Flow Measurement

Instrumentation & Control

Topics
•Introduction to Fluid Measurement
•Major Fluid Properties
•Laminar and Turbulent Fluid Flow
•Units of Flow Measurements
•Factors Affecting Flow Rate and the Reynolds
Number
•Classification of Flow Measuring Devices
(Flowmeters)
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss the importance of accurate and
reliable flow measurement in industry and
give examples where flow measurements are
essential
2. Explain the three major fluid properties such
as density, viscosity and compressibility
3. Discuss the difference between a laminar flow
and turbulent flow
Learning Objectives
4. Explain the three units of flow measurements
based on the velocity, volume, and mass; and
discuss the factors affecting flow rate
5. Explain the concept, theory, structure,
characteristics, basic operation, and
applications of some flow measuring elements
(according to ISA) and discuss how these
devices are used in the industry
Introduction
Fluid Measurement
•Measurement of flow is a vital part of modern
industrial processes
•Even in commercial or residential areas, the
water flow is measured and users are billed for
its consumption
Fluid Measurement
•In industrial plants, aside from water, the flow of
other fluids are measured and their
consumption billed among the various operating
areas
•Product quality is dependent on the correct
amount of ingredients mixed or blended
•Two broad classes of flow measurement- fluids
and solids flow measurement
Properties of Fluid Flow
•Liquids and gases (including vapors) are called
fluids, because they can flow, but not all
substances that can flow are fluid, like gravel,
sand, & grains
•Industrial process control deals with the
continuous flow or movement of a liquid, a gas,
or a vapor from one place to another
Major Fluid Properties
•Density
•Weight/mass of a unit volume of fluid
•Measured in units such as lb/ft3, g/cm3, kg/m3,
or g/l
Major Fluid Properties
•Compressibility
•Tendency of something to become smaller in
volume when pressure is applied
•Gases compress and expand very easily,
•Gas property can be illustrated by a piston
moving in a closed cylinder
•Gases are compressible, liquids are not
Major Fluid Properties
•Viscosity
•Resistance to flow
•In a fluid flowing through a pipe, because of
friction with the pipe wall, the fluid flows
faster in the center of the pipe than it does
near the wall. This causes layer of fluids to slip
over each other. The amount of resistance to
this internal slippage is the fluid’s viscosity.
Major Fluid Properties
•Viscosity
•The higher the viscosity of a fluid, the more
difficult it is to get the fluid to flow
•Gases also have a measurable viscosity, which
must be accounted for in a control system
Major Fluid Properties
•Viscosity
•Viscosity is affected by temperature (i.e.
lubricating oils with assigned SAE numbers
according to their exact viscosities at precisely
stated temperatures
•Viscosity measurement is typically in units
called Centipoise (Cp) and Saybolt Seconds
Universal (SSU)
Fluid Flow Classification
• Laminar flow
• Represent a smooth, layered flow
• The fluid particles move along parallel paths
• If laminar flow could be observed, it would appear
as several streams of liquid flowing smoothly
alongside each other
• 𝑅𝑒 < 2000
Fluid Flow Classification
•Turbulent flow
•Represent a turbulent flow pattern, rough and
irregular
•Flow that is agitated and disturbed
•Appears to have small, high frequency
fluctuations that travel in all directions
forming eddies
•𝑅𝑒 > 4000
Fluid Flow Classification
•Turbulent flow
•Made up of many smaller currents, swirling
and weaving in all directions, often forming
miniature whirlpools, these are eddy currents
•Turbulent flow, with its eddy currents, causes
a great deal of frictional resistance to fluid
flow
Fluid Flow Classification
• Transitional flow
• Exhibits characteristics of both laminar and
turbulent patterns
• In some cases, transition flow will oscillate between
laminar and turbulent flow
• 2000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 4000
Fluid Flow in the Pipe
•Depends on the fluid’s velocity, viscosity, specific
gravity, and the size and smoothness of the pipe
•Up to a certain velocity range, a fluid will flow in
a laminar fashion
•Above this transition range, the flow becomes
turbulent
•The range is higher for high-viscosity fluids and
for very smooth pipes
Fluid Flow in the Pipe
•Fluid flowing through a pipe of uniform cross-
sectional area maintains a constant velocity
•If the same fluid is forced to flow through a
gradually converging pipe, its velocity begins to
increase
•This principle is demonstrated in the nozzle of a
garden hose
Fluid Flow in the Pipe
•A change in the pressure exerted on the wall of
the pipe changes the velocity of the fluid flow
•As the fluid velocity increases, the pressure on
the wall decreases, and vice versa.
Fluid Flow in the Pipe
•In process systems, a fluid can be made to flow
by using the force of gravity or a pump
•In a gravity-fed system, the liquid is held in the
tank or column with an outlet tapped in at the
bottom
Fluid Flow in the Pipe
•The available pressure at the outlet depends on
the height of the liquid in the tank and the
density of the liquid
•The height of the liquid is called the head, which
can be expressed, in linear units or in pressure
units
Units of Flow Measurement
Industrial Flow Measurement
Units of Flow Measurement
•In an industrial plant, flow is measured not in
terms of velocity but instead, as a volumetric
