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According to Cambridge Assessment International Education (2019),

METACOGNITION

 describes the processes involved when learners plan, monitor, evaluate and make changes to their own
learning behaviours.
 the prefix ‘meta’ means ‘about’ the thing itself. So, metacognition is ‘cognition about cognition’, or
‘thinking about one’s thinking’.
 it is often considered to have two dimensions: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation.
 metacognitive knowledge includes the learner’s knowledge of their own cognitive abilities
(e.g. I have trouble remembering dates), the learner’s knowledge of the nature of particular
tasks (e.g. the ideas in this article are complex), and the learner’s knowledge of different
strategies including when to use these strategies (e.g. if I break telephone numbers into
chunks I will remember them) (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979).
 metacognitive regulation describes how learners monitor and control their cognitive
processes. For example, realising that the strategy they are using to solve a mathematical
problem is not working and trying another approach (Nelson & Narens, 1990).

What is the theory behind metacognition?

 A theory of metacognitive regulation that is widely cited in the research literature is Nelson and Narens’
(1990) model of metacognition. This consists of two levels: the object level and the meta level.
 The object level is where cognitive processes or ‘one’s thinking’ occurs. One example is decoding text
when reading. At the object level, cognitive strategies (e.g. decoding) are used to help the learner
achieve a particular goal (understanding the meaning of the text). This is cognition.
 The meta level is where ‘thinking about thinking’ takes place. At this higher-order level, metacognitive
strategies are used to make sure the learner reaches the goal they have set. To continue with the
reading example, this would begin with the learner thinking about how well they have understood the
paragraph they have just read. This is termed monitoring. If they are happy with their comprehension
level they will continue reading. If not, they will perhaps re-read the paragraph, or decide to use a
dictionary to help their understanding. These actions are called control processes, as they are changing
the learner’s cognitive processes or related behaviours, based on the monitoring feedback. This is
metacognition.

Perkins (1992) defined four levels of metacognitive learners: tacit; aware; strategic; reflective.

‘Tacit’ learners are unaware of their metacognitive knowledge. They do not think about any particular
strategies for learning and merely accept if they know something or not.

‘Aware’ learners know about some of the kinds of thinking that they do – generating ideas, finding
evidence, etc. – but thinking is not deliberate or planned.

‘Strategic’ learners organise their thinking by using problem solving, grouping and classifying, evidence
seeking, decision making, etc. They know and apply the strategies that help them learn.

‘Reflective’ learners are not only strategic about their thinking but they also reflect upon their learning
while it is happening, monitoring the success of any strategies they are using and then changing them as appropriate.

What is the goal of metacognition?

 the utmost goal of 'metacognition is for the student to be a self-regulated learner. Education should not be
limited by the capabilities of the teacher, the content of school textbooks, the four corners of the classroom
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and the duration of the academic year or courses. You should have the capability to study things on your
own as well as accurately evaluate your progress.

What are the benefits of metacognition?

• Metacognitive practices help learners to plan, monitor and evaluate their own progress and take control
of their learning as they read, write and solve problems in the classroom.

• Research indicates that metacognition is a powerful predictor of learning. Metacognitive practices make a
unique contribution to learning over and above the influence of cognitive ability. The implication of this research is
that improving a learner’s metacognitive practices may compensate for any cognitive limitations they may have
(Veenman, Wilhelm & Beishuizen, 2004; Wang, Haertel & Walberg, 1990).

• Metacognitive practices have been shown to improve academic achievement across a range of ages,
cognitive abilities and learning domains. This includes reading and text comprehension, writing, mathematics,
reasoning and problem solving, and memory (Dignath & Buttner, 2008; EEF, 2019; Hattie, 2009).

• Metacognitive skills can help students to transfer what they have learnt from one context to the next or
from a previous task to a new task. The teacher can support this by explaining how what has been learnt from one
task can be applied to the next.

What are the other tips that you can use in studying?

