Overview - Managing Waste From Health Care Activities

Lecture (1)
Introduction to Histology
Dr: Abbas,Ch. Mraisel
Staff member of Clinical and
Medical science Department
of Pharmacy college
Histology definition :
Study the body tissue structure by using the
microscope extending from the level of the individual
cell, through organs to the systems. Histology related
to Cell Biology (Cytology) and to Anatomy; it also
forms the structural basis for understanding Function
(Physiology) and the preparation for the study of
abnormal structure and function (Pathology).
The tissue:
Defined as group of cells which has common
origin and development to perform a particular
function. The most widespread tissues within the
organism are epithelial tissues. They are seen in
the skin, digestive, respiratory, urinary and
reproductive organs, serosà and glands.
Classifications of Tissues:
The human body is composed of four basic types of tissues;
epithelium, connective, muscular, and nervous tissues. These
tissues vary in their composition and their function. A basic
understanding of the role of each tissue makes understanding
the specific functions easier.
1. Epithelium- lines and covers surfaces.
2. Connective tissue- protect, support, and bind together .
3. Muscular tissue- produces movement.
4. Nervous tissue- receive stimuli and conduct impulses .
Types of the cells:
A. Epithelial cells: Skin cells which May be square and flat.
B. Fatty cells - contain large spaces for fat storage.
C. Muscle cells - long and cylindrical in shape .
D. Nerve cells - may be long and have fingerlike extensions which
carry impulses.
Functions of the tissues:
a. Connective tissue
1. Supports and protect the body structures.
2. Most widespread kind of tissue throughout the body
3. Holds organs in their place and connects body parts to each other
4. Main types of connective tissue:
(a) Bone that supports the body
(b) Cartilage which is firm but flexible.
(c) Dense fibrous: makes up the tendons and ligaments
(d) Loose fibrous: that connects adjoining structures
(e) Adipose :that protects, stores fat, and insulate the body against heat loss
b. Epithelial tissue
1. Found in the skin and in the lining of blood vessels
2. Makes up the internal body surfaces lining of the digestive, respiratory, and urinary
tract.
c. Muscle tissue
1. Provides the movement.
2. The main function is to contraction and relaxation
d. Nerve tissue
1. Conducts the impulses to / and from the brain
2. Composed of nerve cells called neurons
3. Needs more oxygen and nutrients than any other body
tissues.
Cell Structure & Function:
The cell is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of
all living organisms and are often called the "building blocks of life ."
The cells consist of a protoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which
contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids .
The cells can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including
most bacteria) or multicellular (includingplants and animals). While the
number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans
contain about 100 trillion of cells. Most plant and animal cells are visible
only under the microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres.
There are two types of cells, eukaryotes, which contain true nucleus,
and prokaryotes which not contain nucleus .
Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth. They are
simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-
bound organelles such as the nucleus.
The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in
direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is
called the nucleoid.
Eukaryotic Cells:
cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other
membrane-bound sacs called organelles, which have
specialized functions. The word eukaryotic means
“true nucleus,” due to presence of the membrane-
bound nucleus in these cells.
The word “organelle” means “little organ,” and
organelles have specialized cellular functions, just as
the organs of the body have specialized functions.
Cellular components:
1) The cell membrane:
The cell membranes, or plasma membranes are the gateways to the cell and
surrounds the cytoplasm. In animals the plasma membrane is the outer
boundary of the cell, while in plants usually covered by a cell wall .
The membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from the surrounding
environment , serves to connect adjacent cells together. The cell membrane is
selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement
of substances in and out of cells. Membrane of the cell made of double layer of
lipids, mainly phospholipids containing embedded proteins and lipid molecule
composed of two fatty acid chains and a phospherous group.
 The plasma membrane regulates the passage of some substances, such
as organic molecules, ions, and water, preventing the passage of some to
maintain internal conditions, while actively removing others.
 The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are
folded into fingerlike projections called microvilli (singular =
microvillus). This folding increases the surface area of the plasma
membrane such cells are typically found lining the small intestine, the
organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food.
People with celiac disease have an immune response to gluten, which
is a protein found in wheat, barley, the immune response damages
microvilli thus, infected individuals cannot absorb nutrients, this leads
to malnutrition, cramping, and diarrhea. Patients suffering from celiac
disease must follow a gluten-free diet.
The plasma membrane is a phospholipids bilayer with embedded proteins. There are other components,
such as cholesterol and carbohydrates, which can be found in the membrane
Cytoplasm organelles:
1) Cytoskeleton:
They are network of protein filaments responsible for maintenance of cellular
morphology and provides support to the cells. The cytoskeleton acts to maintain the
cell's shape and separated the daughter cells after cell division .
The cytoskeleton has three major components:
1) Microfilaments
solid protein (actin) which is assembled at one end and
disassembled at the other end .The actin filaments are
composed of 2 chains of (globular actin) subunits coiled around
each other to form (Filamentous proteins).
2) Intermediate filaments - rope-like fibrous proteins
provide structural reinforcement , keep nucleus in place,
provide connection between the cell membrane and the
cytoskeleton.
3) Microtubules -Microtubules are long, hollow-like
cylindrical structures act as intracellular pathways.
Their main functions of microtubules are:
1-maintain cell shape.
2)Regulate intracellular movement of vesicles and organelles.
3) Provide the capability of ciliary motion.
3) The nucleus:
Aals called (cell's information center), All human cells
contain nucleus except the mature red blood corpuscles. it
houses the cell's chromosomes. Nucleus could be spherical,
oval, flattened, or lobulated and separated from the
cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear
envelope.
Structure of the include:
-Nuclear membrane (Envelop)
-Chromatin
-Nucleolus
-Nucleoplasm
The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from
various molecules that could accidentally damage it`s
structure or interfere with it`s processing .
The nuclear envelope is composed of two membranes joined at
regular intervals to form circular openings called nuclear pores.
The pores allow RNA molecules and proteins modulating DNA
expression to move through the pores into the cytosol. Inside the
nucleus, DNA and proteins associate to form a network of
threads called chromatin. The chromatin becomes vital at the
time of cell division.
4) Ribosomes:
The "factories" of the cell - involved in protein synthesis and Facilitate the
specific coupling of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons during protein
synthesis.
Some of ribosomes are found bounded with granular endoplasmic reticulum,
while others are free in the cytoplasm. The proteins synthesized on ribosomes
bounded with granular endoplasmic reticulum are transferred from the lumen
(open space inside endoplasmic reticulum) to the golgi apparatus for secretion
outside the cell or distribution to other organelles, while the proteins that are
produces from free ribosomes are released into the cytosol.
5) Endoplasmic reticulum:
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a transport network for targeted
molecules, as compared to molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. The
ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on the surface that
secrete proteins into the ER, and the smooth ER which lacks ribosomes. The
smooth ER plays a role in stores and releases calcium ions Ca 2+ and site of
lipid synthesis.
6) Golgi apparatus:
A membranous sac that serves to modify and sort proteins into vesicles. The
vesicles are then delivered to other cell organelles and the plasma membrane.
Most cells have at least one golgi apparatus, although some may have
multiple. The apparatus is usually located near the nucleus .
7) Mitochondria:
 Mitochondria are important structures in
the cells of human body. They are site of
various chemical processes involved in the
synthesis of energy packets called ATP
(Adenosine Tri phosphate). Each
mitochondrion is surrounded by two
membranes. The outer membrane is smooth,
while the inner one is folded into tubule
structures called cristae These folds are
studded with small round bodies known
as F1 particles or oxysomes.
 Mitochondria are unique in that they
contain small amounts of DNA containing the
genes for the synthesis of some mitochondrial
proteins. The DNA is inherited only from the
mother. Cells with greater activity have more
mitochondria, while those that are less active
have less need for energy producing
mitochondria.
8) Lysosome:
Lysosome found only in animal cells, contain enzymes used for hydrolytic
breakdown of macromolecules , bound by a single membrane and contain
highly acidic fluid. The fluid acts as digesting enzymes for breaking down
bacteria and cell debris. They play an important role in the cells of the
immune system.
Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Typical
bacteria fungi, plants, animals
organisms
Typical size ~ 1–5 µm[10] ~ 10–100 µm[10]
nucleoid region; no
Type of nucleus true nucleus with double membrane
true nucleus
DNA circular (usually) linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone proteins
Cytoplasmic highly structured by endo membranes and
very few structures
structure a cytoskeleton
flagella made
Cell movement flagella and cilia containing microtubules
of flagellin
one to several thousand (though some lack
Mitochondria none
mitochondria)
Chloroplasts none in algae and plants
single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms
Organization usually single cells
with specialized cells
Binary
Mitosis (fission or budding)
Cell division fission (simple
Meiosis
division)
Lecture (2)
The Cardiovascular System

Staff member of Medical and Clinical science
Department of Pharmacy college
The cardiovascular system is one of the major body
systems. It transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste
products, nutrients and hormones to and from
various parts of the body.
The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart,
the blood vessels (arteries and veins and capillaries)
and blood. The heart has major vessels that supply
it with deoxygenated blood (travels back to the
heart from the body), and major vessels that carry
oxygenated blood away from the heart to all the
parts of the body.
The cardiovascular system is actually made up
of two major circulatory systems, acting
together. The right side of the heart pumps blood
to the lungs through the pulmonary artery (PA)
and pulmonary capillaries, then returns blood to
the left atrium through the pulmonary veins
(PV). The left side of the heart pumps blood to the
rest of the body through the aorta, arteries,
arterioles, systemic capillaries, and then returns
blood to the right atrium through the venules and
great veins
Functions of the Circulatory System
1.Carry blood
2.Transport of hormones,
components of the immune
system, molecules required for
coagulation, enzymes, etc.
3.Exchange nutrients, waste
products, and gases
4.Regulate blood pressure
5.Directs blood flow
The heart:
The adult heart is about the size of a closed
fist and sits in the thorax on the left side of the
chest in front of the lungs. The heart designed
as a pump with four chambers - right atrium
(RA), right ventricle (RV), left atrium (LA),
and left ventricle (LV). The two atria are the
smaller and form upper chambers of the heart
,while the two ventricles are the larger and
form lower chambers of the heart.
In the average lifetime the heart beats 250

