Boiler Design

Boiler Design & Performance
Karthik S.C.
Sr. Engineer - BPP/FB
Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018
Presentation Summary
• BHEL - Technology & Capability

• Emerging Market Requirements
• Trends in Cycle parameters
• Boiler Types
• Sub Critical vs Super Critical Boilers
• Boiler Design Basis
• Selection of Auxiliaries
• Present Emission Requirements
• Technologies to meet the Emission standards

Pan India Presence
BHEL manufactures 180 products in 30 major product groups

BHEL – Technology & Capability
• Pulverised Coal Combustion (PCC)
• Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC)
• Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC)
• Combined Cycle Gas Turbine / Co-generation Plants
• Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)

Technology – through Collaborations
Products (HPBP) Collaborators
Steam Generators Skoda, Czech; Combustion Engg., USA, Alstom (now GE)
Gravimetric Feeders Stock Equipment Co., USA (now part of SPX Corporation)
Safety, Safety Relief, Y –Type Dresser Industries Inc. USA (now part of Halliburton
Valves Group)
High Pressure Valves Toa Valve Co. Ltd, Japan
Soot Blowers Copes Vulcan, USA (now part of Clyde-Bergmann)
HPLP Bypass System Sulzer Brothers Ltd (now part of CCI, USA)
Christmas Trees & Wellhead Kvaerner Oilfield Products, Singapore (now AKER
Assemblies, Subsea Well Head,
Casing support & Mudline
KVAERNER, Norway)
Suspension Systems & Block Valves
HRSG Vogt-NeM Inc.(now Vogt Power International, USA)
Circulating Fluidised Bed LLA, Germany (earlier LLB, Germany)
Combustion (CFBC) Boilers

PCC - Technology Development
1960s Boiler design as per Czechoslovakian technology, 30 MW, 60 MW
1970s Technology from Combustion Engineering, USA;
Unit capacities 110 MW, 210 MW – Low Pressure Steam cycle.
1980s Unit capacity of 500 MW – Higher Pressure Steam Cycle with
controlled circulation;
Indigenisation of Technology to suit high ash Indian coal;
Tower type boilers introduced for highly erosive coals.
1990s 250 MW units developed.
Boiler efficiency improvement by lowering exit gas temperatures.
2000s Technology for Super critical steam generators from Alstom.
Designs for firing Washed Coals developed.

Boiler Systems Engineered
• Two Pass / Tower Type (Single Pass)
• Box / Close Coupled
• Single / Bi-drum
• Balanced Draft / Pressurised Furnace
• Natural / Controlled Circulation / Once through
• Base Load / Cycling / Two Shifting / Trip to House Load
• Constant / Sliding Pressure
• Top / Bottom Supported

Boiler Systems Engineered
• Tangential / Wall Firing
• Direct / Indirect Firing System

• Bowl / Ball-Tube / Ball & Race / Beater / Beater Wheel
Type Pulverizers
• Hot / Cold Primary Air / Suction Mill System
• Axial / Radial Type Fans
• Tubular / Regenerative Air heaters

Fuels Handled
• Coal/oil/gas in any • Coal tar

combination • Black liquor
• Lignite • Bagasse
• Blast furnace gas/coke • Rice husk
oven gas • Washery rejects
• Carbon monoxide • Wheat/ rice straw

BHEL Utility Units - A Summary
Unit Rating, MW Contracted Commissioned
No. MW No. MW
30 4 120 4 120
60 16 960 16 960
67.5 9 607.5 8 540
70 14 980 9 630
80 14 1120 6 480
100 6 600 6 600
110 39 4290 39 4290
54 % Total 120 31 3720 30 3600
125 7 875 2 250
Installed 130 2 260 2 260
Capacity of 150 19 2850 7 1050
200 24 4800 21 4200
India is 210 116 24360 114 23940
Contributed by 250 58 14500 49 12250
270 37 9990 12 3240
BHEL Utility 300 1 300 0 0
Sets 500 85 42500 79 39500
525 7 3675 2 1050
600 21 12600 16 9600
660 30 19800 8 5280
700 1 700 1 700
800 24 19200 4 3200
TOTAL 565 168808 435 115740

