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An experimental study of
the relationship between the
note‐taking practices and listening
comprehension of college
freshmen during expository
lectures
a
Paul I. McClendox
a
Indiana University
Published online: 02 Jun 2009.

To cite this article: Paul I. McClendox (1958) An experimental study of the relationship
between the note‐taking practices and listening comprehension of college freshmen during
expository lectures , Speech Monographs, 25:3, 222-228, DOI: 10.1080/03637755809375236

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03637755809375236

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 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THE NOTE-TAKING PRACTICES AND
LISTENING COMPREHENSION OF COLLEGE
FRESHMEN DURING EXPOSITORY LECTURES*
PAUL I. McCLENDOX
Indiana University

general purpose of this study I. SUBJECTS AND MATERIALS

•*• was to explore by a carefully de- A. The Subjects. The subjects used
signed experiment the relationship be- in this experiment were drawn from a
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tween the note-taking practices and total group of nearly 2,000 freshmen
listening comprehension of college students enrolled in the State University
freshmen during expository lectures. of Iowa Communication Skills Program.
The specific objectives were: The random sample selected for this
1. To determine whether the actual physical act study represented the typical range of
of note-taking affects efficient listening com- Iowa freshmen college students' abilities
prehension. except for about 6 percent of the ex-
2. To discover whether one particular system ceptionally capable students normally
or method of note-taking can be said to be
superior to another system when both are exempted from the program on the
employed under identical circumstances for basis of entrance test scores.
the same purpose. Thirty-six classes of freshmen com-
3. To determine whether one particular note- munication skills students were used in
taking method may be superior in one listen-
ing situation, while another method may be the experiment, a total of 678 subjects.
better in another with a different type of Of the thirty-six classes, twenty-four
subject matter. were average and twelve were advanced.1
4. To discover if scholastic aptitude is a B. The Lectures, Three expository
determining factor in predicting whether a
particular method of note-taking or an
lectures were employed. The first lec-
absence of any note-taking is most effective ture was concerned with the problem
for an individual in a given listening of stage fright, the second with stand-
situation. ards of pronunciation and the last with
5. To evaluate the relationships indicated by the human voice. All three lectures were
the specific objectives just stated under
both immediate and delayed recall conditions. predominantly practical in their ap-
proach. Four criteria were followed in
Comprehension was chosen as the preparing them. They were to be
evaluative criterion because it is the approximately equal in difficulty and
basis for all efficient listening. The consonant with communication skills
problem was narrowed to embrace only class work. The content was to be new
expository material, on the assumption
that listeners in the classroom most fre- 1 The "average" designation as used
quently hear lectures consisting pre- throughout this study indicates roughly the
dominantly of the informational, fac- lower two-thirds of all students required to take
communication skills at Iowa. Average students
tual, explanatory type material. normally are expected to complete successfully
two semesters to be eligible for exemption.
Advanced students may be thought of as the
* Based upon Ph.D. dissertation, State Uni- upper one-third. These students, judged more
versity of Iowa, 1956, directed by Orville A. capable, are normally required to pass an ac-
Hitchcock. celerated one-semester course.
 NOTE-TAKING AND LISTENING
to the listener, or, at least, representa-
tive of a fresh approach. Finally, each
was to represent a different subject mat-
ter area. Thus, one lecture approached
stage fright from a psychological point of
view. Such material could logically find
its place in a general psychology course.
Much of the human voice lecture was
similar to general science subject mat-
ter, while pronunciation standards pro-
vided the subject matter for the other
lecture.2
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Attempts were made throughout this
investigation to avoid the artificialities
present in some studies by maintaining
a situation as nearly as possible com-
parable to that in the average class-
room. Instructors were asked to con-
sider the lectures as regular listening
exercises. The subjects were told that
their performances would contribute on
the same basis as other class work to
their final course grades.
The lectures were between thirteen
and fourteen minutes in length. They
were recorded on a high fidelity tape
recorder for play-back during the ex-
periment. This procedure was adopted
to assure uniformity of presentation to
all subjects in the experiment.
C. The Tests. Three multiple-choice
comprehension tests were constructed,
covering each of the three lectures. As
in tests of reading comprehension, the
items were largely concerned with con-
tent. However, since it is obviously im-
possible to evaluate a listener's compre-
hension and understanding of material
without inviting him to reason and infer
on the basis of the content, questions of
this type were also included.
The original tests were multilitho-