million times and pumps 340 million liters of
blood. The heart is a sophisticated pump that
is controlled by an electrical current that is
initiated in the brain.
The left ventricle is generally about twice as
thick as the right ventricle because it needs
to generate enough force to push blood
through the entire body while the right ventricle
only needs to generate enough force to push blood
through the lungs.
Structure of the heart wall:
The heart wall is comprised of three layers, the pericardium (outer),
myocardium (middle), and endocardium (inner) .During ventricular
contraction, the wave of depolarization moves from the endocardial through
the myocardial to the epicardial surface.
1)Pericardium:
Form the outer layer of the heart wall and
Made up of two layers ,the outer layer of the
heart made of fibrous tissue ,and the inner
layer form the serous visceral membrane.
The outer layer is continuous with tunica
adventitia of great blood vessels and prevents
over distention of the heart in nature.
Serous visceral membrane consist of flattened
epithelial cells with secrete serous fluid in to
the space between visceral and parietal layers
which allows smooth movement between them
when the heart beats
Myocardium:
The middle layer of the heart wall is the myocardium— form a muscle
tissue and the thickest layer of the heart wall. It is composed of cardiac
muscle cells, or cardiomyocytes. Cardiomyocytes are specialized muscle
cells that contract like other muscle cells, but unlike other muscle cells
by generate and conduct electricity to coordinate the contraction of the
heart.
Characterization of Cardiac Muscle
-contain actin and myosin protein sliding
filaments to contract
-rich in mitochondria, resists fatigue but
dependent on aerobic respiration
-cells connected by intercalated discs =
gap junctions
-Require enough blood supply to deliver oxygen
and nutrients and remove waste products, such as
carbon dioxide, from the cardiac muscle tissue.
- Different from smooth or skeletal muscle cells due to
placement of nuclei, cross striations, and intercalated
disks
Slide 20
Endocardium:
Is the inner layer of the heart wall, composed of endothelial cells which provide a
smooth, non-adherent surface for blood collection and pumping, and may help
regulate the contraction.
It is believed that the endocardium acts as a barrier between the blood and the heart
muscle, thus controlling on the composition of the extracellular fluid in which the
cardiomyocytes bathe; this in turn can affect their contractile function.
Composed of:
- Simple squamous epithelium
(endothelium)
- Connective Tissue
- Subendocardium: in contact with
cardiac muscle and contains small
vessels, nerves, and
-Contain some Purkinje fibres,
which are part of the impulse
conducting system .
Slide 21
Heart chambers and valves:
The chambers of the heart include the:
1) Right atrium: which receives deoxygenated
blood from all over the body.
2) Right ventricle: receives blood from the right
atrium and sends it to the lungs via the
pulmonary artery to become oxygenated and get
rid of carbon dioxide
3) Left atrium: receives oxygenated blood from
the lungs and sends it to the left ventricle
4) Left ventricle: receives blood from the left
atrium and sends it out to the body via the
aorta.
The chambers of the heart are separated by
valves:
1) Tricuspid valve: is located between the right
atrium and right ventricle.
2) Bicuspid (mitral) valve: is located between the
left atrium and left ventricle.
3)Pulmonary valve(semiluner ): is between the
right ventricle and the pulmonary artery .
4) Aortic valve: is between the left ventricle and
the aorta
Slide 22
The cardiac valves consist of a
central core of dense connective
tissue (contains both collagen and
elastic fibers) the base of the valves
are attached to the annuli fibrosi of
the fibrous skeleton.
The heart Septum:
The right and left sides of the heart are
divided by an internal wall of tissue
called the septum. The area of the
septum that divides the two upper
chambers (atria) of the heart is called
the atrial or interatrial septum. The area
of the septum that divides the two lower
chambers (ventricles) of the heart is
called the ventricular or interventricular
septum.
Slide 23
Cardiac Conduction:
Cardiac conduction is the rate at which the heart conducts
electrical impulses. Cardiac muscle cells contract
spontaneously. These contractions are coordinated by
the sinoatrial (SA) node.
The SA node is composed of nodal tissue that has

characteristics of both muscle and nervous tissue. The SA
node is located in the upper wall of the right atrium. When
the SA node contracts it generates nerve impulses that travel
throughout the heart wall causing atrial to contract.
Another section of nodal tissue lies on the right side near the
bottom of the right atrium. It is called the atrioventricular
(AV) node. When the impulses reach the AV node they are
delayed for some seconds. This delay allows the atria to
contract and empty their contents.
The impulses are then sent down the atrioventricular bundle.

This bundle of fibers branches off into two bundles and the
P.F
impulses are carried down to the center of the heart and than to
the left and right ventricles.
At the base of the heart the atrioventricular bundles start to C. M
divide further into Purkinje fibers. When the impulses reach
these fibers they trigger the muscle fibers in the ventricles to
contract.
Blood Vessels
There are three main types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. Blood
circulates in the body throughout this pathways. B.V are lined with a thin layer of
simple squamous epithelium known as the endothelium that keeps blood cells inside of
the blood vessels and prevent clots from forming.
 All blood vessels have three layers, from

the inside out these layers are: tunica
intima, tunica media, tunica adventitia.
 Capillaries are very small, with really
thin walls, and often appear to have only a
tunica intima, just a circle of endothelial
cells surrounding a lumen.
 Arteries have to pump blood around the
body, and so have the thickest (and often
prominent) muscular layers (tunica
media).
 Veins, with very little muscle in their
walls, tend to have the largest lumens, in
comparison to the arteries that travel with
them .
Layers of vascular wall:
1) Tunica intima.
 lines the blood vessel and exposed to blood.
 Endothelium –simple squamous epithelium
overlying a basement membrane and a sparse
layer of loose connective tissue:
•acts as a selectively permeable barrier.
•secrete chemicals that stimulate dilation or
constriction of the vessel.
•normally prevent blood cells and platelets that
may adhere to it and form a clot.
•when tissue around vessel is inflamed, the
endothelial cells produce cell-adhesion
molecules that induce leukocytes to adhere to
the surface.
• causes leukocytes to congregate in tissues
where their defensive actions are needed
2) Tunica media:
This is the thickest of the three layers. The smooth muscle cells are arranged in a spiral around the long axis
of the vessel. the smooth muscle cells of the media secrete reticular and fine collagen fibers and proteoglycans
(all not identifiable). No fibroblasts are present.
 consists of smooth muscle, collagen, and elastic tissue.

 strengthens vessel and prevents blood pressure from
rupturing them.
 vasomotion–changes in diameter of the blood vessel
brought about by smooth muscle
3) Tunica externa:
This is a relatively thin connective tissue layer.
Fibroblasts are the predominant cell type, and many
macrophages are also present. Collagen fibers
predominate and elastic fibers.
consist of loose connective tissue that often
merges with that of neighboring blood vessels,
nerves, or other organs
 vasavasorum–small vessels that supply blood to at
least the outer half of the larger vessels
•blood from the lumen is thought to nourish the inner
half of the vessel by diffusion
1) Arteries.
The arteries constitute a branching system of vessels that transports blood away from the heart to
all body parts.. In a normal state, arteries are elastic tubes that recoil and carry blood in pulsating
waves. All arteries have a pulse, reflecting the rhythmical beating of the heart; however, certain
points are commonly used to check the rate, rhythm, and condition of the arterial wall.
The arteries can be classified into three types according to their size: large or elastic arteries;
medium arteries; and small arteries or arterioles which are less than 0.5 mm in diameter.
Tunica intima of large arteries often have a large
subendothelial layer, which grows with age or disease
conditions (arteriosclerosis). Both connective tissue and
smooth muscle are present in the intima.
Tunica media: This is the thickest of the three
layers. The smooth muscle cells are arranged in a
spiral around the long axis of the vessel. the smooth
muscle cells of the media secrete reticular and fine
collagen fibers and proteoglycans
Tunica adventitia: This is a relatively thin

connective tissue layer. Fibroblasts are the
predominant cell type, and many macrophages
are also present. Collagen fibers predominate and
elastic fibers
Arterioles
Transport blood from small arteries to capillaries
•Smallest arteries where the three tunics can be differentiated
•Tunica media-one or more layers of smooth muscle cells
•Like small arteries, capable of vasoconstriction and dilation
-contain small muscle cells form
precapillarysphincters
~ control blood flow to capillary bed
~alter BP by altering peripheral resistance to blood flow –
“peripheral resistance vessels”
Capillaries
Thin walled single endothelial cells(simple squamous
epithelium), basement membrane and a delicate
layer of loose C.T.
•Specialized for exchange of substances -Many
pinocytic vesicles
•Pericytes:
–have their own basement membrane
–may develop into smooth muscle cells (capillary →
arteriole)
2) Veins:
Veins are the vessels that return blood to the heart. Like arteries, they are classified as large, medium and
small. Although the same layers (intima, media and adventitia) are present. A big difference between
arteries and veins is the thickness of their walls and the relative amount of muscle tissue (media).
In veins, the adventitia is larger than the media. Because of these features, veins do not retain their
shape. They often appear floppy in sections, and the lumen of vein are larger than the artreis . Veins also
have less elastic tissue than do arteries. Valves which function to prevent the backflow of blood especially
in the lower part of the body, are also seen quite frequently in veins.
The lumen is larger and irregular, a few muscle bundles are
seen in the adventitia. The endothelium and the intima not
distinguishable. Some coagulated blood is seen in the lumen.
Adipose tissue and a nerve are seen
 Small veins. Tunica intima is thin; tunica media is thin
with circular smooth muscle. Tunica adventitia is well
developed and is made of longitudinally arranged collagenous
elastic fibers
 Medium veins. Go-between between small veins and
large veins.
 Large veins. Tunica intima is thin: endothelial cells,
relatively thin layer of C.T and a few scattered elastic
fibers. Tunica media is thin and poorly developed.
Adventitia is thick and a predominant layer with
spirally arranged collagen fibers, elastic
lamellae, longitudinal smooth muscle
 Venules . drain capillary network. Endothelial cells and basement membrane with a few
smooth muscle cells. As diameter of venules increases, amount of smooth muscle increases.
Lecture (3)
The Blood Components