We are currently adopting
Advanced Steam Cycles to Improve the

Environmental & Economic Performance of
India’s Power Generation

Reference List of Supercritical Boilers
NTPC / BARH 2 x 660 MW APGENCO / Krishnapatnam 1 x 800 MW
APPDCL / Krishnapatnam 2 x 800 MW APGENCO / Vijayawada 1 x 800 MW
PPGCL / BARA 3 x 660 MW NTPC / Karimnagar 2 x 800 MW
RPCL / Yermaras 2 x 800 MW TANGEDCO/ North Chennai 1 x 800 MW
KPCL / Bellary 1 x 700 MW TANGEDCO/ Uppur 2 x 800 MW
LPGCL / Lalitpur- BHL 3 x 660 MW BIFPCL / Maitree 2 x 660MW
DB Power / Singrauli 2 x 660 MW NTPC / Patratu 3 x 800MW
NTPC / Mouda St. II 2 x 660 MW MAHAGENCO/Bhusawal 1 x 660MW
NPGCL / Nabinagar 3 x 660 MW UPRVUNL/Panki 1 x 660MW
OPGCL / Banaharpalli 2 x 660 MW TANGEDCO/Udangudi 2 x 660MW
RRVUNL / Suratgarh 2 x 660 MW
NTPC / Gadarwara 2 x 800 MW
NTPC / North Karanpura 3 x 660 MW
NTPC / Darlipalli 2 x 800 MW
TANGEDCO / Ennore 2 x 660 MW 56 Boilers
GSECL / Wanakbori 1 x 800 MW
TSGENCO / Kothagudem 1 x 800 MW
Contracted
TSGENCO / Yadadri 5 x 800 MW

Advanced Ultra Super Critical Plants
Gearing-up to introduce Advanced Ultra
supercritical boilers (AUSC)
AUSC Boilers (300 ata, 710 C / 720 C) will be

developed based on OTSC technology
Test Facility (400 bar, 700 Deg. C) installed and

tests are on to collect critical design data
BHEL is one among the Five MNC’s to have this

facility
Member of the National Technology Mission

program to install AUSC plant by 2020


• Boiler Types

Emerging market requirements
• Highest economically achievable Plant Efficiency

(Lowest Heat Rate)
• Suitable for different quality of fuel
• Minimum emission of Pollutants
• High Reliability & Availability
• Suitable for differing modes of operation
• Ability to operate under adverse grid conditions
• Lowest life cycle cost

Higher Plant efficiency for
• Conservation of fuel resources

• Reduction of Atmospheric Pollutants - SOX & NOX
• Reduction in CO2 emission
• Better economics in power generation
• Fuel
• Reagent

Environmental Benefits
Station Units MS MS/RH Efficiency Coal CO2

Capacity (No.x MW) Pressure Temp 0C (%) Consumption Emissions
(MW) (kg/cm2) (MMT/Yr) (MMT/Yr)
4000 8x500 170 537/537 38.6 15.61 22.90
4000 5x800 247 565/593 40.24 14.98 21.97
Savings in coal consumed: 0.63 x 106 Tons/Year

Reduction of CO2 emissions: 0.93 x 106 Tons/Year
At 80% PLF & HHV of 4000 kcal/kg
Source : CEA

CO2 Reduction through
Super Critical technology
860
850
Specific CO2 emission (gm/kWhr)
850
840
830
825
820
810
800
800
790
780
770
500 MW units SC phase-I SC phase-II
(Barh-I/ Sipat-I) (Barh-II)
(247/537/565) (247/565/595)
* Assuming 85% Boiler Efficiency; Indian Coal with 31% Carbon content & 5% Operating Margin


• Boiler Types

Rankine cycle
 The Carnot Cycle is theoretically most efficient, but it is having practical
difficulties.
 For steam power plant, practical thermal cycle was suggested by Rankine,
called Ideal cycle or Rankine cycle.
T
T1 4 1
p1 3-3’ – BFP raises pressure from p2 to p1
3’-4 – Heating In feed heaters & economizer
3’
4 -1 – Heating In boiler
T2 2 1-2 – Work done in Turbine from p1 to p2
3 p2
2-3 – Heat reduction in condenser

Methods of increasing
Rankine Cycle Efficiency
• Raising inlet pressure of steam
• Raising supply temperature by super heating
• Reheat Cycle
• Dropping the final pressure (or temperature)
• Regenerative Heating

Parameters for increasing Cycle
Efficiency in PC-fired Units
• Increasing main steam pressure
• Increasing superheat and reheat temperatures
• Adopting double reheat
• Increasing the vacuum of condenser
• Increasing final feed water temperature.

Increasing Boiler Efficiency
• Minimum RH spray
• Minimum SH spray( if tapped off before feed heaters)
• Minimum flue gas temperature at AH outlet
• Minimum excess air at AH outlet
• Minimum unburnt Carbon loss
• Reduced auxiliary power consumption.