graphed by the State University of Iowa
2 All lectures were prepared by the writer. for immediate recall tests under similar
Then various members of the faculty of the
State University of Iowa Department of Speech circumstances.
and Dramatic Arts read one or more of the
lectures offering suggestions for revision and
improvement.
COMPREHENSION 223
Examination Service. The original stage
fright test contained thirty items; the
standards of pronunciation test, thirty-
two items; and the human voice test,
thirty-one. The three tests thus con-
tained a total of ninety-three items.
These were administered to the entire
experimental sample. That is, each lec-
ture, with corresponding test, was em-
ployed in twelve of the thirty-six classes.
The tests were then refined by item
analysis, using the scores of approxi-
mately 100 randomly selected validation
subjects for each test, a total of 318
scores for the three tests. The validation
subjects were not used in the main ex-
periment.
Following item analysis the tests were
reduced to twenty-five items each. Dis-
crimination indices for these refined
tests ranged from .07 to .54 for stage
fright, .17 to .75 for pronunciation
standards, and .17 to .60 for human
voice. There were no negatively dis-
criminating items in either the original
or the refined tests.
The range of difficulty indices for the
stage fright test was from 16 per cent
to 91 per cent, for the standards of
pronunciation from 38 to 86 per cent
and for the human voice from 13 to 87
per cent.
In addition to item analysis, reliabil-
ity estimates were determined for each
of the tests as a whole. The split-half
method was employed. Using the Spear-
man Brown Prophecy Formula,3 the
reliabilities of the tests used in this
investigation were found to be .43 for
stage fright, .71 for pronunciation stand-
ards and .51 for the human voice test.
These reliability estimates are in keep-
ing with coefficients normally secured
3 Everet F. Lindquist, A First Course in
Statistics (New York, 1942), pp. 218 ff.
 224 SPEECH MONOGRAPHS
II. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The data were gathered during a
period of two weeks, four class days
per week.
A. Immediate Phase. The experiment
was conducted in two phases, the im-
mediate and the delayed. The immediate
phase of the experiment was so termed
because the listening comprehension
tests were administered immediately
following the lectures. The term "de-
layed phase" was used to indicate that
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a period of five weeks was allowed to
elapse, after which a delayed test was
administered. The refined, twenty-five
item tests were used for the delayed
testing.
Every precaution was taken to pro-
vide for favorable listening-testing con-
ditions, free from disturbance. The
recorded lectures were presented in a
small, recently constructed, comfortable,
acoustically designed auditorium. The
lectures were presented in the morning
at three different hours, 7:30, 8:30 and
11:30. Three classes were used each
hour, two average classes and one ad-
vanced class, Tuesday through Friday.
All students were seated in the first
four rows. This allowed the proximity
normally present in the classroom, in-
sured adequate audibility, and facili-
tated distribution and collection of ma-
terials.
The stage fright lecture was presented
each day (Tuesday through Friday) to
three different classes at the 7:30 hour.
The pronunciation standards lecture
was presented to the same number of
classes on the same days (Tuesday
through Friday) at the 8:30 hour. The
human voice lecture was presented
according to the same schedule, except
that it was given at the 11:30 hour.
Thus, twelve classes listened to each
lecture. The Tuesday classes were re-
stricted from taking notes. Subjects in
these groups were simply asked to listen.
The Wednesday classes recorded the
speaker's main points only. The sub-
jects in the Thursday classes were in-
structed to record as many details of
the lectures as possible. The Friday
groups took notes in their customary
manner. Thus, nine classes listened to
lectures in the same way. No class heard
more than one of the three lectures or
listened under more than one of the
four conditions. Following each lecture,
notes were collected and test materials
distributed for use during the remainder
of the hour. Adequate time was allotted
for each subject to complete the test.
At no time during the administrative
routine was the word "experiment" em-
ployed. Students were told that the
proceedings constituted a regular class-
room listening assignment and that
their performances would contribute on
the same basis as other class work to
their final grades. Most instructors also
indicated this to their students prior to
the day of their participation. Students
were told before the lecture that all
notes taken during the lecture would be
collected. Every effort was made to
create and maintain normal classroom
motivation throughout the experiment
so that results and conclusions might be
accurate and meaningful.
B. Delayed Phase. Five weeks from the
dates of the immediate phase of the
experiment, the delayed recall tests
were given. The speeded program of the
advanced classes and various other con-
siderations made it necessary for some
classes to be withdrawn from the de-
layed phase of the experiment. Only
the average classes were used in the de-
layed phase.
This phase of the experiment was
conducted in the regular classroom by
the individual class instructors since the
lectures were not repeated. The admin-
 NOTE-TAKING AND LISTENING COMPREHENSION '225