The blood
Blood is a red liquid consisting of several types of cells suspended
in complex fluid known as plasma. The primary function of blood is to
supply oxygen and nutrients and necessary elements to the tissues
and remove waste products,transportedthe hormones and other
substances between tissues and organs. maintaining homeostasis by
acting as a medium for transferring heat to the skin and by acting as
a buffer system for pH.
Blood forms about 6 to 8% of the
body weight consisting of Plasma,
Corpuscles and Platelets.
Erythrocyte (red blood cells)
transport oxygen and carbon
dioxide, leucocytes (white blood
cells), produced in red bone marrow
(myeloid tissue), and lymphocytes
which fight infection and
thrombocyte (platelet) which is
essential to blood clotting at the
site of an injury.
Functions of the blood
1) Supply of oxygen to tissues ( bound
to hemoglobin, which is carried in red cells)
2) Supply of nutrients such
as glucose, amino acids, and fatty
acids (dissolved in the blood or bound
to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids))
3) Removal of waste such as carbon
dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.
4) Immunological functions, including
circulation of white blood cells, and
detection of foreign material by antibodies
5) Coagulation, which is one part of the
body's self-repair mechanism (blood
clotting after an open wound in order to
stop bleeding)
6) Messenger functions, including the
transport of hormones and the signals that
release from tissue damage
7) Regulation of body pH
8) Regulation of the body temperature.
THE COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
The blood volume is normally (5 to 6 L) in men and (4.5 to 5.5 L) in
women. The density (or specific gravity) of blood is approximately 1.050
g/mL. Density depends on the number of blood cells present and the
composition of the plasma.
The density of individual blood cells varies according to cell type and
ranges from 1.1 g/mL for erythrocytes to 1.07 g/mL for certain
leukocytes. While blood is only slightly heavier than water, it is certainly
much thicker.
The viscosity of blood, a measure of resistance to flow. Blood’s viscosity
increases as the total number of cells present increases and when the
concentration of large molecules (macromolecules) in plasma increases.
At pathologically high viscosity, blood flows poorly to the extremities and
internal organs.
Blood is made of two parts:

1 (Plasma which makes up 55 %
of total blood volume.
2) Formed of cellular elements
(red and white blood cells, and
platelets) which combine to
make the remaining 45 % of total
blood volume.
Plasma
Plasma is made up of 90% %water ,7-8 %soluble proteins, 1 %electrolytes which helps
with the PH of the blood .Plasma also contains blood clotting factors, sugars, lipids,
vitamins, minerals, hormones, enzymes, antibodies, and other proteins.
55% of blood volume is made up of plasma. As the heart pumps blood to cells
throughout the body, plasma brings nourishment to them and removes the waste
products.
Plasmaprtiens:
1) Albumins are the most common group of proteins in plasma and

consist of nearly two-thirds of them(60-80) %They are produced in the
liver. The main function of albumins is to maintain the osmotic balance
between the blood and tissue fluids. In addition, albumins assist in
transport of different materials, such as vitamins and certain molecules
and drugs (e.g. bilirubin, fatty acids, and penicillin.
2) Globulins are a group of proteins, designated into three groups:

gamma, alpha, and beta. Their main function is to transport various
substances in the blood. Gamma globulins assist the body's immune
system in defense against infections and illness.
3) Clotting proteins are mainly produced in the liver and there are at least 12 substances,
known as "clotting factors" that participate in the clotting process. One important clotting
protein that is part of this group is fibrinogen sekam negonirbif egamad eussit ot esnopser nI .
rehto dna ,sllec doolb der ,steletalp gnidnib ni evisehda sa evres hcihw ,sdaerht nirbif
.wolf doolb eht pots ot ,rehtegot selucelom
Platelets
Platelets , also called thrombocytes, are membrane-bound cell fragments
without nuclei that work with blood clotting chemicals at the site of
wounds. They do this by adhering to the walls of blood vessels, thereby
plugging the rupture in the vascular wall. also can release coagulating
chemicals which cause clots to form in the blood that can plug up
narrowed blood vessels.
Platelets are not equally effective in clotting blood throughout the entire
day. The body's circadian rhythm system (its internal biological clock)
causes the peak of platelet activation in the morning. This is one of the
main causes that strokes and heart attacks are more common in the
morning.
Recent research has shown that platelets also help fight against infections
by releasing proteins that kill invading bacteria and some other
microorganisms. In addition, platelets stimulate the immune system.
Platelets are produced at a rate of 200 billion per day. Their production is
regulated by the hormone called Thrombopoietin .They have a lifespan of
9-10 days. Like the red and white blood cells, platelets are produced in
bone marrow from stem cells.
Red Blood Cells
also known as "RBCs". RBCs are formed in the myeloid tissue tsom ro
ereves rednu si ydob eht nehw hguohtla ,worram enob der sa nwonk ylnommoc
eht fo secalp yttaf eht ni osla si hcihw ,worram enob wolley eht snoitidnoc
.sCBR ekam osla lliw ydob eht ni worram
Red blood cells lose nuclei during maturation, and take on a biconcave shape and
this bi-concave shape allows the RBC to carry oxygen and pass through even the
smallest capillaries in the lungs.
They are about 8-7micrometers in diameter. And form about 1000x more red
blood cells than white blood cells. RBCs live about 120 days and do not self repair.
RBCs contain hemoglobin which transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of
the body, such as to the muscles.The hemoglobin gets its red color from their
respiratory pigments .
The main component of the RBC is hemoglobin eht rof elbisnopser hcihw nietorp
’llecs ability to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. Hemoglobin, iron, and oxygen
interact with each other forming the RBCs' bright red color.
RBCs lack a nucleus (no DNA) and no organelles, meaning that these cells
cannot divide or replicate themselves like the cells in the skin and muscles.
RBCs have a short life span of about 120 days
Functions of RBCs
The main function is the transportation of oxygen
throughout the body and the ability of the blood to carry
out carbon dioxide which is called carbamino –
hemoglobin siht dna doolb fo ecnalab eht gniniatniaM .
eht ni slevel esab dna dica eht yb derusaem eb nac ecnalab
doolb dellac hcihw doolbpH segnar doolb fo Hp lamroN .
7.4-7.3 neewtebthis normal blood is
called Alkaline Hp ni pord A .)retaw eht neht cidica ssel(
dellac siAcidic dellac osla si noitidnoc sihT .Acidosis A .
7.4 neht rehgih Hp ni pmuj called "Alkalosis oT ."
ynit sah doolb eht ),ecnalab ro( sisatsoemoh eht niatniam
ro spord tneverp pleh taht CBR eht nihtiw selucelom
.gnineppah morf sesaercni
Destruction of RBCs
Red blood cells are broken down and hemoglobin is
released. The globin part of the hemoglobin is
broken down into amino acid components, which in
turn are recycled by the body. The iron is recovered
and returned to the bone marrow to be reused. The
heme portion of the molecule passes by a chemical
changes and then gets excreted as bile pigment
(bilirubin) by the liver. Heme portion after being
broken down contributes to the color of feces and
the skin color changing after being bruises.
White Blood Cells
White blood cells are different from red cells in the fact that they are usually larger in
size 14-10micrometers in diameter. White blood cells do not contain hemoglobin which
in turn makes them translucent. Many times in diagrams or pictures white blood cells
are represented in a blue color because blue is the color of the stain used to see the
cells. White blood cells also have nuclei, that are some what segmented and are
surrounded by electrons inside the membrane .
White blood cells are made in the bone marrow but they also divide in the blood and
lymphatic systems. They are commonly amoeboid (cells that move or feed by means
of temporary projections, called pseudopods (false feet), and escape the circulatory
system through the capillaries .
White blood cells can be divided into granulocytes and granulocytes :
A) Granulocytes:
1. Neutrophils: These contain very fine
cytoplasmic granules that can be seen
under a light microscope. Neutrophils are
also called polymorphonuclear (PMN)
because they have a variety of nuclear
shapes. They play roles in the destruction
of bacteria and the release of chemicals
that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.
2) Eosinophils: These have large granules and a
prominent nucleus that is divided into two lobes. They
function in the destruction of allergens and inflammatory
chemicals, and release enzymes that disable parasites .
3) Basophils: They have a pale nucleus that is usually
hidden by granules. secrete histamine which increases
tissue blood flow via dilating the blood vessels, and also
secrete heparin which is an anticoagulant that promotes
mobility of other WBCs by preventing clotting.
B) A granulocytes:
1. Lymphocytes: These are usually classified as small,
medium or large generally seen mainly in fibrous
connective tissue and only occasionally in the circulation
bloodstream. Lymphocytes function in destroying cancer
cells, cells infected by viruses, and foreign invading cells.
In addition they also promote the actions of other
immune cells, secrete antibodies and serve in immune
memory.
2. Monocytes: They are the largest of the formed
elements. Their cytoplasm tends to relatively clear. They
function in differentiating into macrophages, which are large
phagocytic cells, and digest pathogens, dead neutrophils,
and the debris of dead cells.
Lecture (4)
The Digestive System

Digestive System
 The digestive system, also known as the

gastrointestinal system, is responsible for the
physical and chemical breakdown of food
 Breakdown is necessary so food can be taken
into bloodstream and used by body cells and
tissues
 The digestive system consists of alimentary
canal and accessory organs
43
 The GI tract:
(gastrointestinal tract)
The muscular alimentary canal
 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Large intestine
 Anus
 The accessory organs:

Supply secretions and
breakdown of food
 Teeth & tongue
 Salivary glands
44
 Gallbladder
Functions of digestive system
 Ingestion
 Taking of food into the body
 Digestion
 Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food
 Secretion
 Produce fluids such as acids ,bile ,digestive enzymes
 Absorption
 Passage of food from digestive tract into blood stream.
45
Layers of the GI Tract
The GI tract is composed of four layers or also know as Tunics. Each layer has different tissues and
functions. From the inside to out they are called: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa.
1) Mucosa: The mucosa is the absorptive and secretory layer.