Trend in unit sizes & Cycle parameters
SHO SHO/RHO
Year of
Unit Size Pressure Temperature
Introduction
(kg/cm2(a)) (Deg.C)
60 / 70 MW 96 540 1965
110 / 120 MW 139 540/540 1966
200 / 210 MW 137 / 156 540/540 1972
250 MW 156 540/540 1991
179 540/540 1979
500 MW
179 540/568 1985
256 568/596 2008
660 MW
269 596/603 2015
256 568/596 2008
800 MW 269 596/603 2013
279 603/603 2015
UTILITY BOILER TECHNOLOGY GROWTH
30 SUB CRITICAL SUPERCRITICAL
800 MW & above
NATURAL CONTROLLED CIRCULATION ONCE THROUGH
HEAT RATE IMPROVEMENT %
300 ata,
CIRCULATION 25 700°C/700°C
25 660 / 800MW
250 ata,
568°C/598°C
500 MW 20.5
210/250 MW 500 MW 170 ata,
20
150 ata, 170 ata, 540°C/568°C
540°C/540°C 540°C/540°C 17.2
110/200 MW
130 ata, 15.7
14.6
15 540°C/540°C
12.5
60/100 MW
96 ata,
10 540°C
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
YEAR
Increase of Plant Cycle Efficiency due to
Steam Parameters
Increase of efficiency [%]
10
9
6.77
5.79
8 5.74
7 4.81
4.26 3.74
6
5 3.44 2.76
3.37
4
2.64
3 2.42 1.47
2 600 / 620
1.78
0.75 580 / 600
1
566 / 566
0
0 538 / 566
300
241
Pressure [bar] 175 538 / 538 HP / RH outlet temperature [deg. C]


• Boiler Types

Based on Construction

Types of Boilers
Steam
Application Type Circulation
Parameters
Natural Circulation
Drum
Subcritical Controlled
Utility Drum
Circulation
(Power Generation)
Once through
Separator
Once through
Supercritical Separator
Industrial
(Process Steam Subcritical Drum Natural Circulation
Requirements)
DRUM TYPE
 Natural Circulation Boiler
• Circulation thru water walls by thermo-siphon effect.
 Controlled Circulation Boiler
• Thermo-siphon effect supplemented by pumps
Choice of Circulating system depends on Operating Pressure

Circulation Boiler – Natural Circulation
Natural Circulation Operating Pressure
Circulation through WW by Thermo-Siphon The Density difference between Water & Steam
Effect provides the driving Force for the Circulating Fluid

Sub-critical Boilers –
Natural Circulation
Typical example of a Thermal Circulation Boiler

Circulation Boiler –
Controlled Circulation
Operating Pressure Controlled Circulation
Higher Pressures units warrant Pumps to ensure Circulation through WW by Thermo-Siphon

Circulation (Natural Circulation not adequate) Effect supplemented by Pumps

Sub-critical Boilers –
Controlled Circulation
Example of a Controlled Circulation Boiler

Drum type boiler
• Steam generation takes place in furnace water walls
• Fixed evaporation end point - the drum
• Steam -water separation takes place in the drum
• Separated water mixed with incoming feed water

ONCE THROUGH
STEAM GENERATORS

The Concept
The mass flow rate thru’ all heat transfer
circuits from Eco. inlet to SH outlet is kept
same except at low loads wherein
recirculation is resorted to protect the
water wall system

What is Critical Pressure
• Gases converted to liquids  by compressing the gas
• Temperature increases ; kinetic energies of gas particles

increases.
• The critical temperature of a substance is the temperature at

and above which vapour of the substance cannot be liquefied,
no matter how much pressure is applied.
• The critical pressure of a substance is the pressure required to

liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.

Subcritical:
Pressure < Critical Pressure
(221 bar)
Supercritical:
Pressure > Critical Pressure
(221 bar)
Ultra Supercritical:
Supercritical with SHO
temperature > 593 deg.C
Advanced Ultra Supercritical:

Supercritical with SHO
temperature > 700 deg.C

Why Super Critical Pressure
QUEST FOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT
• Since the time of thermal power stations have been

engineered, there is a quest for efficiency improvement.
• And supercritical parameters (Pressure above 225 Kg/cm2 and

temperature above 374.15 ºC) is an effort in that direction.

Definition of “Supercritical Design“
Evaporator pressure (MCR) > 221 bar
Source: Siemens

DRUM vs ONCE THROUGH
STEAM TO STEAM TO
TURBINE SH TURBINE
SH
ECO
DRUM
HEAT HEAT
DOWN Water Wall
COMER Water Wall
ECO
ORIFICE
CIRC. PUMP
Pressure Sub critical Sub & super Critical