istrative routine simply consisted of mediate test score of all students who
distributing graphite pencils, examina- heard the same lecture. At the bottom
tion booklets and answer sheets to the of each column is the mean immediate
students, allowing them time to com- test score of all students who received
plete the test, and to collect the ma- the same instructions concerning note-
terials. The refined tests were used. taking.
A summary table for the analysis of
III. THE RESULTS the immediate phase results is presented
A. Immediate Phase Analysis. Ex- in Table II. Five tests of significance of
perimental data obtained in the manner difference at the 5 percent level of
described were analyzed using a three confidence were made.
dimensional factorial design which 1. The first of these was the test of triple
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makes possible a simultaneous analysis interaction among the three variables—

of three experimental factors.4 As pre-
viously indicated these variables were:
note-taking methods, lectures, and levels
of classes (i.e. average or advanced).
The basic statistical data for this anal-
ysis are summarized in Table I. Shown
note-taking techniques, lecture materials,
and class or student ability levels. This test
was made to determine whether any con-
clusion about the efficacy of the note-taking
methods must be limited to specific levels
for specific lecture materials. The result
of the triple interaction test was non-

TABLE I*
IMMEDIATE TEST MEANS FOR NOTE-TAKING METHODS
ACCORDING TO CLASS LEVEL AND LECTURE MATERIAL

\ \ A
3 \
C
! 12.6 139 I3.O '3-9
c2 i6.a 133 16.7 I4.2 I4.O
C
M 13.8 137 I4.4 I4.O
14.1 12.0 I4.2 I3.2
c 15.2 I3.2
B
2 c2 16.0 16.2 IS«
CM 14.7 13.0 I4.8 I3.2
C
I
12.1 12.4 I3.I I3.6
cC 2 14.O 14-9 I4.O I7.I ISS
M 12.7 132 14.6
13-7 133 I4.2 13-9

A = note-taking methods; B = lectures.

*The top value in each cell indicates the mean of the two average classes. The middle value is
the advanced class mean. The lower value in each instance is the cell mean. Values below the
columns and to the right of the rows are the means for the note-taking methods and the
lecture material, respectively.

are the mean test scores for each lec-
ture-note-taking combination for each
level of students. At the bottom of each
cell is the mean test score for the entire
group which heard the same lecture
and took notes in the same manner. To
the right of each row is the mean im-
4 Everet F. Lindquist, Design and Analysis
of Experiments in Psychology and Education
(New York, 1953), Chapters 9 and 10.
significant. In other words, each note-taking
method operated in the same way for both
class levels and for all three lectures.
The second test was of the AB interaction—
the interaction between lecture materials
and note-taking methods. This test in-
vestigated the relative effectiveness of the
note-taking techniques for the various
lecture materials, that is, whether each
method was proportionately effective for all
three lectures. The result was nonsignificent.
That is, each note-taking method was com-
 226 SPEECH MONOGRAPHS