flow rate or as a mass flow rate
•In some cases, it is measured as an integrated or
totalized flow
Velocity Flow Rate
•Flow velocity is the measurement that tells the
distance that a “particle” of fluid moves in a unit
of time
𝑣=𝑑 𝑡
• where:
𝑑 = distance traveled
𝑡 = the time it takes to travel the given
distance
Volumetric Flow Rate
•Volume flow rate is the amount of fluid moved in
a given length of time
𝑄𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 𝐴𝑣
•Where:
𝑄𝑣𝑜𝑙 = volumetric flow rate
𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the pipe
𝑣 = flow velocity
Mass Flow Rate
•Mass flow rate can be calculated if you have the
volumetric flow rate and the fluid density
𝑄𝑚 = 𝐷 × 𝑄𝑣𝑜𝑙
•Where:
𝐷 = fluid density (in mass units)
𝑄𝑣𝑜𝑙 = volume flow rate
Factors Affecting Flow Rate
•The rate at which a fluid flows through a channel
or pipe depends upon three factors:
1. head
2. viscosity
3. frictional resistance
Factors Affecting Flow Rate
1. Head
•Head is a positive factor
•The higher the head, the greater the volume
flow rate, if all other factors remain constant
•The pipe size as well as the pressure head
directly affects the volume flow rate of a fluid in
a pipe
Factors Affecting Flow Rate
2. Viscosity
•Resembles friction (negative resistance)
•An internal resistance caused by the difficulty of
the molecules to move around one another
•The higher the viscosity, the lower is the flow
rate, all other things being equal
Factors Affecting Flow Rate
3. Friction
•Offers negative resistance to the flow
•Because of friction, the flow is actually slightly
lower near the walls of a pipe and faster at its
center
•The larger the pipe the smaller effect of pipe
friction
Reynolds Number
•Reynolds Number is an index figure based on
fluid velocity, pipe size, and fluid viscosity
•A low Reynolds number (up to about 1000 or
2000) indicates that the viscosity and velocity of
the fluid, combined with the pipe size, produce a
smooth, laminar flow
•A high Reynolds number indicates a turbulent
flow
Reynolds Number
3160 𝑆𝐺 𝑄
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇 𝐼𝐷
•Where:
𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds Number
𝑆𝐺 = Specific Gravity of the Fluid
𝑄 = Volumetric flow rate (GPM)
𝐼𝐷 = Inside Diameter of the pipe (inches)
𝜇 = Viscosity of the fluid (centipoise)
Totalized or Integrated Flow Measurement
•When a volumetric or a mass flow rate is
totalized or integrated, the quantity of fluid or
material or energy used is determined with
respect to an interval of time, usually on an 8
hour shift
Totalized or Integrated Flow Measurement
•A typical example is the residential water meter.
This is a totalizer and not a rate of flow
indication. A user is then billed for a 1-month
usage calculated from the difference between
the successive meter readings done every 30
days or 1 month.
Totalized or Integrated Flow Measurement
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄2 − 𝑄1 × 𝑀
•Where:
𝑄1 = initial flow rate reading
𝑄2 = final flow rate reading
𝑀 = multiplier (integrator factor)
Classification of Flow Measuring
Devices (Flowmeters)
(According to ISA – International Society of Automation)
 Classification of Flow Measuring Devices
(Flowmeters)
•Positive Displacement Flowmeters
•e.g. Centrifugal, Lobed Impeller, Oscillating
Piston, Oval Rotor, Nutating Disk, Oscillating
Piston
• Velocity Flowmeters
•e.g. Electromagnetic, Vortex, Turbine, Swirl,
Propeller
 Classification of Flow Measuring Devices
(Flowmeters)
•Head or Differential Pressure Flowmeters
•e.g. Orifice, Venturi Tube, Flow Tubes or
Nozzles, Pitot Tube, Weir, Flume
• Variable Area Flowmeters
•e.g. Rotameter
 Classification of Flow Measuring Devices
(Flowmeters)
• Mass Flowmeters
•e.g. Coriolis, Thermal
• Other Flowmeters
•e.g. Ultrasonic
Mechanical Flow Measurement
• Variable Area
• e.g. Rotameter
• Weirs
• Flumes
• Positive Displacement
• e.g. Centrifugal, Lobed Impeller, Oscillating Piston, Oval
Rotor, Nutating Disk, Oscillating Piston
Electronic Flow Measurement
•Volumetric Type
•e.g. Orifice, Venturi, Pitot tubes, Wedge, V Cone
•Velocity Type
•e.g. turbine, vortex, ultrasonic, magnetic
• Mass Flow Type
•e.g. Coriolis, Thermal
Differential Pressure Flow Measuring Devices
• A method of measuring the pressure drop caused by
the flow to measure the flow of fluids
• Primary measuring device - restricts the flow thus
creating a drop/difference in pressure (orifice plates,
venturi tubes, and flow nozzles.)
• Secondary measuring device measures the pressure
drop, from which the flow velocity and volumetric
flow rate is determined
Differential Pressure Flow Measuring Devices
•Flowmeter elements or sensors that generate a
∆𝑃 are the following:
1. Orifice Plates
2. Venturi Tubes
3. Flow Nozzles or Flow Tubes
4. Pitot Tubes
5. Other proprietary devices
Orifice Plate
•The sharp, square-edged, thin-plate, concentric
orifice plate is the most popular device for
creating a pressure difference or differential (∆P)
•The turbulent fluid swirls in small eddy-like
currents on both sides of the plate, and the
exact point of smallest flow diameter is
indefinite
Orifice Plate
•Two important features typical of fluid flow
restricted by an orifice:
1. After passing the orifice, the flow continues to
decrease in cross-sectional area, reaching the
point of smallest diameter downstream from the
orifice, called the Vena Contracta.
2. The flow gradually increases in area and
diameter until it again fills the entire pipe, as it
did before reaching the orifice plate.
Orifice Flowmeter