Steam Separation Drum Separator (Low loads)
Types Natural / Assisted (Sulzer) / (Benson)
Burner Panel Straight tube Spiral Tube / Straight (MHI)
Load Change Base Faster
Cold Start 4-5 Hours 2 Hours
Hot Start 1-2 Hours 0.5 Hours
Sliding Pressure Supercritical Design
Pressure and Enthalpy Variations vs. Type of Circulation Design
Economiz SUPERCRITICAL FLUID
er
Waterwall
s Superheater
SuSUPERCRITICAL
percritica FLUID
l Boiler
CRITICALPRESSURE
CRITICAL PRESSURE
PRESSURE K g /cm 2 (ps ia )
226
(3208)
Economiz
er
201 Eco omizer Waterwalls
(2865) Wa Superheater
A TER Controlleterwalls
d Circulati Superheat e
SAT U
on r
T ED W
STEAM &
RATE
WATER WATER
STEAM & STEAM
D STE AM
SATURA
WATER
MIXTURE
127 MIXTURE
Waterwalls
(1800)
Economiz Examples of Steam by Weight
er
Thermal C
25%
irculati on Superheater
100%
0%
Increasing Enthalpy ( h )
Enthalpy Kj/Kg (BTU/lb)

Sliding Pressure Supercritical Design
Enthalpy Variations vs Pressure and Boiler Load
SUPERCRITICAL FLUID
Full Load
Operation
Economiz
er SUPERCRITICAL FLUID
Waterwalls
Superheater
CRITICALPRESSURE
CRITICAL PRESSURE
PRESSURE K g /cm 2 (ps ia )
226
(3208)
Economiz
er
201 Eco omizer Waterwalls
(2865) Waterwalls Superheater
A TER
Middle Lo Superheat e
SAT U
ad r
Operation
T ED W
STEAM &
RATE
WATER WATER
STEAM & STEAM
D STE AM
SATURA
WATER
MIXTURE
127 MIXTURE
(1800) Waterwalls
Economiz Examples of Steam by Weight
er
Low Load
25% Operatio n
Superheater
100%
0%
Increasing Enthalpy ( h )
Enthalpy Kj/Kg (BTU/lb)

Presentation
Departure from Nucleate Boiling

Features of
Once Through Steam Generator
• To ensure adequate mass flow rates through water wall, spirally wound
water wall tubes are used.
• Start-up and low load system up to 30-40% BMCR required.
• Feed water quality requirements are very stringent.
• Can be designed for both sub-critical and super-critical pressures.
• Suited for sliding pressure operation due to the absence of thick walled
components.


• Boiler Types

SUB CRITICAL Vs SUPER CRITICAL
Material Comparison
Section Sub critical Super critical
Economiser SA 210 Gr A1 SA 210 Gr C
Water wall SA 210 Gr C SA 213 T12 /T22 / T23
SA 213 T11, T22,T23, T91,

Super heaters and SA 213 T11, T22,T91 and T92, Super 304H, and TP 347H
Reheaters TP 347 H
SA 106 Gr B, Gr C, P11, SA 106 Gr B, Gr C, P11, P12,

Headers and piping P22 and P91 P22, P91 and P92

Tubes in Boiler Applications
Material OD (mm) Thickness (mm)
SA 210 Gr A1 38.1 to 51 4 to 6.3
SA 210 Gr C 38.1 to 76.1 5 to 12.5
SA 192 51.0 to 76.1 4.5 to 5.6
SA 213 T11 38.1 to 63.5 4.0 to 10.0
SA 213 T22 , T23 38.1 to 76.1 4.0 to 12.5
SA 213 T91, T92 44.5 to 63.5 4.0 to 12.0
SA 213 TP 347H
47.63 to 76.1 4.0 to 12.5
S304H

SUB CRITICAL Vs SUPER CRTICAL
Particulars Sub critical Super critical
Type Drum type Once through Once through
Operating pressure Below 221.1 bar Below 221.1 bar Above 221.1 bar
Boiling (Two No boiling process.

Steam generation Boiling (Two phase
phase heat Phase change is
process heat transfer)
transfer) gradual.
Thick walled Thick walled drum is
Smaller vertical separators provided
component provided
Start up and load
Base Better start up and load change rates
change rates
Water wall Generally spiral wall.
Vertical
construction Vertical wall for higher capacity
Higher loads: Once through
Circulation Circulation at all loads
Lower loads : Circulation
Water quality Base More stringent requirements


• Boiler Types

Basic Data For Design
Boiler Parameters
Fuel Data
Site Data

Heat Balance Diagram
190.0 814.7
505.344 535.0
HPT LPT LPT
BOILER
31.07 736.2 27.89 844.8
459.544 335.7 459.544 535.0
0.0890 580.9
360.130 (0.9384)
C
234.0
241.7
D
505.944
HPH HPH LPH LPH LPH LPH

CP
-
FP

Implications of Steam
Parameters on Boiler Design
• Boiler type
• Materials
• Reliability and Availability
• Proper selection ensure safe metal temperature under all operating

conditions
• Proper selection helps in reducing the installation cost.