TABLE II
SUMMARY TABLE OF THE ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE OF IMMEDIATE TEST SCORES

Source d£ ss ms F
Techniques (A) 3 36.6 12.3 1.05
Materials (B) 2 193 9-7 .84
Section (C) 1 283.7 283.7 24-45*
AxB 6 112.2 18.7 1.61
AxC 3 14.8 4-9 42
BxC 2 6.7 34 •29
AxBxC 6 142.5 23-7 2.04
W 336 3,887.5 11.6
Total 359 4.5033
•Significance at 5 percent level of confidence
Values needed for significance:
•°5 FF6,336 ~ *•''
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05 F
3,336 = 2 ' 6 8
.05 F 2,336 = 3-07
•°5 F i,336= 3-92
parably efficient for all three of the lectures.
The third test was of the AC interaction—
the interaction between the note-taking
methods and class or student ability levels.
This test indicated whether the relative
merit of each note-taking method was the
same for both ability levels. The result was
nonsignificant. This means that each of the
note-taking methods was equally effective for
both ability levels.
The fourth test was that of the C effect—
the class or student ability levels. This
tested the significance of the difference
between the average and the advanced class
levels. The result of this test was significant,
a fact which was not surprising since it
was known before the experiment that these
average and advanced classes differed in
ability. It therefore seemed probable that
the advanced classes might make superior
listening comprehension test scores.
The final and most important test was the
test of the A effect—the note-taking tech-
niques. This test determined the significance
of the differences among the various note-
taking methods. The result of the test of
the A effects proved nonsignificant. In
other words there was no significant dif-
TABLE III
DELAYED TEST MEANS FOR CELLS, NOTE-TAKING METHODS AND LECTURE MATERIALS
ference among the various methods. The
note-taking methods appeared to be equally
effective.
B. Delayed Phase Analysis. Experi-
mental data obtained in thé delayed
phase were analyzed using a two-factor
analysis of variance. This differed from
the immediate phase in that the class
level factor was withdrawn as previously
explained. A tabular summary of the
basic statistical data with which the de-
layed phase was analyzed appears in
Table III. The data shown are the
mean scores of the tests given to all of
the average classes five weeks after they
heard the lectures. In each cell is the
mean delayed test score for the entire
group which heard the same lecture
and took notes in the same manner. To
the right of each row is the mean de-
layed test score for all students who
five weeks previously heard the same
lecture. At the bottom of each column

10.6 11.6 11.3 11.9 11.3

10.6 8.7 10.8 10.4 10.1
11.9 13.1 11.7 12.3 12.2
11.0 11.1 i 1.2 11.5

A = note-taking methods; B = lectures.

 NOTE-TAKING AND LISTENING COMPREHENSION 287

is the mean delayed test score of all IV. CONCLUSION

subjects who five weeks previously re- A. Conclusions. The general results
ceived the same instructions concerning of this experiment revealed that efficient
note-taking. listening comprehension, under both
As in the immediate phase analysis, immediate and delayed recall condi-
statistical tests of significance of differ- tions, was not significantly affected by
ences at the 5 percent level of confidence any of the note-taking methods. Listen-
were made. Tests were made of the AB ing comprehension was as effective when
interaction—the interaction between the subjects were restricted from taking any
note-taking method and lecture ma- notes as when subjects employed any of
terial, of the A effect—the note-taking the three methods of note-taking used in
techniques, and of the B effect—the lec- this investigation.
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ture materials. The results of the de-

layed phase analysis are summarized in Specifically, the following conclusions
Table IV. may be noted:

TABLE IV
SUMMARY TABLE OF THE ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE OF DELAYED TEST SCORES.