According to Queensland University of Technology Library (n.d),

1. Make an outline of the things you want to learn, the things you are reading or doing, and/or the things
you remember.
2. Break down the task in smaller and more manageable details.
3. Integrate variation in your schedule and learning experience.
4. Try to incubate your ideas. First, write your draft without doing much editing. Let the ideas flow. Then
leave your draft at least overnight or around 24 hours-some even do not look at it for a week--and do
something else. After a given period, go back to your draft or prototype and you might find a fresh
perspective; about it. Sometimes, during incubation, you suddenly have ideas coming to you. Write them
down in a notebook first and do not integrate them into the draft yet. Review what you have written when
the Incubation period is done.
5. Revise, summarize and take down notes, then reread them help you minimize cramming in the last
minute, especially when you have a weakness in memorizing facts and data. Some people are
motivated when the deadline is very close-tomorrow, for instance-and they just review the day before
some evaluation or exercise. If you are that kind of person, you may still motivate yourself and have that
feeling of urgency at the last
minute but by using the aforementioned techniques, your “cramming” need not be a desperate attempt to
learn but only as a way to energize your brain as you make a final review of the things you have already
been studying for a week or so before.
6. Engage what you have learned. Do something about it. On a reading material for example, highlight
keywords and phrases, write your opinions ' about the matter on a separate notebook, or create a diagram
or concept map. Some people also learn best by copying the key paragraphs word for word. You may want
to look for other definitions and compare or contrast materials. Use your new knowledge during
discussions-just do something about it.

Lesson 2: Do Not Just Dream, Make It Happen

INTRODUCTION

“By taking the time, to stop and appreciate who you are and what you have achieved and perhaps learned through
a few mistakes, stumbles and losses-you actually can enhance everything about you. Self-acknowledgment and
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appreciation are what give you the insights and awareness to move forward toward higher goals and
accomplishments”
-Jack Canfield

JACK CANFIELD

 epitome of success
 has authored seven books listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as New York Times Bestseller
beating Stephen King (Macmillan 2017).
 Chicken Soup for the. Soul Series
 The Success Principles: How to Get from Where You Are to Where You Want to Be
 The Power of Focus
 The Aladdin Factor
 Dare to Win
 You’ve Got to Read This Book
 The Key to Living the Law of Attraction
 the chairman and founder of The Canfield Training Group
 founder and former chairman of The Chicken Soup for the Soul Enterprises; and was invited to a
thousand radio and television programs worldwide

ABSTRACTION

ALBERT E. BANDURA

 introduced the concept of seIf-efficacy in an article entitled “Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of
Behavioral Change" published in Psychological Review in 1977 (Kendra 2017).
 born in Mundare, Alberta on December 4, 1925
 youngest of six children. He grew up with parents who put great emphasis on the value of family, life, and
education.
 took a summer job in Alaska after high school graduation. He then_ took an introductory psychology
course at the University of British Columbia as
a working student. In three years’ time, he graduated with the Bolocan Award in Psychology in 1949
 earned his master’s degree from the University of Iowa in 1951 and his PhD in Clinical Psychology
in 1952. He had a postdoctoral position at the Wichita ‘Guidance Center before accepting a position as a
faculty member at Stanford University in 1953 where he still works at present

The Bobo Doll Experiment

 a study of Dr. Bandura in the 1950s

 in this experiment, the sample children were presented with new social models of violent and nonviolent
behavior toward an inflatable redounding Bobo doll. The results were: the group of children who saw the
violent behavior model became violent to the doll, while the control group who was presented with the
nonviolent behavior model was rarely violent to the doll.
 this experiment has proven right the hypothesis that social modelling is a very effective way of learning.
Dr. Bandura introduced the social learning theory that focuses on what people team from observing and
interacting with other people. Bandura’s social cognitive theory states that people are active participants in
their environment and are not simply ' shaped by that environment.
 to date, as an active faculty member of Stanford University, Dr. Bandura continues to do researches such
as self-efficacy, stress reactions, and effects of modelling on human behavior, emotion, and thought. He has
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received many awards and honorary degrees due to his works (The Great Canadian Psychology
Website 2008)
 Dr. Bandura was named the most influential psychologist of all time. His theories gave major contribution
to the field of psychology, psychotherapy and education. He was elected president of the American
Psychological Association (APA) in 1974. He was awarded by APA for his distinguished, scientific
contributions in 1980 and again in 2004 for his outstanding lifetime contributions to psychology. In 2015,
Dr. Bandura was awarded the National Medal of Science by President Barack Obama (Kendra 2017).