Fuel Data

Fuel Analysis

CHARACTERISTICS OF
TYPICAL INDIAN COAL
• High ash (35 – 50%)
• Highly abrasive (55 – 65%)
• Medium moisture (10 – 15%)
• Medium volatile matter (18 – 24%)
• Lower heating value (HHV kcal / kg) (3000 – 3500)
• Low sulphur (0.2 – 0.5%)

INDIAN COALS
Vs
COALS OF OTHER COUNTRIES
INDIA GERMANY USA CANADA AUSTRLIA
Coal A B C RUHR WESTERN ALBERTA NSW
MOISTURE % 15.0 12.0 12.0 8.5 16.0 4.0 8.0
VOL. MATTER % 20.0 18.0 30.0 20.5 33.0 18.0 29.0
ASH % 40.0 40.0 30.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 15.7
SULPHUR % 0.5 0.3 0.2 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.69
HHV kCal / kg 3200 3500 4500 6700 5730 7600 6200
COAL ASH Kg/MkCal 125 114 67 12 14 11 25

Coal properties affecting boiler design
• Type of coal ( anthracite, bituminous, lignite)
• Higher heating value
• Volatile matter
• Moisture content
• Ash content
• Ash characteristics
• Hard Grove Index ( HGI)

Problems associated with INDIAN COALS
• Inconsistent coal properties
• Presence of extraneous matters in coal
• High quantum of ash with high percentage of quartz
• Highly abrasive nature of coal ash
• Due to low sulphur content - extremely high electrical

resistivity of ash
• Low heating value of the coal

FUEL QUALITY AFFECTING THE
PERFORMANCE
• Slagging
• FEGT variation
• SH / RH Spray variation
• Flue gas temperature leaving boiler
• Mill loading
• Aux. Power Consumption
• Boiler efficiency
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
FOR INDIAN COALS
• Conservative Furnace Heat Loadings
• Lower Flue Gas Velocity Over Tube Banks
• Plain Tube In – Line Arrangement Of Heat Transfer Surface
• Optimum End Gaps To Avoid Preferential Gas Flow
• Erosion Shields / Cassette Baffles
• Erosion Allowance For Leading Tubes
• Cast Steel PF Bends & Ceramic Lined PF Bends

Design Aspects

Challenges in Boiler Design
• Fuel Flexibility
• High Ash Indian Coals
• Blending of coals
• Materials for high temperature applications
• Fabrication techniques for new materials
• Pollution Control

FURNACE SELECTION CRITERIA
• NHI / PA
• NHI / EPRS
• Q FIRED / VOLUME
• BURNER ZONE HEAT RELEASE RATE
• FURNACE RESIDENCE TIME
• Distance between furnace bottom-hopper & lower most fuel nozzle
• Distance between upper most fuel - nozzle & bottom of SH
• FURNACE OUTLET TEMPERATURE
• ASPECT RATIO

FURNACE HEAT LOADINGS
• EPRS LOADING
• PLAN AREA LOADING
• VOLUMETRIC LOADING
• BURNER ZONE HEAT RELEASE RATE

Furnace Sketch

DEFINITION IN FURNACE DESIGN
• Furnace width –Distance b/w centerlines of opposing side wall tubes.
• Furnace depth – Distance b/w cernterlines of front and rear wall tubes.
• Plan area - Furnace width X Furnace depth
• Furnace volume- cubage of furnace within the walls and planes defined
under EPRS.
• Gross heat input- m x HHV.+Sensible heat(fuel,PA,RG)
• Net heat input- gross heat input – losses
• Net heat release rate- NHI / EPRS

Effective Projected Radiant Surface
(EPRS)
It includes total projected area of followings:-
• Planes which passes through the centres of all walls
tubes.
• Plane which passes through perpendicular to the gas
flow.
• Surfaces of both sides of the superheater and reheater.
• The EPRS heat loading can be related to the gas
temperature leaving the furnace.
Coal fired Boiler = 0.20 – 0.325 MK.Cal/hr/m2.
Oil & Gas fired Boiler = 0.55 MK.Cal/hr/m2 (max.)

PLAN AREA HEAT LOADING
• PA Heat Loading = NHI/PA
• Effects on –
• Maximum localised heat absorption rate
• Maximum temperature of products of combustion
• High PA heat loading Results -:

• Increase slag in coal fired Boilers
• Increase furnace wall temperature in Oil & Gas fired Boilers.
• PA Heat Loading value for:-

• Coal fired Boiler = 3 – 4 MK.Cal/hr/m2.
• Oil & Gas fired Boiler = 5 MK.Cal/hr/m2 (max.)