Source df ss ms F
Techniques (A) 3 10 3-33 .318
Materials (B) 2 202 101.00 969*
AxB 6 100 16.67 1-59
W 252 2,625 10.42
Total 263 2.937

•Significance at 5 percent level of confidence.

Values needed for significance:
°- F3,252 = 2 ' 6 8
°5 F 2252 = 3-°7
°5 F 6,252 2.17

Only the test of the B effect, of the
lectures, proved significant. The fact
that the B effect, while not significant
in the immediate phase, appeared signi-
ficant in the delayed testing is probably
not highly pertinent to the main pur-
pose of the present study. It simply indi-
cated that the three lectures were not
remembered equally well over the five
week period.
Finally, as in the immediate phase,
each note-taking group appeared to be
equally effective in the delayed phase.
None of the note-taking methods em-
ployed in the immediate phase effected
a superior performance on the delayed
tests administered five weeks later.
1. It made no significant difference in listening
comprehension in this experiment whether
subjects did not take any notes, whether they
took notes on only the main points of the
lectures, whether they took extensive, de-
tailed notes on the fine factual details of the
lectures, or whether they simply took notes
in their customary manner.
2. No particular note-taking method proved
more efficacious for the advanced subjects
than for the average subjects, and vice versa.
3. No particular note-taking group proved
superior to the others on the delayed tests.
4. The positive correlation between listening
comprehension and intelligence or scholastic
aptitude found by Ralph G. Nichols,5
5
Ralph G. Nichols, "Factors Accounting for
the Differences in Comprehension of Materials
Presented Orally in the Classroom," Ph.D. dis-
sertation, State University of Iowa, 1948.
 228 SPEECH MONOGRAPHS
Arthur Heilman,« Bernice Biggs? and other
investigators was supported by the results
of this study. Advanced classes in this ex-
periment made consistently higher listening
comprehension scores than did the average
classes.
B. Implications. The failure to reveal
a significant difference among the note-
taking techniques may be explained in
more than one way. A most plausible
explanation is that the employment of
such techniques does not, in fact, result
in differences in listening compre-
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then, there would appear to be no justi-
fication for defending a restriction pro-
hibiting student note-taking during
lectures on the grounds that it inter-
feres with efficient listening. No signi-
ficant differences were observed in the
listening comprehension scores of the
groups withheld from taking notes dur-
ing the lectures and in those which em-
ployed a particular method of note-
taking. It would also appear to be
equally indefensible to advocate any
particular note-taking method as being

hension in the short run. A second ex- more conducive to effective listening
planation would be that significant dif- comprehension than any other method.
ferences do exist but that the measur- Rather, it would seem that emphasis
ing instrument used in the reported should be directed toward enhancing
experiment was too imprecise to reveal the efficiency of students' customary,
them. And while the latter explanation habitual note-taking methods.
can never be entirely overlooked as a
possibility, it should be pointed out It is perhaps more meaningful to
that this experiment was conducted with emphasize the ultimate use to be made
a fairly large number of subjects. It of the notes taken during lectures. To
may be argued that if differences are this end, it would appear advantageous
not revealed by a reasonably precise, to include as many factual details in the
carefully conducted experiment with lecture notes as can be subsequently
several hundred subjects, whatever dif- used profitably. Since comprehension is
ferences do exist, if any, are probably as good when many details are recorded
not important enough to merit serious as when only main points are noted,
concern. there would seem to be substantial
justification for recording the fuller fac-
In view of the findings of this study, tual details keeping in mind their ulti-
mate use. Should it be found later that
6 Arthur Heilman, "An Investigation in portions of the detail are not needed,
Measuring and Improving the Listening Ability
of College Freshmen," Ph.D. dissertation, State these parts can easily be eliminated.
University of Iowa, 1951. However, if more detail is subsequently
7 Bernice Biggs, "Construction, Validation
and Evaluation of a Diagnostic Test of Listening needed, it is obviously too late after the
Effectiveness," Ph.D. dissertation, University of lecture has been heard.
Denver, 1954.