PERMEABILITY TEST BY PUMPING FROM WELLS

A. Well in Unconfined Permeable layer underlain by an impermeable stratum.

 r1

K=
Q ln ( )
r2
π ( h 12−h 22 )

B. Well in a confined aquifer underlain by an impermeable stratum.

r1

K=
Q ln
( )r2
2 πt ( h 1❑−h 2❑)

Transmissivity of Aquifer in a Pumping Test

r1

T=
Q ln
()r2
2 π ( z 1−z 2 )

Where:

T= transmissivity
r 1 = the farthest distance from the center of test well
r 2 = the nearest distance of observation well from the test well
z 1 = draw down of the farthest observation well
z 2 = draw down of the nearest observation well
Q = rate of discharge
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Earth Pressure  is the pressure that soil exerts in the horizontal direction. The lateral

earth pressure is important because it affects the consolidation behavior and strength of the
soil and because it is considered in the design of geotechnical engineering structures such
as retaining walls, basements, tunnels, deep foundations and braced excavations.
The earth pressure problem dates from the beginning of the 18th century, when
Gautier listed five areas requiring research, one of which was the dimensions of gravity-
retaining walls needed to hold back soil. However, the first major contribution to the field of
earth pressures was made several decades later by Coulomb, who considered a rigid mass of
soil sliding upon a shear surface. Rankine extended earth pressure theory by deriving a
solution for a complete soil mass in a state of failure, as compared with Coulomb’s solution
which had considered a soil mass bounded by a single failure surface. Originally, the
Rankine’s theory considered the case of only cohesionless soils. However, this theory has
subsequently been extended by Bell[4] to cover the case of soils possessing both cohesion and
friction. Caquot and Kerisel modified Muller-Breslau’s equations to account for a nonplanar
rupture surface.

Coefficient of at Rest Earth Pressure

A. Normally Consolidated Soil

Ko = 1 – Sin ∅

Where:
Ko = coefficient of at rest earth pressure
(normally consolidated soil)
∅ = angle of internal friction.
B. Over Consolidated Soil

Ko = (1 – Sin ∅) √ OCR

Where:

Ko = coefficient of at rest earth pressure

(over consolidated soil)
OCR = present over consolidated ratio

C. For Normally Consolidated Clays, Whose Plasticity index is known.

(Brooker and Ireland’s Formula)

1. For plasticity index between 0 and 40

Ko = 0.47 + 0.007 (P.I.)

2. For plasticity index between (40 and 80)

Ko = 0.64 + 0.001 (P.I.)

At Rest Pressure on the Wall

1. Without Surcharge
 h h

σ =γ s h K o
σ =γ s h K o
Where: γ s = unit wt. of soil

γ s h2 K o
F=
2
2. With Surcharge

q = surcharge (kPa)

h F1

F2

q Ko γs h Ko
σ =K o (q+γ h )
s

Where:
q = surcharge (kPa)

σ =K o (q+γ h ) s

F 1=q K o h

γ sh K
2

F 2= o

3. With Surcharge and Water Table

γ ' =γ sat −γ w

σ =K o ( q +γ s h1 +γ ' h2 ) γ w h2
γ ' =γ sat −γ w
( γ sat −γ w ) h2 = γ ' h2

Rankine Active Earth Pressure with a Horizontal Backfill

Rankine Active Pressure Coefficient

1. Non-Cohesive Soil

h h

F
 σ =γ s h K o

1−sin ∅
Ka=
1+ sin ∅

∅
(
K a =tan 2 45−
2 )
Active Pressure:

σ =γ s h K a

Active Force:

γ s h2
F= Ka
2