VOLUMETRIC HEAT LOADING
• Volumetric Heat Loading = NHI/ VOLUME
• Especially for fuel criteria about stabilisation for combustion

and low heating value gases.
• Low value indicates an increase residence time for combustion
• Values for normal fuels - 0.13-0.3 MK.Cal/hr/m2

BURNER CLEARANCE
To obtain proper retention time.
To avoid flame impingment on the walls.
 Values ranges from 15-20 m for large utility boilers.

Furnace design
Furnace for Burning Pulverised Coal are Designed
• To allow complete combustion by providing adequate retention

time.
• To prevent formation of slag deposits
• Temperature at entry to closely spaced SH/ RH sections is
brought down well below the lowest of the ash softening
temperatures.
• Adequate mass flow through water wall tubes so that tube metal
temperatures are well within allowable limits.
• Ensuring the above in design stage will lead to high boiler
availability

Furnace Design ( contd…..)
The furnaces of BHEL boilers are conservatively sized
with low heat release rates to ensure maximum output all the
times.
 The possibility of slagging and fouling of heat

transfer surfaces is minimised even while firing worst type of
fuels.
 Furnace design accommodates wider range of coals

normally experienced by Indian utilities.

SH / RH / ECONOMISER
Design criteria
• Adequate heating surface to get rated SHO / RHO
temperature over control load for the range of coals.
• Low gas velocity to minimise pressure part erosion
• Proper tube spacing to prevent plugging and fouling of heat
transfer surfaces
• Proper pressure part support and alignments

Pressure Part Design
 Pressure part design – as per ASME**

 IBR check done accounting for Internal & Customer allowances
 Apply good design practices
 Use Proven materials
Avoid Thick components
 Avoid Stress concentration
 Oxidation limit (Gas & Steam)
 Limited Ramp rates

 Standard Start-up frequency (benchmarked with international
requirements)
**In ASME Boiler construction, creep resistance/protection comes from the values of the allowable stresses published in
ASME Section II, Part D, Table 1A, Materials for Boiler Construction. No calculations are necessary for creep.

Start up rates(BHEL)
Sub-critical
Super-critical

Start up rates(BHEL)

Failure Mechanisms in Cycling Boilers
1. Creep: is a high temperature, time dependent

phenomenon which becomes significant when the
temperature approaches half of the melting point of the
material.
It is a function of
 temperature
 load
Results in material deformation that can lead to rupture.

2. Fatigue: The process of progressive localized permanent

structural changes occurring in a material subjected to conditions that
produce fluctuating stresses at some point or points.
It is a function of
Environmental Conditions (temperature,
corrosion)
Range of Stress
Frequency of Loading
Surface Finish
May culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number
of fluctuations.

3. Creep-Fatigue: The main mechanism is the

acceleration of fatigue damage (crack initiation and growth) due
to reduction of ductility caused by creep damage.
It is a function of
 temperature (external)
 strain range (external)
 strain rate (external)
 hold time (external)
 creep strength (material)
 creep ductility (material)
Creep-Fatigue (CF) damage can be evaluated using the rules and guidelines provided in the existing design codes for
nuclear vessels, such as ASME III NH, RCC-MRx(French) and BS-R5.

Site Data
• Ambient conditions –Temp & RH
• Site elevation
• Seismic data
• Wind velocity
• Rain fall

Boiler Structural Design
Seismic Zone II III IV V
Hard Soil
Medium Soil
Soft Soil
Wind 33 39 44 47 50 55
Speed(m/s)

Typical Boiler Structure


• Boiler Types

Selection Of Auxiliaries
• Air-heaters
• Fans
• Mills
• Electrostatic precipitator

Air-heater Selection Parameters
• Quantity of Air/Gas handled.

• Hot air temperature requirements - Fuel moisture
• Mill Outlet Temperature – Volatile Matter
• Gas temperature leaving the Airheater –Boiler efficiency
• Airheater leakage
• Draft loss air/gas side

Regenerative Tri-sector Airheater
REGENERATIVE TRISECTOR AIRHEATER
4
3
1.PRIMARY AIR IN
5 2.SECONDARY AIR IN
3.PRIMARY AIR OUT
4.SECONDARY AIR OUT
5.GAS IN
6.GAS OUT
1
6 2 404

Regenerative Bi-sector Airheater
AIR PREHEATER ASSEMBLY- BISECTOR
OUT
AIR
GAS
IN
OUT
GAS
AIR
IN

Fan Selection Parameters
• Volume & Head to be handled
• Type of fans
• Temperature & Density
• Constant / Variable speed
• Auxiliary power consumption

Axial Fans (1- Stage)
AIR SUCTION CHAMBER IMPELLER
• Axial OUTLET BLADE
SHAFT
SERVO MECHANISM DIFFUSER

(FOR BLADE PITCH CONTROL)

