CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

4.0 SHORT FIBRE COMPOSITES

A distinguishing feature of the unidirectional composites discussed in chapter 3 is that they
have higher strength and modulus in the direction of the fiber axis and are generally very
weak in the transverse direction. This is very advantageous when these composites are used
in applications where the state of stress can be accurately determined so that laminates can
be fabricated from the unidirectional laminae having strengths matched to the design needs.
However, in applications where the state of stress may not be predictable, or where it is
known that the state of stresses are approximately equal in all directions, unidirectional
composites or laminae may not be required or cost effective. Such applications require
composites that have approximately equal strengths in all directions. Multilayered
composites can be constructed from layers of unidirectional laminae having different fiber
orientations that the resulting composite is essentially isotropic in a plane. Such composites
have the disadvantage that although the overall composite is equally strong in all directions,
the surface layers, where the failure is quite often initiated, are still very weak in the
transverse direction. In applications where protection from a corrosive environment is an
important factor, such as in storage tanks in the chemical industry and in many applications
in the automobile industry, laminates of unidirectional laminae do not solve the problem
completely. Thus it is advantageous to have each layer or lamina isotropic in some
applications. An effective way of producing an isotropic layer is to use randomly oriented
short fibers as the reinforcement. Moulding compounds consisting of short fibres can
produce generally isotropic composites. They can be easily moulded by injection or
compression moulding and are also economical. Composites containing short fibres as the
reinforcement are called short-fibre composites. They are also referred to as discontinuous
fibre reinforced composites

Theories of Stress Transfer

In composites, loads are not directly applied on the fibers but are applied to the matrix material
and transferred to the fibers through the fiber ends and also through the cylindrical surface of
the fiber near the ends. When the length of a fiber is much greater than the length over which
the transfer of stress takes place, the end effects can be neglected and the fiber may be
considered to be continuous. In the case of short-fiber composites, the end effects cannot be

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

neglected and the composite properties are a function of fiber length. The end effects
significantly influence the behavior of and reinforcing effects in discontinuous-fiber composites.
For a good understanding of the behavior of discontinuous-fiber composites, it is necessary to
first understand the mechanism of stress transfer.

Matrix

Fibre Deformed

Matrix
D Undeformed
Fibre
l

Matrix

Fibre Deformed

b
Effect of deformation on the strain around a fibre in a low modulus matrix (a) continuous fibre
(b) short fibre

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

lc = critical fibre length

Obtained from:
^ πD 2
σ Tf = P /
4
Shear force at interface, P =
τπDl c / 2
^ D
⇒ lc = σ Tf .
2τ

Variation of tensile tress in a fibre and shear stress at the interface

lc/D = Critical aspect ratio

Axial strain in a fibre as a function of position along the fibre at different loadings

Approximate Analysis of Stress Transfer

Early studies concerning variation of stresses along the length of a fiber were performed by
Cox and Outwater. Probably the most often quoted theory of stress transfer is the shear-lag
analysis applied by Rosen, who modified an earlier analysis of Dow. The stress distribution
along the length of a fiber can be understood in a simple manner by considering the
equilibrium of a smal1 element of fiber as shown in figure below.

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

σf

z
l τ

dz

2r

σf + dσf

The force equilibrium of an infinitesimal length, dz, requires that

(πr )σ + (2πrdz )τ = (πr )(σ

2
f
2
f + dσ f )

dσ f 2τ
Or = (4.1)
dz r

Where σf is the fiber stress in the direction z, τ is the shear stress on the cylindrical fibre-matrix
interface, and r is the fiber radius. Equation (4.1) indicates that for a fiber of uniform radius, the
rate of increase of fiber stress is proportional to the shear stress at the interface and can be
integrated to obtain the fiber stress on a cross section a distance z away from the fiber end:
2 z
r ∫0
σ f= σ f 0 + τdz (4.2)

where σf0 is the stress on the fiber end. In many analyses σ f0 is neglected because of yielding of
the matrix adjacent to the fiber end or separation of the fiber end from the matrix as a result of
large stress concentrations. When σ f0 is negligible, Eq. (4.2) can be written as
2 z
r ∫0
σ f= τdz (4.3)

The right-hand side of Eq. (4.3) can be evaluated if the variation of shear stress along the fiber
length is known. In practice, the shear stress is not known beforehand and is determined as a
part of the complete solution. To obtain analytical solutions such as those obtained in the works
just cited, it is necessary to make assumptions regarding the deformation of material