It is composed of simple epithelium cells and a thin connective
tissue. There are specialized goblet cells that secrete mucus
throughout the GI tract located within the mucosa.
2) Submucosa: The submucosa is relatively thick, highly

vascular, and serves the mucosa. The absorbed elements that
pass through the mucosa are picked up from the blood vessels
of the submucosa. The submucosa also has glands and nerves.
3) Muscularis: The muscularis is responsible for segmental

contractions and movement in the GI tract. The muscularis is
composed of two layers of muscle: an inner circular and outer
longitudinal layer of smooth muscle.
4) Serosa: The last layer is a protective layer. It is composed of

a vascular connective tissue and simple squamous epithelium. It
secretes lubricating serous fluid consider the visible layer on
the outside of the organs.
46
Structure of the digestive system
1) Oral Cavity and Pharynx:
A. The Mouth:
1. The mouth, oral or buccal cavity, the mainfunctions of the mouth include ingestion,
sensory responses, mastication, chemical digestion, swallowing, speech, and respiration.
The mouth is enclosed by the cheeks, lips, palate, and tongue.
2. The Cheeks and Lips •

The cheeks and lips retain food and
push it between the teeth for
mastication. Externally the lips are
divided into a cutaneous area and a red
area, the latter of which is red because
of the tall dermal papillae and the
proximity of blood vessels to the
surface. Each lip is attached to the gum
behind it by the labial frenulum. The
vestibule is the space between the teeth
and the cheeks and lips.
47
3) The Tongue
The tongue is a large, muscular organ that occupies most
of the oral cavity when the mouth is closed. Its attachment
in the oral cavity through it`s posterior part. The anterior
part of the tongue is relatively free and attached to the
floor of the mouth by a thin fold of tissue called the
frenulum.
The muscles associated with the tongue are divided into two
categories: intrinsic muscles, which are within the tongue
itself; and extrinsic muscles, which are outside the tongue
but attached to it. The intrinsic muscles are largely
responsible for changing the shape of the tongue, such as
flattening and elevating the tongue during drinking and
swallowing. The extrinsic tongue muscles move it from side
to side, and change it`s shape
The tongue play most important role for movement the food in
the mouth and, in cooperation with the lips and gums, holds
the food in place during mastication. It also plays a major role
in the mechanism of swallowing and is a major sensory organ
for taste and is the primary organs of speech.
48
49
 4) The teeth :are special structures in mouth that physically break down food by
chewing and grinding, this process called mastication.
Teeth are classified according to the shape and function into:
 Incisors: chisel-shaped for

chopping off the food into
incisor
small pieces.
canine  Canines: cone shaped to

tear the food
premolar  Premolars.
molar  Molars - broad crowns for
grinding
50
 There are two sets of the teeth:
 Primary (temporary):
 “Baby” teeth
 Start at 6 months
 20 tooth are out by about
2 years
 Fall out between 2-6
years
 Permanent: 32 tooth total
 All but 3rd set of molars
complete by end of
adolescence
 3rd set = “wisdom teeth”
 Some of teeth can be
“impacted” (imbedded in
bone)
51
Tooth structure
 Two main regions

A. Crown (exposed)
B. Root (embedded)
 Enamel
 99% calcium crystals
 Hardest substance in
body.
 Dentin
 bone-like structure but
harder than bone, with
collagen and mineral
52
 Pulp cavity with
 Cementum – bone
layer of tooth root
 Attaches tooth to
periodontal ligament
 Periodontal ligament
 Connect the tooth with
gums and bone of
mandible.
53
Lecture (5)
The Digestive System

5) Saliva and the Salivary Glands
The Salivary Glands found in the mouth that produces saliva to begin the chemical
digestion of food.
Saliva moistens the mouth, digests a small amount of starch and fat, cleanses the teeth,
inhibits bacterial growth, dissolves molecules so they can stimulate taste buds, and
moistens food and binds particles together to aid in swallowing.
Three pairs of salivary glands

1) Parotid (cheek/jaw)
2) Sublingual (beneath tongue)
3) Submandibular
produce a liquid called saliva
Saliva also contains enzyme called
salivary amylase
Salivary amylase begins chemical
breakdown of complex carbohydrates,
or starches, into sugars that can be
taken into the body
55
The Esophagus
The esophagus is a tube connecting the mouth to the stomach
running through the Thoracic cavity.
The esophagus extending from the larynx to the stomach at the
cardiac orifice.
The wall of the esophagus consists of four layers: mucosa,
submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa or adventitia.
The esophagus, stomach, and intestines have a nervous network
called the enteric nervous system, which regulates the system's
motility, secretion, and blood flow.
The inferior end of the esophagus is more constricted than the
rest, forming a gastroesophageal sphincter. This is a
physiological (not anatomical) constriction that helps close the
cardiac orifice.
Food travels down the esophagus, through a series of rhythmic

contractions (wave-like) called peristalsis. The lining of the
esophagus secretes mucus, lubricating to support the movement of
food. ``
When the bolus reaches the stomach, it must pass through a muscular
ring valve called the esophageal sphincter (Cardiac Sphincter). The
role of the sphincter is to prevent stomach acids from back flowing into
the esophagus creating a burning feeling known as heart burn.
56
Microscopic anatomy of esophagus
 Epithelium: nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium

 At gastro-esophagus junction – thin simple columnar epithelium
 Mucus glands in wall
 Muscle (muscularis externa) changes as it goes to the down
 Superior 1/3 of esophagus: skeletal muscle (like pharynx)
57
 Middle 1/3 mixture of skeletal and smooth muscle
Parts of the Alimentary Canal
 The hard palate: is the bony

structure that forms the roof of
the mouth and separates the
mouth from the nasal cavities
 Behind the hard palate is the soft
palate, which separates the
mouth from the nasopharynx
 The uvula, a cone-shaped
muscular structure, hangs from
the middle of the soft palate and
prevents food from entering the
nasopharynx during swallowing
58
Stomach
The stomach a thick walled organ that lies between the
esophagus and the first part of the small intestine (the
duodenum), lie on the left side of the abdominal cavity;
the funds of the stomach lying against the diaphragm.
Beneath the stomach is the pancreas.
The stomach is divided into four sections, each of

which has different cells and functions. The sections
are:
1) Cardiac region: where the contents
of the esophagus empty into the stomach.
2) Fundus: formed by the upper curvature of the organ.
3) Body:the main central region,
4) Pyloric region: the lower section of the
organ that facilitates emptying the
contents into the small intestine.
Two smooth muscle valves, or sphincters,
keep the contents of the stomach
1) Cardiac or esophageal sphincter.
2) Pyloric sphincter.
59
Histological structures of stomach
The stomach have many jobs such as stores food and

liquids, makes strong acids and mixes them with the
stored food and liquids. Glands in the stomach lining
make stomach acids. These glands also make an
enzyme to digest protein. The stomach has a thick
layer of mucous to stop the acids from dissolving the
tissue of the stomach itself and after mixing food and
acids, the stomach slowly empties it self into the small
intestine.
The stomach wall has tissue layers similar to those of

the esophagus, with some variations. When the
stomach is empty, the mucosa and submucosa form
longitudinal wrinkles called folded . The gastric
mucosa is pocked with depressions called gastric pits.
Cells near the bottom of the pits divide repeatedly,
providing a new source for epithelial cells.
At the bottom of the pits lie glands where In the

cardiac and pyloric regions, these are called the cardiac
and pyloric glands, respectively, and secrete mucus
only.
60
In the rest of the stomach, the glands are
called gastric glands and have a greater
variety of cell types and secretions: mucous
neck cells secrete mucus, chief cells secrete
rennin and lipase in infancy and pepsinogen
throughout the remainder of life, parietal cells
secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factors.
◙ Simple columnar epithelium: secrete

bicarbonate-buffered mucus
◙ Gastric pits opening into gastric glands
1) Mucus neck cells
2) Parietal cells
Secretion of HCL,
(responsibly for B12 absorption)
3) Chief cells
Pepsinogen (activated to pepsin with
HCL)
Stimulated by gastrin:
a stomach hormone 61
Parts of the Alimentary Canal
 The foods in the stomach converted into a

semifluid material when it mixed with gastric
juices
 Gastric juices contain HCL and Pepsinogen
 HCL kills bacteria, facilitates (Fe) absorption,
and activates the enzyme pepsin (which starts
protein digestion)
62
Small intestine
The small intestine (or small bowel) is the part of the gastrointestinal tract following the stomach and
followed by the large intestine, responsiple for absorption the digested food. It receives bile juice and
pancreatic juice through the hepatopancreatic duct .The process of absorption allows the component
molecules to be diffused into the surrounding intestinal cells and then into the circulatory system for
transport to all the cells in the body. The average length of the small intestine in an adult human male is
6.9 m (22 feet 6 inches), and in an adult female 7.1 m (23 feet 4 inches(
The small intestine is made up of three parts, duodenum,

jejunum, and the ileum.
The first part is the duodenum, u-shaped organ,
approximately 30 cm in length. This area completes most
of the digestion processes. Enzymes are secreted into the
duodenum form the pancreas and the gall bladder. The
duodenum is lined by folds of tissue called villi (fine
brush-like microvilli). These folds increase the surface
area of the small intestine increase the rate of absorption.
The jejunum is approximately 2.5 m. long, it has more

villi and microvilli; its role is absorption.
The ileum, is approximately 3 m. long, and has fewer villi
than the other two parts, it is responsible for pushing the
waste materials into the large intestine.
63
 Intestinal crypts* (of Lieberkuhn) present
between villi
 Cells will be divide every 3-6 days to
renew epithelium (most rapidly dividing
cells of the body)
 Secrete watery intestinal juice which
mixes with foods
 Intestinal flora – the permanent normal
bacteria
 Manufacture some vitamins, e.g. K,
* Duodenal
whichglands
get absorbed
•Produce Mucus to counteract acidity from stomach.
•Produce Hormones such as:
1) Cholecystokinin (stimulates GB and pancreas to
release stored bile)
2) Secretin :stimulates pancreatic ducts to release
acid neutralizer.
Intestinal juices that produced by small intestine contain enzyme maltase, sucrase, and lactase, which
break down sugars into simpler forms.
* Capillaries responsible for absorb digested nutrients and carry them to liver, where they are
either stored or released into circulation for use by body cells.
When the food has completed its passage through small intestine, only wastes, indigestible
materials, and excess water remain and passage to the large intestine.
64
The large intestine:
 The large intestine is the final section of the

alimentary canal
 It is approximately five feet in length and 2.5
inches in diameter
The large intestine is divided into a series of connected sections
The cecum is the first section, attached to small intestine –
contains a small projection called the vermiform appendix and
the next section is the colon with several divisions:
- Ascending colon
- Transverse colon
- Descending colon
- Sigmoid colon
Functions of L .In include:
1) Absorption of H2O and any remaining nutrients
2) Storage of indigestible materials before eliminated
3) Synthesis (formation) and absorption of some B-
complex vitamins and vitamin K by bacteria present in
the large intestine.
4) Elimination of waste products out of body
65
The large intestine begins with the cecum,
a blind pouch inferior to the ileocecal
valve. Attached to its lower end is the
vermiform appendix. The appendix is
densely populated with lymphocytes and
is an important source of immune cells.
Microscopic structures:
1. The mucosa of the large intestine has
a simple columnar epithelium in all
regions except the anal canal, where it
is stratified squamous.
2. There are no circular folds or villi in
the large intestine, but there are
intestinal crypts. They are deeper than
in the small intestine and have a greater
density goblet cells. Mucus is their
only significant secretion.
.
66
The Wall of the Large Intestine
The rectum
 The rectum is the final part

of the large intestine and is
a storage area for
indigestible and wastes
 It has a narrow canal,
called the anal canal,
which opens at a hole,
called the anus
 Fecal material, or stool, the
final waste product of the
digestive process, is
expelled through this
Hemorrhoids
opening (enlarged
veins)
67
Lecture (6)
The Accessory Organs of Digestive System