Axial Fans (2- stage)
SUCTION CHAMBER IMPELLER BLADE
SHAFT IMPELLER IMPELLER DIFFUSER
Boiler Design & Performance AXIAL REACTION FAN 11th October 2018
Mill Selection Data
• Mill capacity & no.of mills – HGI/Moisture
• No. of spare mills required
• Mill inlet / outlet temperature
• Wear life required - YGP

Mills
• Low speed (Tube)

• Medium speed ( Vertical Spindle – Bowl / Balls & Race)
• High speed (Beater Wheel)
Performance Variation
• Mill outlet / inlet temperature
• Fuel quality like moisture / HGI / HHV
• Mill wear

Tube Mill Arrangement (Typical)

Bowl Mill (General Arrangement)

ESP Selection Parameters
• Flue gas volume
Performance Variation
• Inlet dust concentarion
• Due to Air-heater leakage
• Dust resistivity • Due to higher gas
temperature leaving air
• Outlet Dust concentarion heaters
• No. of fields woking/standby
• Coal & ash analysis
• Ash particle size distribution

Electrostatic Precipitator
Selection Criteria Performance Variation

• Gas volume to be handled • Due to Air-heater leakage
• Gas temperature • Due to higher gas

temperature leaving air
• % moisture in flue gas heaters
• % Sulphur in flue gas
• Inlet dust concentration in gm/Nm3
• Outlet dust concentration in mg/Nm3

Electrostatic Precipitator


• Boiler Types

Environmental Gazette Notification
Water Requirement : 3.5 m3/Mwh (max.) (current)
(with cooling
tower) : 2.5 m3/Mwh (> 2017)
Technology Options : (i) Air-cooled condenser (North Karanpura 660 MW)

(Boiler) (ii) Dry bottom ash handling system (Durgapur 250 MW)
Particulate matter : 100 mg/Nm3 (vintage plants before 31.12.2003)

: 50 mg/Nm3 (2003 – 2016)
: 30 mg/Nm3 (> 2017)
Technology options : Already available
Sulphur Di-oxide : 200 mg/Nm3 (upto 2016)
: 100 mg/Nm3 (> 2017)
Technology options : BAP-Ranipet having collaboration with MHI
NOx : 600 mg/Nm3 (vintage plants)
: 300 mg/Nm3 (2003 – 2016)*
: 100 mg/Nm3 (> 2017)**
Technology options : *Modification of firing system (to be checked based on existing
layout and structural arrangement)
** Separate De NOx Plant

Mercury Emission
 Mercury content in Indian coals - <0.34ppm
 Corresponding Mercury in flue gas - <0.03mg/Nm3
 This is within the revised MoEF norms.


• Boiler Types

NOx Reduction Techniques
In – Furnace Technique
Post - Combustion Technique
Remarks:
Both In-furnace and Post combustion technologies are being practiced by almost
all the developed countries.

NOx abatement Methods
IN FURNACE TECHNIQUE
 Low NOx Tangential Firing System (LNTFS)

(Vertical – OFA, Horizontal – CFS)
 Other Methods
POST COMBUSTION TECHNIQUE
 Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR)
 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)

In – Furnace Technique

Low NOx Tangential Firing System
(LNTFS) Furnace Air Staging
Off-setting the air streams
Sub stoichiometric combustion zone and air rich burnout zone
Horizontal Staging
 Off-set streams at different angle to the furnace diagonals

 Form the two different firing circle
 Circles are identical & Concentric
Vertical Staging
 Fuel Streams ( Coal+Pri. Air+ Aux.Air ) – Combustion zone

 Air Streams (End air + CCOFA +SOFA) – Burnout zone
Remarks:
Air Staging is suitable for tangential fired boiler.

Tangential Firing System
Coupled Overfire Air compartments
Separated Overfire Air compartments
30% of the total combustion air to a

burning zone above the windbox.
Concentric firing - Yaw control
Reduced slagging / Cleaner furnace walls
Reduced Left Right Unbalance – SOFA

Yaw control

Concentric Firing System (CFS) Furnace Air Staging - Horizontal
Furnace plan view
Remarks:
CFS technology in a LNTFS does what Low NOX does in a Opposed /front wall fired boiler

Furnace Air Staging - Vertical
REHEATER
FINAL SH
LTRH
Sec. Over Fire Air LTRH
ECO
ECO
Burners
Hot Sec. Air

FURNACE AIR-STAGING
• Well proven commercially available technology.
• Applicable to both wall-fired and tangentially-fired
boilers.
• 70–90% being supplied to the burners (primary air)
• Remaining air at a level above the burners (overfire
air).
• The over-fire air is injected above the primary
combustion zone.
• The primary air + fuel, produces low-temperature,
oxygen-deficient, fuel-rich zone. This helps to reduce
the NOX.