SUMMARY OF SELF-EFFICACY

“Self-efficacy theory is based on the assumption that psychological procedures serve as means of creating
and strengthening expectations of personal efficacy.”

Self-efficacy theory distinguishes between expectations of efficacy and response-outcome expectancies.

According to Weibell (2011), outcome expectancy is “a person’s estimate that a given behavior required to produce
the outcomes.” Although a person may expect a certain activity to lead to a particular outcome, they may lack the
motivation to perform the action, doubting their ability to do so. Outcome and efficacy expectations perform the
action, doubting their ability to do so. Outcome and efficacy expectations are differentiated because individuals can
believe that a particular course of action will produce certain outcomes. However, if they entertain serious doubts
about whether they can perform the necessary activities with such information, it does not influence their behavior.

Self-efficacy typically comes into play when there is an actual or perceived threat to one’s personal safety, or
one’s ability to deal with potentially aversive events. Increasing a person’s self-efficacy increases their ability to
deal with potentially averse events.

Weibell (2011) stated that Dr. Bandura defined self-efficacy as “people’s belief about their capabilities to
produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives.” He identified
acts of people with “high assurance in their capabilities,” such as:

1. Approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered

2. Set challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them;
3. Heighten or sustain efforts in the face of failures or setbacks;
4. Attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are acquirable; and
5. Approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them

In contrast, people “who doubt their capabilities”:

1. Shy away from tasks they view as personal threats;

2. Have low aspirations and weak commitment to goals they choose to pursue;
3. Dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse outcomes, rather
than concentrating on how to perform successfully;
4. Slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties;
5. Are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks; and
6. Fall easy victim to stress and depression

Dr. Bandura described four main sources of influence by which a person’s self-efficacy is developed and
maintained. These are:

1. Performance accomplishments o mastery experiences;

2. Vicarious experiences;
3. Verbal or social persuasion; and
4. Physiological (somatic and emotional) states.
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Since “most human motivation is cognitively generated,” self-belief of efficacy is an important factor in
human motivation. Beliefs of self-efficacy work in coordination with component skill and incentive to act. In as
much as a person has both the component skills needed to succeed and the incentive to engage, self-efficacy plays
an important role in determining what activities a person will choose to engage in, how much effort they will
expend, and how long that effort will be sustained when things get tough (Weibell, 2011).

Expectation alone will not produce desired performance if the component capabilities are lacking. Moreover,
there are many things that people can do with certainty of success but they do not perform because they have no
incentives to do so (Weibell,2011).

Dr. Albert Bandura’s quotes about self-efficacy (Kendra-2017) are as follows:

“Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the sources of action required to
manage prospective situations." From Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, 1986.

“If efficacy beliefs always reflected only what people can do routinely, they would rarely fail but they would
not set aspirations beyond their immediate reach nor mount the extra effort needed to surpass their ordinary
performances.” From Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, 1994.

“SeIf-belief does not necessarily ensure: success, but self-disbelief assuredly spawns failure.” From Self-
efficacy: The Exercise of Control, 1997.

“By sticking it out through tough times, people emerge from adversity with a stronger sense of efficacy.”
From Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, 1994.

“People’s beliefs about their abilities have a profound effect on those abilities. Ability is not a fixed property;
there is a huge variability in how you perform. People who have a sense of self-efficacy bounce back from failure
they approach things in terms of how to handle them. rather than worrying about what can go wrong.” From Self-
Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, 1996.

Carol S. Dweck's Fixed and Growth Mindset Theory

Dr. Carol S. Dweck’s contribution to social psychology relates to implicit theories of intelligence with her
book, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success published in 2006.

Dr. Dweck described people with two types of mindset:

People who believe that success is based on their innate abilities have a “fIxed” theory of intelligence, and
goes under fixed mindset.

On the other hand, people who believe that success is based on hardwork, learning, training, and
perseverance have growth theory of intelligence, which goes under growth mindset.