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

surrounding the fiber and the fiber-end conditions. For example, it may be assumed that the
interface shear stress at the mid-fiber length and the normal stress at the fiber end are zero. A
frequently used approximate method of determining fiber stress is to assume that the matrix
material surrounding the fiber is a rigid perfectly plastic material having a shear stress-strain
diagram as shown in Fig. 4.2. For this case, the interface shear stress is constant along the fiber
length and is equal to the matrix yield stress in shear, τy. Equation (4.3) then yields.
2τ y z
σ f= (4.4)
r
For short fibers, the maximum fiber stress occurs at the mid-fiber length (i.e. , z = l/2 .
Therefore,
τ yl
(σ )f max = (4.5)
r
Where l is the fibre length. However, the fibre stress has a limiting value even though eqn (4.5)
may not predict it. The limiting value of the fibre stress is the stress that would be accepted by a
fibre of continuous or infinite length for a given stress applied to the composite. Assuming that
ε c = ε f = ε m for continuous fibres loaded along the axes, it can be easily shown that the
maximum fibre stress is given by
Ef
(σ f ) max = σc (4.6)
Ec

Whereσc is the applied composite stress and the composite modulus, Ec can be calculated from
the rule of mixtures. The minimum fiber length, which the maximum fiber stress, (σf)max, can be
achieved, may be defined as a load-transfer length, lt. It is overall length of the fiber that the load
is transferred from matrix to fiber. It is given by

lt (σ f ) max ( E f Ec )σ c
= = (4.7)
d 2τ y 2τ y

where d (= 2r) is the fiber diameter and (σf)max is given by Eq. (4.6). Since (σf)max is a function
of applied stress, the load-transfer length is also a function of applied stress.

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

τy

Shear stress
Figures 4.2. Idealized shear-stress-shear-strain curve for matrix.

A critical fiber length, lc, independent of applied stress may defined as the minimum fiber length
in which the maximum allowable fiber stress (or the fiber ultimate strength), σfu, can be
achieved.
lc σ fu
Thus = (4.8)
d 2τ y

It may be noted that the critical fiber length is the maximum value of load-transfer length. The
critical fiber length is an important system property and affects ultimate composite properties.

Sometimes the load-transfer length and critical length are referred to as the ineffective length
because over this length the fiber supports a stress less than the maximum fiber stress. Stress
distribution (fiber stress and interface shear stress) in fibers of different lengths are shown in
Fig. 4.3a for a given composite stress. Figure 4.3b shows variations of fiber stress for increasing
composite stress on a fiber longer than the critical length. It may be observed that a small length
adjoining the fiber end is stressed at less than the maximum fiber stress. This affects the length
and elastic modulus of the composite. It may, however, be pointed out here that when the fiber
is much greater than the load-transfer length, the composite behavior approaches the behavior of
continuous-fiber-reinforced composites.

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Stress Distributions from Finite-Element Analysis

This stress distributions shown in Fig. 4.3 are approximate because they were obtained by
assuming that the matrix material is perfectly plastic. In reality, most matrix materials are
elastic-plastic in behavior. Accurate stress distributions can thus be obtained only by assuming
the matrix to be elastic-plastic. This, however, presents many difficulties in performing a
theoretical analysis of the composite. Numerical solutions are probably best for facile analysis
of the complex problems. In numerical methods, very few simplifying assumptions are
required, and an accurate solution can be easily obtained. Finite-element analyses of aligned
short-fiber composites have been carried out by many investigators to study the various aspects
of these composites. In some of the analyses the matrix material has been assumed to be
completely elastic, whereas in others it is assumed to be elastic-plastic. The analyses provide
very useful information regarding stress distributions in the fibers as well as matrix. Some of the
stress distributions obtained by elastic analyses are shown in Figs. 4.4 and 4.5. Variation of fiber
stress shows that there is significant stress transfer at the end because it is only an elastic
analysis and perfect adhesion has been assumed. Interfacial shear stress distribution is consistent
with Eq. (4.2) in that interfacial shear stress becomes zero when the fiber stress attains its
maximum value. It may be noted that there is a stress concentration near the fiber end. It can be
easily shown that the ratio of maximum fiber stress (Fig. 4.4) to the maximum matrix stress is
equal to the ratio of their respective elastic moduli.