Furnace Fuel Staging
Primary zone - NOX forms in the primary combustion zone
Re-burning zone - reacts with hydrocarbon in the re-burning zone
 form HCN and then N2
and finally
Burnout zone - un-reacted fuel
completes combustion,
 additional air is injected.

FLUE GAS RECIRCULATION
• 20–30% of the flue gas is extracted from the boiler outlet

• Upstream of the air heater (usually at 300–400°C).
• Returned through a separate duct and a hot gas fan to the
combustion air duct that feeds the windbox.
• Decreases the peak flame temperature and oxygen
concentration.
• Reduces thermal NOx formation.
• No significant effect on fuel NOx formation.
• Most effective method for gas and oil fired boilers.

FLUE GAS TREATMENT – POST COMBUSTION

Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR)
Injection at Multiple Levels (SNCR)
Injection
FINAL SH
REHEATER
Level 3
Injection
Level 2
LTRH
Ammonia/Urea
LTRH
Injection Storage Tank
Level 1 ECO
ECO

SELECTIVE NON CATALYTIC REDUCTION

SELECTIVE NON CATALYTIC REDUCTION
Injection of Aqueous Urea Droplets / Aqua. or Anhy. Ammonia
Many Injection options :

Compressed Air
Mechanical
Multiple Nozzle Lances – water cooled
Low Capital Cost
Fast Implementation
System can be turned on/off as needed

SELECTIVE CATALYTIC REDUCTION
In an SCR system, vaporised ammonia (NH3) is injected into the flue-gas stream at
about 300–400°C, which is then passed over a catalyst. The catalyst promotes
reactions between NOx and NH3 to form molecular nitrogen and water vapour.
NOX NH3 Basic Reactions

4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2  4 N2 + 6 H2O
2 NO2 + 4 NH3 + O2  3 N2 + 6 H2O
Undesired Parallel Reactions

SO2 + 1/2 O2  SO3
NH3 + SO3 + H2O  NH4HSO4
N2 H2O

SCR Reactor

SCR CONFIGURATIONS
NH3
AIR FLUE GAS
HEATER DESULFURIZATION
BOILER
OPTION 1 SCR
STACK
HOT-SIDE, HIGH DUST SCR ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATOR
NH3
AIR
HEATER
OPTION 2 BOILER
SCR
STACK
HOT-SIDE, LOW DUST SCR ELECTROSTATIC FLUE GAS
PRECIPITATOR DESULFURIZATION
GAS TO GAS HEAT

AIR FLUE GAS EXCHANGER
HEATER DESULFURIZATION
BOILER
OPTION 3
STACK
COLD-SIDE SCR, TAIL END ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATOR
DUCT BURNER
SCR
NH3

Flue Gas Desulfurisation


Boiler Design

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Boiler Design & Performance

• BHEL - Technology & Capability

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

BHEL manufactures 180 products in 30 major product groups

• Pulverised Coal Combustion (PCC)

• Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC)

• Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC)

• Combined Cycle Gas Turbine / Co-generation Plants

• Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

2000s Technology for Super critical steam generators from Alstom.

Designs for firing Washed Coals developed.

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

• Box / Close Coupled

• Balanced Draft / Pressurised Furnace

• Natural / Controlled Circulation / Once through

• Base Load / Cycling / Two Shifting / Trip to House Load

• Constant / Sliding Pressure

• Top / Bottom Supported

• Tangential / Wall Firing

• Direct / Indirect Firing System

• Hot / Cold Primary Air / Suction Mill System

• Axial / Radial Type Fans

• Tubular / Regenerative Air heaters

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

• Coal/oil/gas in any • Coal tar

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

Advanced Steam Cycles to Improve the

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

AUSC Boilers (300 ata, 710 C / 720 C) will be

Test Facility (400 bar, 700 Deg. C) installed and

BHEL is one among the Five MNC’s to have this

Member of the National Technology Mission

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

• BHEL - Technology & Capability

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

• Highest economically achievable Plant Efficiency

• Minimum emission of Pollutants

• High Reliability & Availability

• Suitable for differing modes of operation

• Ability to operate under adverse grid conditions

• Lowest life cycle cost

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

• Conservation of fuel resources

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

Station Units MS MS/RH Efficiency Coal CO2

4000 8x500 170 537/537 38.6 15.61 22.90

4000 5x800 247 565/593 40.24 14.98 21.97

Savings in coal consumed: 0.63 x 106 Tons/Year

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

• BHEL - Technology & Capability

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

• Raising inlet pressure of steam

• Raising supply temperature by super heating

• Dropping the final pressure (or temperature)

Boiler Design & Performance 11th October 2018

• Increasing main steam pressure

• Increasing superheat and reheat temperatures