The Liver:
 The liver is the largest internal organ of the body , reddish brown, weighing about 1.36 kg (3 pounds) ,
located inferior to the diaphragm in the RUQ and epigastric regions.
 The liver has four lobes called the right, left (major lobes), quadrate, and caudate lobes (minor
lobes). The gallbladder adheres to a depression on the inferior surface of the liver between the right
and quadrate lobes.
Porta (gate) lies on the inferior surface of the liver, where the various vessels, ducts, and nerves enter
and exit the liver. The hepatic portal vein, the hepatic artery, and a small hepatic nerve plexus enter the
liver through the porta , lymphatic vessels and two hepatic ducts, one each from the right and left lobes,
exit the liver at the porta.
Falciform
ligament
Left lobe
Right lobe
69
(a) Anterior surface
The Liver:
The hepatic ducts transport bile out of the liver. The right and left
hepatic ducts unite to form a single common hepatic duct. The
cystic duct from the gallbladder joins the common hepatic duct to
form the common bile duct, which joins the pancreatic duct at the
hepatopancreatic ampulla
The hepatopancreatic ampulla empties into the duodenum at the

major duodenal papilla A smooth muscle sphincter surrounds the
common bile duct where it enters the hepatopancreatic ampulla.
Functions of the liver

 Secretes bile:
 Used to emulsify fats and
 Makes fats water soluble – necessary for absorption.
 Stores sugar in form of glycogen
 Glycogen converts to glucose and released into bloodstream
when additional blood sugar is needed
 Stores (Fe) and certain vitamins
 Produces heparin, which prevents clotting of blood
 Produces proteins such as fibrinogen and prothrombin
 Produces cholesterol
 Detoxifies substances such as alcohol and pesticides, and
destroys bacteria taken into blood from intestine
70
Microscopic Anatomy
The liver consists mostly of hepatocytes arranged in cylinders called hepatic lobules. Each
lobule is about 1 mm in diameter and 2 mm long and has a central vein passing through the
central lobe.
The liver divide into hexagonshaped by the connective tissue septa , with a portal triad at
each corner. The triads are so named because three vessels are present the hepatic portal
vein, hepatic artery, and hepatic bile duct .
Liver histology
 Portal triad
 Portal arteriole
 Portal venule
 Branch of hepatic portal
vein
 Delivers substances
from intestines for
processing by
hepatocytes
 Bile duct
 Carries bile away
 Liver sinusoids
 Large capillaries between
plates of hepatocytes
 Kupffer cells
 Liver macrophages
 Old blood cells and
microorganisms removed 71
Microscopic Anatomy
The liver secretes bile into narrow channels

called the bile canaliculi found between sheets
of hepatocytes. Bile passes into the small bile
ductules and then into the right and left hepatic
ducts. These two ducts converge to form the
common hepatic duct, which then joins the
cystic duct coming from the gallbladder.
Hepatic cords radiate out from the central vein

of each lobule like the spikes of a wheel. The
hepatic cords are composed of hepatocytes.The
spaces between the hepatic cords are blood
channels called hepatic sinusoids. The
sinusoids are lined with a very thin, irregular
squamous endothelium consisting of two cell
populations:
(1)extremely thin, sparse endothelial cells.
(2)hepatic phagocytic cells (Kupffer cells).
72
Accessory Organs
 The gallbladder
 Small, muscular sac located under liver and attached to it by connective tissue ,form
about 8 cm long and 4 cm wide.
 Stores and concentrates bile that received from the liver.
 When bile is needed to emulsify fats in digestive tract, the gallbladder contracts and
Three tunicsbile
pushes form the gallbladder
through common wall:
bile duct into duodenum.
(1) an inner mucosa appear as folded that
allow the gallbladder to expand.
(2) a muscularis, which is a layer of smooth
muscle that allows the gallbladder to
contract
(3) an outer covering of serosa layer. The cystic duct
connects the gallbladder to the common bile duct.
 40–70 mL of bile can be stored in gall bladder.

Shortly after a meal, the gallbladder contracts in
response to stimulation by cholecystokinin and, to a
lesser degree response to vagal stimulation, thereby
dumping large amounts of concentrated bile into the
small intestine .
73
Accessory Organs
 The pancreas:
 A glandular organ located behind stomach,
lies in LUQ ,Has a head, body and tail.
Pancreas consider a complex organ
composed of both endocrine and exocrine
tissues that perform several functions.
 Head is in C-shaped curve of

duodenum
 Tail extends left to touch spleen
 Main pancreatic duct runs the length of
the pancreas, joins bile duct
 Produces pancreatic juices containing
enzymes to digest food.
 Juices enter duodenum through
pancreatic duct.
 Enzymes in juices break down sugars,
proteins, and fats.
 Produces insulin, secreted into
bloodstream.
 Regulates metabolism (or burning) of 74
carbohydrates to convert glucose
Histologically 99% of the pancreas consists of small clusters (acini) of exocrine secretory
cells that produce enzymes and sodium bicarbonate, then release them into the organ’s duct
work. The other 1%of the cells are clusters of endocrine cells (islets of Langerhans) that
secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream.
 The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of

pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans). The islet cells
produce insulin and glucagon, which are very important
in controlling blood levels of nutrients, such as glucose
and amino acids,.
 The exocrine part of the pancreas is a compound acinar
Gland .The acini grapes; produce digestive enzymes. Clusters
of acini form lobules that are separated by thin septa. Lobules
are connected by small intercalated ducts to intralobular ducts,
which leave the lobules to join interlobular ducts between the
lobules. The interlobular ducts attach to the main pancreatic
duct, which joins the common bile duct at the hepatopancreatic
ampulla.
The ducts are lined with simple cuboidal epithelium, and the
epithelial cells of the acini are pyramid shaped. A smooth
muscle sphincter surrounds the pancreatic duct where it enters
the hepatopancreatic ampulla.
75
Pancreatic cells:
1.Alpha cells(20%)mainly at
periphery, large cells secrete
glucagon
2.Beta cells(70%)at centre,
small cells, secrete insulin
3.Delta cells(5%) secrete
somatostatin
4.F cells-secrete polypeptides
76
Accessory Organs
Appendix:
The appendix is a small, thin, four-inch tube, situated at
the junction of the small intestine and large intestine.
Composed of four layers :

1.Mucus membrane
A -epithelium- Simple columnar
B - villi are absent
C -lamina propria
intestinal glands (crypts of lieberkuhn),
lympgoid tissue
D -muscularis mucosae
2.Submucosa
- Lymphoid nodule
3.Musculalis layer
-inner circular
-outer longitudinal
4. Serosa
77
Accessory Organs
Some diseases of accessory organs

Cirrhosis :
The liver involves the death of hepatocytes and their replacement by fibrous connective tissue. The liver
becomes pale in color due to presence of excess white connective tissue. It also becomes firmer, and the
surface becomes nodular. The loss of hepatocytes eliminates the function of the liver, often resulting in
jaundice, and the buildup of connective tissue can impede blood flow through the liver. Cirrhosis
frequently develops in alcoholics and may develop as a result of biliary obstruction, hepatitis, or
nutritional deficiencies.
Gallstones
Cholesterol, secreted by the liver, may precipitate in the gallbladder to produce gallstones
.Occasionally, a gallstone can pass out of the gallbladder and enter the cystic duct, blocking release of
bile. Such a condition interferes with normal digestion, and the gallstone often must be removed
surgically. If the gallstone moves far enough down the duct, it can also block the pancreatic duct,
resulting in pancreatitis.
78
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Staff member of Basic
of Pharmacy college
79
Respiratory System
*Respiratory system provides
the means for gas exchange
required by living cells .
* The air can be diffusion
across delicate exchange
surfaces of lungs.
* The air can be carried to cells
by the cardiovascular system
which also returns carbon
dioxide to the lungs
Chapter metsyS yrotaripseR ,22 80

Respiratory System
Functions of the Respiratory System:
 The primary function of R.S is breathing which

consists of two cyclic phases: Inhalation
(inspiration), Exhalation expiration).
 Provides gas exchange surface area between air
and circulating blood.
 Moves air to and from exchange surfaces of lungs
 Protects respiratory surfaces from outside
environment.
 Produces sounds
 Participates in olfactory sense
Respiratory System
The Respiratory Defense System:
 Consists of a series of filtration mechanisms

 Removes particles and pathogens.
 Goblet cells and mucous glands: produce mucus that
protect the exposed surfaces.
 Cilia: sweep debris trapped in mucus toward the
pharynx.
 Filtration in nasal cavity and removes large particles.
 Alveolar macrophages: engulf small particles that
reach lungs.
82
Respiratory System
Components of the Respiratory System:
The respiratory system is divided into:
A) Upper Respiratory Tract which
composed of :
1. Nose,
2.Nasal cavity.
3.Paranasal sinuses.
4.Pharynx (Throat).
B) Lower Respiratory Tract is made up
of conducting airways and composed of:
1.Larynx.
2.Trachea.
3.Bronchi.
4.Brochioles.
5.Alveolar ducts.
6.Alveoli.