Equivalently, the maximum fiber stress is in agreement with Eq. (4.6). It is interesting to note
that the matrix radial stress has a compressive value for the case shown. This indicates that even
if the interfacial bond between the fiber and matrix is broken, load transfer can still occur
between the fiber and the matrix because of friction forces between the two. However, if the
fiber are normal to the load direction or the interfiber distances become quite small, the
preceding assumption is not always true. Stress distributions obtained in an elastic-plastic
analysis [12] are shown in Fig. 4.6. The elastic-analysis shows that the stress transfer through
the fiber end is insignificant. In this case also, the maximum fiber stress was show to be in
agreement with Eq. (4.6). interfacial shear stress near the fiber end is not a constant, although
the matrix deforms plastically. This is because a three-dimensional stress criterion was used to

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

predict yielding of the matrix. However, the interfacial shear stress distribution is in agreement
with Eq. (4.2)

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Average Fiber Stress

From the preceding discussion it is clear that the ends of finite-length fibers are stressed to less
than the maximum fiber stress. The influence of fiber ends is to lower the elastic modulus and
strength of short-fiber composites. In an analysis for elastic modulus and strength, average fiber
stress is a very useful quantity. It can be evaluated as follows:
−
1l
σ f
= ∫ σ f dz
l0
(4.9)

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

where σf is the average fiber stress. The quantity represented by the integral is given by the area
under the curve of fiber stress plotted against length. For an approximate stress distribution
shown in Fig. 4.3, the average stress can be found to be

(σ f )max = τ yl
−
1
σ f
=
2 d
, l < lc (4.10)

= (σ f )max ⎜1 − c ⎟
−
⎛ l ⎞
σ f
⎝ 2l ⎠
, l > lc

For more accurate stress analyses, the stress variation at the fiber end will be different from a
linear one, although the fiber stress in the middle portion of the length (l-lc) will be constant at
(σf)max. Another difference can occur if the load-transfer length is not defined by Eq. (4.7). In
such cases the average fiber stress can be obtained by considering the actual stress distribution.
There may, however, be only a small difference between the average stresses obtained from
actual and approximate (linear) stress distribution particularly when fibers are longer than the
critical length. When the fiber length exceeds 50 times its critical length, the composite behavior
approaches that of a continuous-fiber composite for an equivalent fiber orientation.

MODULUS AND STRENGTH OF SHORT-FIBER COMPOSITES

The stress distributions obtained through finite-element methods, as discussed in the previous
section, have also been used to predict the strength and modulus of short-fiber composites. The
results are available in the form of curves for specific values of system variables such as fiber
aspect ratio (l/d), fiber volume fraction, and properties of the constituents. Whenever a change
in any of the system variables takes place, a new set of design procedures must be adopted. For
design purposes, it is usually desirable to have simple and rapid computational procedures for
estimating composite properties even though the estimations are only approximate.

4.3.1 Prediction of Modulus

The Halpin-Tsai equations, which were discussed in chapter 3 for predicting the transverse
modulus of unidirectional composites, are also very useful in predicting the longitudinal and
transverse moduli of aligned short-fiber composites (schematically shown below).

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The Halpin-Tsai equations for longitudinal and transverse moduli can be written as:-

=
2l ( )
EL 1 + d η LV f
(4.11)
Em 1 − η LV f

and
EL 1 + 2η LV f
= (4.12)
Em 1 − η LV f

Where
( E f / Em ) − 1
ηL = (4.13)
( E f / Em ) + 2(l / d )

And
( E f / Em ) − 1
ηT = (4.14)
( E f / Em ) + 2

It may be pointed out that Eqs. (4.11), and (4.12) are only particular cases of a general equation.
The form of the general equation coincides with that of Eq. in chapter 3, in which ξ is a measure
of reinforcement. Equations (4.11) and (4.12) can be obtained from Eq. in chapter 3 by
substituting (ξ= 2/d) for the case of longitudinal modulus and (ξ = 2) for the case of transverse
modulus. The two values of ξ are consistent with Eq. (3.38). Further, the Halpin-Tsai equations
predict that the transverse modulus of an aligned short-fiber composite is not influenced by the
fiber aspect ratio (l/d) and its value is the same as that for the transverse modulus of a
continuous-fiber composite. Variations of longitudinal modulus have been shown as functions
of fiber aspect ratios in Figs. 4.8 and 4.9 for different fiber volume fractions for the cases when
the modulus rations are 20 and 100, which approximately represent glass-epoxy and graphite-
epoxy systems, respectively.

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

It was pointed out earlier that randomly oriented short-fiber composites are produced to obtain
composites that are essentially isotropic in a plane. Such composites are prepared by injection or
compression molding or from non-woven mats that often form the surface layers of laminated
composites to prevent otherwise easy initiation of cracking resulting from poor transverse
strength of layers of unidirectional composites. Analysis of such laminates, which have some
layers of isotropic composites as well, requires knowledge of the elastic properties isotropic
layers. An effective method of predicting elastic properties of isotropic layer made from
randomly oriented short fibers is to assume them equal to the properties, averaged for angular,
dependence, of a unidirectional composite.