According to Dr. Dweck, individuals may not necessarily be aware of their own mindset but their mindset
can still be discerned based on their behavior. It is especially evident in their reaction to failure.

Fixed-mindset individuals dread failure because it is a negative statement on their basic abilities, while
growth-mindset individuals do not mind or fear failure as much because they realize their performance can be
improved and Iearning comes from failure.

Those two mindsets play an important role in all aspects of a person’s life. Dr. Dweck argues that the growth
mindset will allow a person to live a less stressful and more successful life (Upclosed 2017).
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In an interview with Dr. Dweck in 2012, she described the fixed and growth mindset as:

“In a fixed mindset, students believe their basic abilities, their intelligence, their talents are just fixed traits.
They have a certain amount and that's that, and their goal becomes to look smart all the time and never look dumb.
in the growth mindset, students understand that their talents and abilities can be developed through effort, good
teaching and persistence. They don’t necessarily think everyone’s the same or anyone can be Einstein, but they
believe everyone can get smarter if they work for it.” (Upclosed 2017)

Individuals with growth mindset are more likely to continue working hard despite setbacks while individuals
with fixed mindset can be affected by subtle environmental cues. For examples, children given praise such as “good
job, you are smart” are more likely to develop a fixed mindset, whereas, if given compliments like “good job, you
worked very hard” are likely to developed a growth mindset. In other words, it is possible to encourage students to
persist despite failure by encouraging them to think about learning in a certain way (Upclosed 2017).

EDWIN A. LOCKE’S GOAL SETTING THEORY

Edwin A. Locke

 Internationally known for his research on goal setting.

 He is Dean’s Professor (Emeritus) of Leadership and Motivation at the Robert H. Smith School of Business at
the University of Maryland, College Park.
 Published more than 300 chapter, notes, and articles in professional journals on such subjects as work
motivation job satisfaction, incentives, and the philosophy of science.
 A recent survey found that Locke’s goal setting theory (developed with G. Latham) was ranked number one in
importance among 73 management theories. His works has been supported numerous research grants, and he
has served as consultant to research firms and private businesses.

Goal Setting Theory

 First studied by Dr. Locke in the middle of 1960s.

 In 1996, he published another article entitled “Motivation through Conscious Goal Setting” which is about his
30 years of research findings on the relationship between conscious performance goals and performance on
work tasks. The basic contents are summarized in terms of 14 categories of findings discussed in the article.
 The approach of goal setting theory is based on what Aristotle called final casualty (action caused by a
purpose).

Goal Attributes

Goals have both an internal and external aspects. Internally, they are ideas (desired ends); externally, they refer to
the object or condition sought (e.g., a job, a sale, a certain performance level). The idea guides action to attain the
object. Two broad attributes of goals are content (the actual object sought) and intensity (the scope, focus, and
complexity among others of the choice process). Qualitatively, the content of a goal is whatever the person is
seeking. Quantitatively, the two attributes of content, difficulty and specificity, have been studied.

14 Research Findings

A research was made by Locke under the article “Motivation through Conscious Goal Setting.” The research has the
following findings:

1. The more difficult the goal, the greater the achievement.

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The linear function assumes however, that the individual is committed to the goal and possesses the
requisite ability and knowledge to achieve it. Without these performance does drop at high goal levels.

2. The more specific or explicit the goal, the more precisely performance is regulated.
High goal specificity is achieved mainly through qualification (e.g., increase sales by 10%) or enumeration
(e.g., a list of tasks to be accomplished). Thus, it reduces variance in performance, provided that the
individual can control his or her performance.

3. Goals that are both specific and difficult lead to the highest performance.
Especially relevant here are the many studies that compared the effect of specific hard goals such as “do
your best.” People do NOT actually do their best when they try to do their best because, as a vague goal, it
is compatible with many different outcomes, including those lower than one’s best. The aspect of intensity
that has been most studied in goal setting research is that of goal commitment – the degrees to which the
person is genuinely attached to and determined to reach the goals.

4. Commitment to goals is most critical when goals are specific and difficult.
When goals are easy or vague, it is not hard to be committed to it because it does not require much
dedication to reach easy goals, and vague goals can be easily redefined to accommodate low performance.