Respiratory System
Nasal Cavity (nasal passages):
The Nasal cavity is divided according to the structure and function into 3 regions
(vestibular, respiratory, olfactory), each with its own distinct lining.
A. vestibules
Lined by stratified epithelial tissue and continuous
with that of adjacent epidermis, the underlying layer
is very cellular and there are large sebaceous gland,
and hair follicles.
B.Respiratory region:
Comprises most the volume of the nasal cavity. It
is lined with respiratory epithelium and its lamina
propria contains serous mucous glands. The
capillaries within the lamina propria are abundant
and oriented perpendicular to the air flow . These
same capillaries distend and leak fluid into the
lamina propria during immune reactions resulting
in the constriction of the air passage ways;
a condition known in lay terms as a “stuffy nose”.
84
Respiratory System
Within the respiratory region are the nasal turbinate's. These
are mucosa-covered bony projections from the lateral wall of
the cavity. They have two function:
(1) Filter the air by creating turbulence to deflect debris
within the air stream onto the mucosa .
(2) Increase the surface of area of the nasal cavity to
(a) warm and humidify the incoming air (inhalation)
(b) recover water (and heat) from the returning air
(exhalation).
C.The olfactory region
The olfactory region lies superior part in the roof of the nasal
cavity. The mucosa is lined by the olfactory epithelium, a
pseudostratified epithelium containing three types of cells:
olfactory neurons, supporting cells, and basal cells.
(1) Olfactory neurons:
Apical pole cells are numerous, non-motile cilia ,arranged over the epithelial surface. The cell
membrane contain cilia, odorant-binding proteins which act as receptors. Basal pole gives rise to
the axons that form olfactory nerve) that project into the brain.
(2) Supporting cells
Columnar epithelial cells covered with microvilli, they serve as support (glia) cells to the olfactory
neurons.
(3) The basal cells :are the stem cells of the other two types. 85
Respiratory System

Figure 22.3b
Respiratory System
Para nasal Sinuses:
The four bones of the skull contain
paired air spaces called Para nasal
sinuses which together decrease
skull bone weight and help to
warm and moisten the air.
The sinuses are named for the
bones in which they are housed;
thus from superior to inferior
direction they are :
1.Frontal.
2.Ethemoid.
3.Sphenoidal.
4.Maxillary.
87
Respiratory System
The pharynx:
The pharynx is a muscular tube that connects the
nasal and oral cavities to the larynx and esophagus.
The pharynx consider common space used by both

respiratory and digestive systems by receiving air from
the nasal cavity , food and water from the oral cavity.
In the human the pharynx can be divided into three

sections :
1) Nasopharynx: lies posterior to the choanae;
lined by respiratory mucosa
2) Oropharynx : lies posterior to the tongue and is
lined by oral mucosa .
3) Laryngopharynx: surrounds the upper larynx
and is lined by oral mucosa.
The submucosa of all 3 regions is rich in mucous
glands and lymphatic tissue.
88
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
(Lower Respiratory Tract )

Staff member of Basic
of Pharmacy college
89
Respiratory
The Larynx:
System (L.R.T)
Called voice box connect the laryngopharynx and the
trachea , lie at the level of 3th to 4th and 6th cervical
vertebrae .
Until the puberty there is little differences in the size of
larynx between the sex , there after it grows larger in male
,which explains the prominence of the Adam's apple and
generally deeper the voice. The larynx is shorter in
women and children and situated slightly more superiorly
in the neck.
◙ Acts as a valve for preventing swallowed food and foreign
bodies from entering the lower respiratory passages.
Histological structures of the larynx :

1) The larynx composed of several irregular shaped cartilages attached to each other
by ligaments and membranes. the main cartilages are:
1. The Thyroid Cartilages.

2. Arytenoid Cartilages. Hyaline cartilage
3. Cricoid cartilages.
4. Epiglottis.
Elastic fibro cartilage
Respiratory System
2) The epithelium is the pseudo stratified columnar ciliated type and
goblet cells
3) Some parts of the larynx are lined by
stratified squamous epithelium.
3) The lamina propria composed of
connective tissue contains muco-serous
glands.
4) A very thin sub mucosa of fibrous
connective tissue. :
5) Intrinsic laryngeal muscles of skeletal type .
6) The laryngeal cartilage mainly hyaline
cartilage and some cartilage are elastic.
7) The extrinsic skeletal muscle layer
The Epiglottis
is a thin lamella of fibro cartilage of a yellowish color, shaped like a leaf, and projecting
upward behind the root of the tongue and in front of the entrance to the larynx. The
free extremity is broad and rounded while attached part is long, narrow, and connected
by the thyroepiglottic ligaments . 91
Respiratory System
The trachea:
The trachea or windpipe is a cartilaginous
and membranous tube, extending from the
lower part of the larynx, to the upper border
of the fifth thoracic vertebra, divides into the
two bronchi, one for each lung.
The trachea is responsible for transporting
air for respiration from the larynx to
the bronchi.
The trachea contains numerous rings (about
20 ring ) of hyaline cartilage which are
C-shaped, being dorsally incomplete,
connected to each other by elastic connective
tissue.
The trachea's walls are made up of a number
of layers including the inner mucosa,
fibrocartilaginous middle layer, and
adventitia (in the neck) or serosa (in the
thorax). 92
Respiratory
Wall of the trachea
System
The trachea is lined by respiratory epithelium (mucosa). The number of goblet cells
are variable and depends on physical or chemical irritation of the epithelium which
increase goblet cell number. Prolonged intense irritation of the epithelium may lead to
its transformation to a stratified epithelium (squamous metaplasia)
Underlying layer called lamina consists of
loose connective tissue with many elastic
fibers,
 Submucosa (submucosal glands)
responsible for supplement the secretions of
cells in the epithelium. The submucosa ends
with the perichondrium of the trachea
cartilages
 The cartilages (hyaline cartilage). act to
maintain the opening of the tube and their open
border is connected by the trachealis muscle, a
combination of fibro elastic tissue and smooth
muscle.
Respiratory System
Respiratory System
The trachea can be divided into the two bronchi, one for each lung which are:
1) The Left Bronchus (bronchus dexter):
wider, shorter, and more vertical in direction than
the right , therefore it's more likely to become
obstructed by inhalated foreign body.
It is about 2.5 cm long,
2)The Right Bronchus (bronchus sinister):
It is smaller and narrowed but longer than the left
, being nearly 5 cm. long. It enters the root of the
right lung opposite the sixth thoracic vertebra and
divided in to three branches (one to each lobe).
 Bronchial branches are accompanied by

branches of the pulmonary artery, nerves
and lymph vessels. These structures usually
travel in intersegmental and interlobar
sheets of connective tissue.
95
Respiratory System
The histological structure of the epithelium and
the underlying connective tissue of the bronchi
similar to that of the trachea and the main
bronchi.
• Principal bronchus
-same as trachea
•Secondary bronchus
-Irregular hyaline cartilage
-Pseudo stratified ciliated columnar
•Tertiary bronchus
-Columnar epithelium
-Patches of cartilage
Terminal bronchiole
-Columnar epithelium
-No cartilage but smooth muscle
•Respiratory bronchiole
-Cuboidal epithelium
-No mucous gland
96
Respiratory
The lungs :
System
There are two lungs one on each side of the midline in the
thoracic cavity . the lungs are cone –shaped and have:
1)Apex:
2) Base:
3)Costal surface:
4)Medial surface:
The space between the two lungs are occupied by the heart ,
great vessels , trachea ,right and left bronchi, esophagus
,lymph nodes, and nerves.
Bronchioles
Bronchioles are the terminal segments of the
conductive portion
 At the transition from bronchi to bronchioles
the epithelium changes to a ciliated columnar
epithelium,
Glands and cartilage are absent .
 The layer of smooth muscle is relatively thicker than in the bronchi.
Bronchioles divide into a number of respiratory bronchioles, which are the first
structures of respiratory portion in respiratory system. the walls of the respiratory
bronchioles form alveoli (site of gas exchange ). 97
Respiratory System
 The number of alveoli increases as the respiratory
bronchioles continue to divide. They terminate in alveolar
ducts.
Respiratory bronchioles which divided in to alveolar ducts
and large numbers of alveoli (air sacs. there are 1500 million
of alveoli in the adult lung.
The alveoli are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries .
Exchanges of gases in the lung (external respiration )take
place across membrane made up of the alveolar wall and the
capillary wall fused firmly together and this called the
respiratory membrane.
The epithelium of the alveoli is formed by two cell types:
1) Alveolar type I cells (small alveolar cells):
Extremely flattened: (as thin as 0.05 um) and form (95%) the surface alveolar walls
or gas exchange surface in the lung.
2) Type II pneumocytes (Surfactant secreting cells) or (large alveolar cells) are
cuboidal cells concentrated at the alveolar wall junctions (= septa). account for only
5% of the gas exchange surface in the lung due to their non-squamous shape, these
cells secret mixture of lipoproteins responsible for decrease the surface tension of
the alveoli. 98
Respiratory System

Urinary System

Staff member of Medical
Laboratory Science
Department
Urinary system
The urinary system is divided into upper and lower

sections. The upper urinary system is made up
of kidneys and a tube called the ureter, which
transports urine from the kidney to the bladder. There is
one kidney for each side of the body and each kidney
has its own ureter.
The lower urinary system consists of the bladder and

another tube called the urethra, which transports urine
from the bladder out of the body.
Humans produce about 1.5 liters of urine over 24 hours,

although this amount may vary according to the
circumstances.
 Increased fluid intake generally increases urine
production.
Some medications interfere directly or indirectly with
urine production, such as diuretics.
Function of urinary system
Filter 200 liters of blood daily, allowing toxins, metabolic
wastes, and excess ions to leave the body in urine
Maintain the proper balance between water and salts,

and acids and bases.
 Regulating plasma concentrations of sodium, potassium,
chloride and other ions
Secretion of renin, which important for regulation blood pressure by cleaving circulating
angiotensinogen 2 angiotensin I
 Secretion of erythropoietin that stimulates erythrocyte production in red marrow when the
blood O2 level is low.
Conversion of the steroid prohormone vit D, initially produced in the skin to the active
form (25-dihydroxy vit D, or calcitriol) and Gluconeogenesis during starvation or periods of
prolonged fasting, making glucose from amino acids to supplement this process in the liver
Activation of vitamin D.
Detoxifying poisons (with the liver)