The following empirical equations are often used to predict the elastic modulus and shear
modulus of composites containing fibers that are randomly oriented in a plane:
3 5
E random = E L + ET
8 8
(4.15)
1 1
Grandom = E L + ET
8 4
where EL and ET are the longitudinal and transverse moduli of an aligned short-fiber composite
having the same fiber aspect ratio and fiber volume fraction as the composite under
consideration. Moduli EL and ET can either be determined experimentally or calculated using
Eqs. (4.11) and (4.12).

Example: A glass-fiber reinforced nylon with a fiber volume fraction of 20% is injection-
molded to produce a random fiber orientation. The fiber length is 3.2mm and the fiber diameter,
10μm. Calculate the elastic modulus, shear modulus, and Poison’s ratio of the random fiber
composite.

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Now the elastic modulus and shear modulus of the random fib can be calculated using Eqn.
(4.15):

Since a random fiber composite is considered isotropic in its plane, its in-plane Poisson's ratio
can be calculated using the following relationship between ER, GR, and Poisson's ratio vR:

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

4.3.2 Prediction of Strength

The average longitudinal stress on an aligned short-fiber composite can be calculated by the rule
of mixtures.
−

σ c = σ f V f + σ mVm (4.16)

Where σf is the average fibre stress given by eqn (4.9). For a linear stress distribution at the

fibre ends shown in fig 4.3, values of σf are given by eqn (4.10). Thus the average

composite stress can be written as:

1
σ c = (σ f ) max V f + σ mVm l<lt (4.17)
2
And
⎛ lt ⎞
σ c = (σ f ) max ⎜1 − ⎟V f + σ mVm l>lt (4.18)
⎝ 2l ⎠
If the length is much greater than the load transfer length (e.g l=100lt), the factor 1-(lt/l)
approaches 1 and eqn (4.18) can be written as
1
σ c = (σ f ) max V f + σ mVm l>>lt (4.19)
2
Depending on the fiber length, Eq. (4.17), (4.18), or (4.19) can be utilized for predicting the
strength of the composite. When fibers are smaller than the critical length, the maximum fiber
stress is less than the average fiber strength so that the fibers will not fracture, regardless of the

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

magnitude of the applied stress. In this case the composite failure occurs when the matrix or
interface fails and the composite ultimate strength, σcu , is approximately given by
τ yl
σ cu = V f + σ muVm l<lc (4.20)
d
Then the fiber length is greater than the critical length, the fibers can be stressed to their average
strength. In this case it can be assumed that the fiber failure initiates when the maximum fiber
stress is equal to the ultimate strength of the fibres. Thus
⎛ lc ⎞
σ cu = σ fu ⎜1 − ⎟V f + (σ m )∈ f * Vm l>lc (4.21)
⎝ 2l ⎠
σ cu = σ fuV f + (σ m )∈ f Vm * l>>lc (4.22)

Where (σ m )∈ f * is a matrix stress at the fiber fracture strain ∈ f * . A useful approximation in

these equations can be made by using the value of matrix ultimate strength, σm, in place of
(σ m )∈ f * in writing Eqs. (4.21) and (4.22) it has been assumed that the fiber volume fraction is

above a certain minimum, Vmin , so that the matrix will not be able to support the full load when
all the fibers break and composite failure will then take place. The minimum and also critical
volume fractions of fibers, which were defined for the case of continuous-fiber-reinforced
composites in Chapter 3, can be defined in an analogous manner in this case also. It is left to the
reader to define them and to obtain the following expressions for Vmin and Vcrit :
σ mu − (σ m )∈ f *
Vmin = (4.23)
−
σ f + σ mu − (σ m )∈ f *

σ mu − (σ m )∈ f *
Vcrit = (4.24)
−
σ f − (σ m )∈ f *

Comparisons of Eq. (4.23) with Eq. (3.25) and Eq.. (4.24) with Eq. (3.27) show that, for that, for
identical properties of fibers and matrix material, short-fiber composites require higher values of
Vmin and Vcrit than do the continuous-fiber-reinforced composites. The reason is obvious in that
the short fibers are not fully effective. However, as the fiber length becomes very compared to
the transfer length, the average fiber stress approaches the maximum fiber stress and the
behavior of short-fiber composites approaches that of continuous-fiber composites.