https://www.instrumart.com/products/28975/rosemount-3051sfc-compact-orifice-flow-meter

Rosemount 3051SFC
Compact Orifice Flow Meter
Orifice Plates
• The most common pressure
based flow elements in
existence
• A metal plate with a hole in the
middle for fluid to flow through
• Vena contracta – the point
where fluid flow profile is
minimum cross section and
pressure, and varies with 𝛽=𝑑 𝐷
flowrate and beta ratio 𝛽 𝛽 = 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐷 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑑 = 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Orifice Plates

http://vakratoond.com/instrumentation/orifice-plates/

https://businessgateways.com/gploman/products/orifice-
plates-flnage-assemblies-restriction-orifice-prodcode-2630
Square – edged Concentric Type
Orifice Plates – Tapping Locations

https://instrumentationtools.com/orifice-tappings/ https://instrumentationtools.com/orifice-tappings/
Orifice Plates
• For low flowrates
• Eliminates impulse
lines

Orifice plate integral to the transmitter

Proper Installation
• Flow measurement accuracy is compromise by
incorrect installation of pressure based flow element
• Necessary upstream/downstream straight pipe
length
• Beta ratio
• Impulse tube location
• Tap finish
• Transmitter location with respect to pipe
Pitot Tube
• Senses pressure
as fluid comes
into a complete
stop at forward
face of tube
• Multiple holes
improves
sensitivity
Venturi Tubes
• A pipe purposely narrowed to create a region of low
pressure to demonstrate pressure change in a fluid
Venturi Tubes

http://www.controlplusinc.com/products/venturi-flow-meters/
Annubar
• Averaging pitot tube
• Consolidating high and low
pressure sensing ports in
one assembly
• Multiple holes improves
sensitivity
• “Annubar” is a tradename
of Dieterich Standards
Corp.
V - Cone
• A variation to the
venturi tube
• V – cone or venture
cone is a trademark
of Danaher Corp.
• Hollow cone with
pressure sensing
port on downstream
Segmental Wedge
• Special pipe sections
with wedge shaped
restrictions built in
• Useful for measuring
flowrates of slurries
• Remote – seal
diaphragm eliminates
impulse line clogging
Square – Root Flow Characteristics
Velocity Flowmeters
• Magnetic Flowmeter
• Also known as magmeter or electromagnetic
flowmeter
• Based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, the “Generator Principle”
• The voltage that develops at the electrodes (in mV)
is typically converted into a standard current (4-20
mA) or frequency output (0-10,000 Hz) at or near
the flowtube
 Velocity Flowmeters: Magnetic Flowmeter