Kidneys
The kidneys are located in the back of the upper
abdomen and are protected by the lower ribs and
rib cartilage. composed of two parts cortex and
medulla.
Consists of about 1 million filtering units termed
nephrons (basic structural and functional unit)
The right kidney is lower than the left because it is

crowded by the liver . In an adults Kidneys
Approximately 12-cm long, 6 cm wide, and 2.5-cm
thick and weight about 300 g.
The outer surface of the kidney is curved outwards,
while the inner surface is curved inwards, just like a
kidney bean. Several important structures enter and
leave the kidney from its inner surface, including the
ureter, blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels
through the structure called hilum (concave medial
border of the kidney) .
Within the hilum upper end of the ureter
expands as the renal pelvis divide into
two or three major calyces which form
Smaller branches forming minor
calyces arise from major.
The kidney is covered with three layers,

including an inner layer, a fatty middle
layer and a tough outer layer which
protects the kidney from trauma and
these layers called capsule . Under these
layers lies the inside of the kidney,
which is made up of inner and outer
sections responsible for making urine.
Blood flows into the kidney and is
filtered through little units known
as nephrons to make urine, which then
passes via the ureters to the urinary
bladder.
Thenephrons:
Nephrone is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney, responsible for regulation to
the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium salts by filtering the blood and
reabsorbing the needed substance with excreting the rest as urine.
Each nephrons consisting of a corpuscle and a long, simple

epithelial renal tubule with three main parts along its length.
There are two general classes of nephrons which

are classified according to the length of their
associated with nephrons :
1) Cortical nephrons.
2) juxtamedullary nephrons.
Cortical nephrons have their Loop of Henle in
the renal medulla near its junction with the renal
cortex, while the Loop of Henle of juxamedullary
nephrons is located deep Within the renal medulla;
they are called juxtamedullary because their renal
corpuscle is located near the medulla (but still in
the cortex).
Renal tubules form three main parts :
Proximal tubule, a long convoluted part,
located entirely in the cortex, with a shorter
straight part that enters the medulla.
Loop of Henle in the medulla, with a thin

descending and a thick
. ascending limb.
;
Distal tubule, consisting of a thick straight
part ascending from the loop of Henly back
into the cortex and a convoluted part
completely in the cortex; an Connecting tubule
minor part linking the nephron to collecting
ducts.
Renal corpuscles
Renal corpuscles of each nephron contain a tuft of
glomerular capillaries , surrounded by a double – walled
epithelial capsule called the glomerular ( Bowman) capsule
The outer parietal layer of bowman capsule forms the

surface of the capsule. The internal or visceral layer of
this capsule closely envelops the glomerular
capillaries which are finely fenestrated, It is composed
of specialized cells called podocytes,. Between the
two capsular layers is the capsular space (urinary
space ), which receives the fluid filtered through the
capillary wall and visceral layer . The outer parietal
layer of a glomerular capsule consists of a simple
squamous epithelium supported externally by a basal
lamina. At the tubular pole, the cells of parietal layer
changes to the simple cuboidal epithelium that
continues and forms the proximal tubule.
part (2)
Urinary System

Staff member of Medical
Laboratory Science
Department
Renal tubules
The renal tubules aportion of the nephron containing
the filtered fluids through the glomerulus. After that
passing through the renal tubule and continues to
the collecting duct system, which is not part of the
nephron.
The components of the renal tubule are:
1) Proximal convoluted tubule (lies in cortex and lined by
simple cuboidal epithelium with brushed borders which help
to increase the area of absorption.
Function: The proximal convoluted tubule is the first

segment of renal tubules and the site at which a majority
(~65% to 67%) of recovered water, ions, and glucose are
transported from the filtrate and added back to the blood.
The PCT cells actively transport glucose and ions from the
lumen of the PCT through their basal surface, and into the
peritubular capillary vessels, created by the movement of Na+
and Cl-. These cells have numerous mitochondria located in their
basal cytoplasm.
Loop of Henle : is the portion of the nephron
that is largely responsible for the kidney’s
ability to produce hypertonic (or concentrated)
urine.
 U-shaped and lies in medulla, which
composed of :
1) Descending limb.
2) Ascending limb.
The ascending limb of loop of Henle is
divided into 2 segments: Lower end of
ascending limb is very thin and is lined by
simple squamous epithelium. The distal
portion of ascending limb is thick and is lined
by simple cuboidal epithelium.
Distal convoluted tubule
Composed of :
•A simple cuboidal epithelium
• NO brush border
• Large clearly defined lumen
• Paler cytoplasm (due to fewer organelles)
Function: DCT cells are unique in that

they are the site at which the kidney
regulates Na+ concentration, via
absorption and secretion of this ion, in a
response to aldosterone and ADH
secretion. In addition, they play a role in
regulating pH by absorbing and
secreting bicarbonate.
The collecting duct
The collecting duct begins in the renal cortex and extends deep into the
medulla. Urine can leaves the medullary collecting ducts through
the renal papillae, emptying into the renal calyces(minor and major
calyx)to the renal pelvis, and finally into the urinary bladder via
theureter.
Collecting duct is normally impermeable to water, and becomes
permeable in presence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH affects
on the function of aquaporins, resulting in the reabsorption of the
water and molecules as it passes through the collecting duct.
Aquaporins are membrane proteins that selectively conduct water
while preventing the passage of ions and other solutes.
Collecting Duct : lined by two epithelium that has two cell types:
1. collecting duct cells : cuboidal in cortical part, columnar in medullary
part.
2. Intercalated /dark cells: resemble those of DCT but bulge into lumen of
the CD
•Both cell types rest on a thin BM and lack basal infoldings
•Permeability of CD to water and ions is regulated by ADH
The levels of ADH determine whether urine will be concentrated or
diluted. An increase in ADH is an indication of dehydration, while water
sufficiency results in low ADH allowing for diluted urine.
The Ureters:
The ureters are a tubes that continuous with funnel shaped

renal pelvis of the kidneys and connect downwards to the
bladder, which form approximately (25-30 )cm long and 6
mm wide. They enter the bladder from behind and at an
angle which creates a valve that stops urine from back-
tracking up to the kidneys. The wall of the ureter is made up
of three layers, including:
1) Outer covering of fibrous tissue continues with fibrous
capsule of the kidney.
2)Middle muscular layer consist of smooth muscle fibers.
3) Inner layer composed of mucosa (Transitional epithelium).
The mucosa of ureters composed of three layers:

 A single layer of small basal cells resting on a very thin
basement membrane.
 Intermediate region containing from one to several layers of
cuboidal or low columnar cells.
Superficial layer of large bulbous or umbrella cells to allow large changes in the volume of the
lumen, and highly differentiated to protect the underlying cells against cytotoxic effects of hypertonic
urine.
Urinary bladder:
The bladder is a hollow muscular organ that lies just

behind the pubic bone. In males, the prostate gland situated
behind the bladder, whereas in females,
the vagina and uterus situated behind the bladder.
The bladder wall is made up of three layers. The inner layer

lines the bladder ( transitional epithelium), the middle layer
(Smooth muscle and elastic fibres) is made up the dextrusor
muscle, and the outermost layer surrounds the bladder and
composed of Loose connective tissue. The dextruser muscle is
made up of two different types of muscle which allow the
bladder to contract and empty it self of urine.
The bladder neck is a funnel-shaped extension at the bottom of

the bladder and connects with the urethra and forms a muscular
band around the urethra, known as the internal sphincter. This
sphincter is normally closed tight to stop urine from leaking out
of the bladder. .
Urethra:
The urethra is a tube that runs from the bottom of the bladder to the
opening where the urine excreted from the body. In males, it is
responsible for transporting both urine and sperm.
The external urethral sphincter is a striated smooth muscle that

allows voluntary control over urination.
The female urethra is much shorter than the male urethra and is
only 4 cm long. Urine leaves the body via an opening in the
urethra, which sits in front of the vagina.
In males the internal and external urethral sphincters are more powerful, able to retain urine for twice as
long as females.
The wall of urethra has four tissue layers
1) Tunica mucosa: transitional but changes to stratified squamous at external urethral orifice.
2) Muscularis layer has inner and outer longitudinal and middle layer of smooth muscles as
in bladder but towards external urethral orifice, it acquires an external layer of skeletal
muscle called striated urethralis muscle
3) Serosa (adventitia) fibrous connective tissues.
The Skin (Integument)

Staff member of Basic Medical
science Department of
Pharmacy college
The skin is the largest organ of the
body, typically accounting for 15–20%
of body weight, the skin consists of two
layers which differ in function,
histological appearance and their
embryological origin. The outer layer
or epidermis is formed by an
epithelium and is of ectodermal origin.
The underlying thicker layer, the
dermis, consists of connective tissue
and develops from the mesoderm.
Beneath the two layers find
subcutaneous layer of loose connective
tissue, Hair, nails and sweat and
sebaceous glands are of epithelial
origin and collectively called the
appendages of the skin.
Functions of the
Integumentary System
 Structures that are part
of the integument
 Skin
 Hair
 Nails
 Glands
 Overview of Functions
 Protection
 Sensation
 Temperature regulation
 Vitamin D production
 Excretion
 Immunity
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN
Resistance to trauma and infection: The skin can resistant most of physical injuries to the body,
and it reach to the recovery from trauma better than other organs. The epidermal cells are
packed with the tough protein keratin. Few infectious organisms can penetrate the intact skin.
Water Retention: the skin is important as a barrier to water. It prevents the body from
absorbing excess water during swimming or bathing, prevents the body from losing excess
water.
Vitamin D Synthesis: Vitamin D is needed for bone development and maintenance. The skin
begins the synthesis process, which is later finished by the kidneys and liver.
Sensation: The skin is most sensitive organ.
It is supplied with a variety of nerve endings that react to heat, cold, touch, texture, pressure,
vibration, and tissue injury. These sensory receptors found in the face, palms, fingers, soles,
nipples, and genitals.
Thermoregulation: In response to chilling, the skin helps to retain heat. There are nerve endings
called thermoregulators that transmit signals to the brain and then signals are sent back to
dermal vessels which either constrict in cold condition or expand hot. If this is not enough, the
brain also triggers sweating.
Nonverbal communication: The skin is an important means of communication. Complex

skeletal muscles insert on dermal collagen fibers and pull on the skin to create subtle and varied
facial expressions.
Epidermis
The epidermis is a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, which means the surface consists
of dead cells packed with keratin proteins ,that are in multiple layers of a flat, scaly shape. The
epidermis lacks blood vessels and depends on the diffusion of nutrients from the underlying
connective tissue.
A vascular; nourished by diffusion from capillaries of the
papillary layer of the dermis Composed of cells arranged
into layers or strata and Separated from dermis by basement
membrane
FIVE LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS

1) The Stratum Basale: consists mainly of cuboidal to low
columnar stem cells and keratinocytes resting on the
basement membrane.
2) The Stratum Spinosum: consists of several layers of

keratinocytes; this is the thickest stratum.
As the cells are pushed upward (from more cells being
produced in the stratum basale), the cells of the stratum
spinosum stop dividing and begin to produce more keratin
filaments, which cause the cells to flatten.
3) The Stratum Granulosum:
consists of 3-5 layers of flat
keratinocytes and some dendritic cells.
The keratinocytes in this layer contain
rough , dark-staining granules of
keratin, which give the layer its name
4) Stratum Lucidum: is a thin,
translucent zone superficial to the
stratum granulosum, seen only in
thick skin. Here the keratinocytes
are densely packed .The cells have no
nuclei or other organelles. This zone
has a pale, featureless appearance
with indistinct cell boundaries.
5) Stratum Corneum: consists of up
to 30 layers of dead, scaly,
keratinized cells that form a thick,
water-resistant surface layer.
Types of Cells in the epithelial layer
1) Keratinocytes
• 90 % of epidermal cells are keratinized
• contains keratin (fibrous protein)
• protects and waterproofs the skin
2) Melanocytes
• 8% of the epidermal cells
• produces melanin
• contributes to skin color and absorbs UV
light
3) Langerhans cells
• Arise from red bone marrow and
migrate to the epidermis
• Constitute small portion of epidermal
cells
• Participate in immune responses
• Easily damaged by UV light
4) Merkel cells
• Least numerous of the epidermal cells
• Found in the deepest layer of the epidermis
• Along with tactile discs, they function in
sensation of touch
Dermis
The dermis lies beneath the epidermis and is 20
to 30 times thicker than the epidermis. It is
composed of a dense network of specialised
proteins (collagen and elastin) organized into
fibers of differing sizes and properties. A
complex gel of different proteins surrounds
these fibers. All together this is known as
the extracellular matrix.
 Blood vessels, nerves, glands and hair

follicles are embedded here.
 Collagen fibers make up 70% of the dermis
and give structural toughness and strength.
 Elastin fibers are loosely arranged in all
directions and give elasticity to the skin
 Has two layers – Papillary Layer and
Epidermal layer
 Papillary layer
• Superficial portion of the dermis
• Consist of areolar connective tissue containing elastic
fiber.
• Surface area is increased due to projections called
dermal papillae which contains capillaries or tactile
receptors
•Epidermal ridges conforms to the dermal papillae
 Reticular layer
• Deeper portion of the dermis
• Consist of dense irregular connective tissue containing
collagen/elastic fibers
• Provides skin with strength and elasticity
• Contains hair follicles, nerves and sebaceous glands.
Hypodermis (subcutaneous)
Attaches the skin to underlying
organs and tissues
• Not part of the skin - lies below the dermis
• Contains connective tissue and adipose tissues
(subcutaneous fat) for insulation
• Infants and elderly have less of this than adults and
are therefore more sensitive to cold
Skin Pigments
Three pigments are responsible for skin
color- melanin, carotene, hemoglobin
1) Melanin:
• Located mostly in epidermis
• Number of melanocytes are about the same in all races
• Difference in skin color is due to the amount of pigment
that melanocytes produce and disperse to keratinocytes.
• Freckles are caused by the accumulation of melanin in
patches
• Liver spots are also caused by the accumulation of
melanin
• Melanocytes synthesize melanin from an amino acid
called tyrosine along with an enzyme called tyrosinase.
All this occurs in the melanosome which is an organelle in
the melanocyte.
• Two types of melanin: eumelanin which is brownish
black and pheomelanin which is reddish yellow
• Fair-skinned people have more pheomelanin and dark
skinned people have more eumelanin
2) Carotene (carot = carrot)
• yellow-orange pigment
• precursor for Vitamin A which is used to make pigments needed for vision
• found in stratum corneum and fatty areas of dermis and hypodermis layer.
2) Hemoglobin
• Oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells
Effect of Environmental Factors on the melanocytes
• UV light increases enzymatic activity in the melanosomes and leads
to increased melanin production.
• A tan is achieved because the amount of melanin has increased as
well as the darkness of the melanin. (Eumelanin provides protection
from UV exposure while pheomelanin tends to break down with too
much UV exposure)
• The melanin provides protection from the UV radiation but
prolonged exposure may cause skin cancer.
Skin Color – genetic factors, environmental factors and
volume of blood
Accessory Structures of the Skin
Organs such as hair, sweat glands and sebaceous glands that develop from the
embryonic epidermis are labelled appendages of the skin or epidermal derivatives.
1) HAIR
Hairs are made of dead keratinised cells. the primary function of hairs is protection: in
human, hairs protect the scalp from injury, from the sun ray and decrease heat loss.
Eyebrows and eyelashes protect the eye from foreign particles. Hairs in the nostrils filter the
air we inhale and hairs in the external ear canal also prevent foreign particles to penetrate there.
two regions of a hair
are:
1) The shaft
the portion of the hair
that projects from the
surface of the skin. The
shape of the shaft
determines the
curliness of the hair.
2 ) The root .
The portion of the hair embedded in the skin. It extends from the epidermal surface into
the dermis but in the scalp, it can extend into the hypodermis.
The hair (shaft and root) is made of three tubes
that fit into each other. The three tubes are
made of keratinised cells.
1)The outer tube is the cuticle:
it is made of one layer of heavily
keratinised cell.
2) The middle tube is the cortex:
It contains several layers of cells.
The cells contain pigments in dark
hair and air bubbles in white hair.
3) The inner tube is the medulla:
it is composed of 2 or 3 rows of
cells containing pigments and air
spaces.
The root of the hair is contained inside a bag called the follicle forming the hair bulb.
Nipple like extension of dermal tissue called the papilla protrudes inside the hair bulb and
contains capillaries that supply nutrients to the growing hair. Sensory nerve endings called
the root hair plexus surround the bulb.
The wall of this bag is made of two layers: the external layer is the connective tissue root
sheath derived from the dermis and the internal layer is the epithelial root sheath derived
from the epidermis.
Associated with each hair follicle is band of smooth

muscle: the arrector pili. This smooth muscle is
attached at one end to the papillary layer of the
dermis and at the other to the connective tissue root
sheath of the follicle. c
provide increased protection against heat loss in cold

weather or increase in body size to intimidate potential
adversaries. In human, contraction of these muscles
causes only "goose pimples".
Important Features and Texture
• Roughly 5 million hairs cover the body of an average individual.

• About 100,000 are on the scalp
• Almost every part of body is covered with hair except palms of
hands, soles of feet, sides of
fingers and toes, lips and parts of genitals.
• Hair shafts differ in size, shape, and color. In the eyebrows they are
short and stiff while on the
scalp they are longer and more flexible. Over the rest of the body
they are fine and nearly invisible
• Oval shaped hair shafts produce wavy hair, flat or ribbon-like hair
shafts produce curly or kinky
hair, and round hair shafts produce straight hair.
SEBACEOUS GLANDS
Sebaxeous or oil glands are simple branched
areolar glands. Functionaly they are holocrine
glands. They secrete the sebum (seb = oil) an
oily product. Sebum is usually secreted into a
hair follicle but in a few regions of the body
(lips and mammary papilla for exemple) they
are directly secreted onto the skin surface.
Sebum is a natural skin cream: it helps hair
from becoming brittle, prevents excessive
evaporation of water from the skin, keeps the
skin soft and contains a bactericidal agent that
inhibits the growth of certain bacteria.
Sebaceous glands are scattered all over the
surface of the skin except in the palms, soles
and the side of the feet.
Sweat Glands
Sweat glands are simple coiled tubular glands. Two types of sweat glands are
present in humans. they are distinguished by their secretory mechanism into
merocrine (~eccrine) sweat glands and apocrine sweat glands.
1) Eccrine glands: are the most common. Their

secretory portion can be located in the dermis or
in the hypodermis. They produce sweat, a watery
mixture of salts, antibodies and metabolic wastes.
Sweat prevents overheating of the body and thus
helps regulate body temperature.
2) Apocrine glands are found mainly in the skin of
the armpits, of the an genital areas and of the
areola of the breasts. Their secretory portion can
be located in the dermis or in the hypodermis.
Their excretory ducts open into hair follicles.
Their secretion is more viscous than that of the
eccrine glands, they start secreting at puberty and .
NAILS
Nails are hard plates of tightly packed keratinized cells. They are clear and cover the dorsal surface
of the last phalanges of fingers and toes. Nails protect the the ends of the fingers, allow us to scratch
various parts of our body and help us grasping and manipulating small objects.
Each nail is made of three regions:
1- the nail body: portion of the nail that is visible. Rest
onto the nail bed which an epithelial tissues made only
of the stratum basale and the stratum spinosum. There
are no stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum and
stratum corneum in the nail bed.
2- the free edge: visible portion of the nail that

extend past the end of the digit. It is the distal part
of the nail that you clip every now and then.
3- the nail root: hidden portion of the nail that is
embedded in a fold of skin (or nail fold). The
cuticle is the stratum corneum of the nail fold that
is pushed forward over the nail.

Overview - Managing Waste From Health Care Activities

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Lecture (1)

The Cardiovascular System

Dr: Abbas,Ch. Mraisel

In the average lifetime the heart beats 250

The SA node is composed of nodal tissue that has

The impulses are then sent down the atrioventricular bundle.

 All blood vessels have three layers, from

 consists of smooth muscle, collagen, and elastic tissue.

Tunica adventitia: This is a relatively thin

The Blood Components

Dr: Abbas,Ch. Mraisel

Blood is made of two parts:

1) Albumins are the most common group of proteins in plasma and

2) Globulins are a group of proteins, designated into three groups:

The Digestive System

Dr: Abbas,Ch. Mraisel

 The digestive system, also known as the

 The accessory organs:

1) Mucosa: The mucosa is the absorptive and secretory layer.

2) Submucosa: The submucosa is relatively thick, highly

3) Muscularis: The muscularis is responsible for segmental

4) Serosa: The last layer is a protective layer. It is composed of

2. The Cheeks and Lips •

 Incisors: chisel-shaped for

canine  Canines: cone shaped to

 Two main regions

The Digestive System

Dr: Abbas,Ch. Mraisel

Three pairs of salivary glands

Food travels down the esophagus, through a series of rhythmic

 Epithelium: nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium

 The hard palate: is the bony

The stomach is divided into four sections, each of

The stomach have many jobs such as stores food and

The stomach wall has tissue layers similar to those of

At the bottom of the pits lie glands where In the

◙ Simple columnar epithelium: secrete

 The foods in the stomach converted into a

The small intestine is made up of three parts, duodenum,

The jejunum is approximately 2.5 m. long, it has more

 The large intestine is the final section of the

 The rectum is the final part

The Accessory Organs of Digestive System

Dr: Abbas,Ch. Mraisel

The hepatopancreatic ampulla empties into the duodenum at the

Functions of the liver

The liver secretes bile into narrow channels

Hepatic cords radiate out from the central vein

 40–70 mL of bile can be stored in gall bladder.

 Head is in C-shaped curve of

 The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of

Composed of four layers :

Some diseases of accessory organs

Dr: Abbas,Ch. Mraisel

Chapter metsyS yrotaripseR ,22 80

 The primary function of R.S is breathing which

 Consists of a series of filtration mechanisms

Chapter metsyS yrotaripseR ,22 83

Chapter metsyS yrotaripseR ,22 86

The pharynx consider common space used by both

In the human the pharynx can be divided into three

Dr: Abbas,Ch. Mraisel

Histological structures of the larynx :