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

If the fiber volume fraction is less than V min, the composite will not fracture when all fibers
break because the remaining cross-sectional area of matrix material can support the full load.
The composite fracture will occur when the matrix fails. Thus the ultimate strength composite
with Vf < Vmin is given by
σcu = σmu (1-Vf), Vf < Vmin (4.25)
In case of discontinuous-fiber composites, an additional factor influences the failure, namely,
the large stress concentrations in the matrix produced as a result of the fiber ends. The effect of
the stress concentration is to further lower the composite strength.

The problem of off-axis strength of an aligned short-fiber composite takes on added complexity
because the failure-mode changes as the angle between the stress and fiber direction increases
from 0o to 90o. in the case of continuous fibers, at intermediate angles matrix shear failure
occurs at the interface, and at large angles near 90o the matrix interface fails in plain strain.

It was pointed earlier that randomly oriented short-fiber composites are of particular
significance because they are quasi-isotropic; that is, they have the same properties in all
directions. The strength, like modulus, of a randomly oriented short-fiber composite may be
obtained by assuming it equal to the strength, averaged for angular dependence, of a
unidirectional composite. However, an approach often used to predict the strength of random
short-fiber composites utilizes a laminate-analysis procedure. In this approach the strength of an
isotropic laminate constructed from unidirectional plies is used to approximate the strength of
random-fiber composites. In practice, the strength of a [0/+ 45/90] symmetric laminate is close
to that of an isotropic laminate made up of many orientations. Kardos compared experimental
results obtained by Lavengood with the prediction of isotropic laminate analogy calculations as
shown in Fig. 4.10. For the purpose of calculating ultimate strength of the laminate a modified
maximum strain theory of failure theory of failure was applied. Also shown in Fig. 4.10 are the
predictions of Chen and Lees. It is clear that the maximum strain criteria in conjunction with the
laminate model comes, by far, the closest to predicting the strength of random orientation
systems at volume fractions of engineering interest. The fact that the predicted strengths are
somewhat below experimental findings may be attributed to the interaction between failure

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

modes in the laminate or lack of information on how the allowable ply strains vary with volume
fraction of fibers and fabrications conditions.

It would be wise to point out here that in molded short-fiber composites, the fiber orientation
throughout the molding varies greatly according to the flow within the mold. thus the molded
part properties will vary from section according to the local fiber orientation. The strength of the
molding will then be dependent on both the local stress state and local fiber orientation. A recent
method of measuring spatial orientation of short-fiber-reinforced thermoplastics is based of
image analysis.

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

4.3.3 Effect of Matrix Ductility

The effect of matrix ductility and interface treatment on the properties of short-fiber composites
has been investigated by Gaggar and Broutman.
Studies were conducted on glass-fiber-mat-reinforced epoxy resins. Ductility of the matrix was
varied by mixing a brittle epoxy resin (DER 334) with a flexible epoxy resin (DER 736) in
different proportions. The ductile resin (designated as blend C) composite have lower strength
and modulus but a slightly larger strain to failure compared to the brittle resin composites.

However, the difference between failure strains of the three composites (and also their strengths
and moduli) is very insignificant compared to the difference in the corresponding properties of
the respective matrix material. The reason for the low elongation of failure of ductile matrix
composite is that the matrix is confined by the fibers and cannot deform.

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fig 4.11 injection moulded glass fibre-reinforced nylon (a) section of part where fibres have preferred orientation,
(b) section of part where fibres have random orientation.

In a composite the matrix is subjected to a triaxial state of stress, even when a uniaxial load is
applied to the composite. The effect of triaxial tension causes the ductile matrix to fail at a very
low strain. Thus the elongation to failure drops drastically when fibers are added to the matrix.

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 CVS 518 MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composites with ductile and brittle resins are observed to fail by the same mechanism. The
tensile strength is shown as a function of fiber volume fraction in Fig. 4.13. The maximum
tensile strength for the brittle matrix composite occurs at a fiber volume fraction of
approximately 50%, beyond which there is a slight decrease in strength because of fabrication
difficulties in obtaining a good-quality compose at these high volume fractions of fibers. The
improved strength of the brittle matrix composite results from the higher matrix strength, which
has an observable influence in the case of randomly orientated fiber composites.

The matrix ductility has little influence on the notched impact strength of such composites. This
behavior can be explained by considering how the presence of fibers influences the behavior or
brittle matrices and ductile matrices. In the case of ductile matrices, fibers limit the elongation
of the matrix between them and thus addition of rigid fibers greatly reduces the toughness. On
the other hand, addition of fibers to a brittle matrix can increase toughness.

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