indiamart.com

• If a conductive fluid flows through a pipe of diameter (D) through a

magnetic field density (B) generated by the coils, the amount of voltage
(E) developed across the electrodes—as predicted by Faraday’s law—
will be proportional to the velocity (V) of the liquid.
Velocity Flowmeters: Magnetic Flowmeter
•Can detect the flow of conductive fluids only
•Measure the flow of clean, multi-phase, dirty,
corrosive, erosive, or viscous liquids and slurries as
long as the conductivity exceeds the minimum
required for the particular design
•Expected inaccuracy and rangeability of the better
designs are from 0.2-1% of rate, over a range of
10:1 to 30:1, if the flow velocity exceeds 1 ft/sec
Velocity Flowmeters: Magnetic Flowmeter
•At slower flow velocities (even below 0.1 ft/s),
measurement error increases, but the readings
remain repeatable.
•The obstructionless nature of the magmeter
lowers the likelihood of plugging and limits the
unrecovered head loss to that of an equivalent
length of straight pipe
Velocity Flowmeters: Magnetic Flowmeter
•Magmeters cannot distinguish entrained air from
the process fluid, therefore, air bubbles will
cause the magmeter to read high. If the trapped
air is not homogeneously dispersed, but takes
the form of air slugs or large air bubbles (the size
of the electrode), this will make the output
signal noisy or even disrupt it
Magnetic Flowmeter
•Example of Magnetic
Flowmeter Installation
Velocity Flowmeters: Vortex Flowmeter
•Based on the principle of Karman Effect (Theodor
von Karman)
•Assembly includes:
• Bluff body – creates the vortices
• Vortex sensor assembly – measures the oscillations
generated by the vortices
• Transmitter electronics – converts the signal into a
high level for transmission
Velocity Flowmeters: Vortex Flowmeter
•Karman Effect: when a non-streamlined object
(also called a bluff body) is placed in the path of a
fast-flowing stream, the fluid will alternately
separate from the object on its two downstream
sides, and, as the boundary layer becomes
detached and curls back on itself, the fluid forms
vortices (also called whirlpools or eddy currents)
and the distance between the vortices is constant
and depended solely on the size of the bluff body
that formed it
Velocity Flowmeters: Vortex Flowmeter
•The majority of vortex meters use piezoelectric
or capacitance-type sensors to detect the
pressure oscillation around the bluff body
•These detectors respond to the pressure
oscillation with a low voltage output signal,
which has the same frequency as the oscillation
Velocity Flowmeters: Vortex Flowmeter

OMEGA Engineering

Wikipedia

RS Hydro
Velocity Flowmeters: Turbine Flowmeter
• Consists of a multi-bladed rotor mounted at right
angles to the flow and suspended in the fluid stream
on a free-running bearing
• Rotor diameter is very slightly less than the inside
diameter of the metering chamber, and its speed of
rotation is proportional to the volumetric flow rate
Velocity Flowmeters: Turbine Flowmeter
•Turbine rotation can be detected by solid-state
devices (reluctance, inductance, capacitive and
Hall-effect pick-ups) or by mechanical sensors (gear
or magnetic drives)
•Accuracy is typically given in %AR
• Linearity tolerance band: ±0.25% over a 10:1 flow
range and a ±0.15% linearity in a 6:1 range
•Repeatability: from ±0.2% to ±0.02% over the
linear range
Velocity Flowmeters: Turbine Flowmeter
Velocity Flowmeter: Paddlewheel Flowmeter
• With a rotor (usually flat – bladed and bi –
directional) whose axis of rotation is parallel to the
direction of flow
• For smaller pipes (1/2" to 3"): fixed insertion depth
• For larger pipe sizes (4" to 48"): adjustable insertion
depths are available
• The use of capacitive- coupled pick-ups or Hall-effect
sensors extends the range of paddlewheel meters
into the low-flow velocity region of 0.3 ft/sec
Velocity Flowmeter: Paddlewheel Flowmeter

Instrumart

Abest Meter
Velocity Flowmeter: Propeller Flowmeter
•Commonly used in large diameter (over 4 in)
irrigation and water distribution systems
•Low cost and low accuracy
•AWWA Standard C-704 sets the accuracy
criterion for propeller meters at 2% of reading
•Rangeability of about 4:1 and exhibit very poor
performance if the velocity drops below 1.5
ft/sec.
Velocity Flowmeter: Propeller Flowmeter
•Most propeller meters are equipped with
mechanical registers
•Mechanical wear, straightening, and
conditioning requirements are the same as for
turbine meters
End