10the Lotus Sutra and Garland Sutra According To The Tiantai and Huayan Schools in Chinese Buddhism

The "Lotus Sūtra" and "Garland Sūtra" According to the T'ien-t'ai and Hua-yen Schools in
Chinese Buddhism
Author(s): Liu Ming-Wood 廖明活
Source: T'oung Pao, Second Series, Vol. 74, Livr. 1/3 (1988), pp. 47-80
Published by: BRILL
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T'oungPao LXXIV (1988)
THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLANDSUTRA

ACCORDING TO THE T'IEN-T'AI AND
HUA-YEN SCHOOLS IN CHINESE BUDDHISM*
BY
LIU MING-WOOD OJ17N
Foreword
It is well-known that the T'ien-t'ai RX and Hua-yen y schools
base their teachings on the LotusSitra (Sanskrit:Saddharmapundarika-
stra, Chinese: Fa-huaching tg) and the GarlandSitra (Sanskrit:
Avatamsaka-siutra or Gandavyuha-sutra, Chinese: Hua-yenchingCR)
respectively. It is not the intention of the present essay to try to go
into all aspects of the expositions given of the two works by the two
traditions, a vast undertaking which would be beyond the compass
of a book, not to say that of an article. Rather, we shall limit our-
selves to the more humble task of examining how Chih-i WO (538-
597) and Fa-tsang &#& (643-712), their respective founders, assess
each other's central scriptures. As we shall presently see, the two
masters are remarkably close in their general views regarding the
basic purport and nature of the Lotusand the Garland.Thus, their
disagreement on their relative value cannot be entirely a matter
of diverse reading, but is largely the outcome of the different evalua-
tive criteria they bring to their assessmentof the two texts, which
in turn reflect the distinctive doctrinal orientations of the schools
of thought they represent.And it is these distinctive doctrinal orienta-
tions which we aim to bring out with our comparative study.
of the Lotus Suitraand Garland Suitraand

1. The Character
Early ChineseViewsof TheirRelation
To put our discussionin the proper perspective, it is necessary to
-say a few words on the general character of the LotusSu2traand Gar-
landSutraand to outline briefly the early Chinese opinions of their
relation with each other.
* I would like to thank the Hsu Long-sing Research Fund administered by the
University of Hong Kong for the grant which made this study possible.
48 LIU MING-WOOD
1.1 The Central Themesof the Lotus Sutra and

Its Introductioninto China1
The Lotuswas first introduced into China in the mid-third century,
but won wide attention only after Kumarajiva, the famous initiator
of Madhyamika thought in Chinese Buddhism, gave his translation
of the text in 406.2 In the century and a half that followed, the work
became increasingly popular, especially in the South, where it was
widely studied and written about, first by Kumarajiva's followers
such as Seng-jui ffg (352-436), Chu Tao-sheng ktA (355-434)
and Hui-kuan JBi, and later by experts of the Mahayana Maha-
parinirvana-sutraand Satyasiddhi-sastra,such as Seng-ching {ff, Seng-
yin fP (435-499), Chih-tsang Vt (458-522), Fa-yiin it (467-
529) and Pao-ch'iung WT3 (504-584).3 While these early students
of the Lotus had very dissimilar ideas regarding the text's structure,
substance, etc., they generally agreed that the Sutra was propounded
by Sakyamuni in the last years of his life,4 and has among its main
1 Summaries of the Lotuscan be found in H. Kern trans., Saddharmapundarika

or
the Lotus of the True Law (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1884), pp. xxix-xxxi, Leon
Hurvitz, Chih-i (Bruxelles: L'Institut Beige des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 1962),
pp. 183-188, Mark A. Ehman, "The Saddharmapundarzka-sutra", in Charles S.
Prebish, ed., Buddhism: A Modern Perspective(University Park & London: Pen-
nsylvania State University Press, 1969), pp. 102-107, and Och6 Enichi ;t*i, R
ed., Hokke shiso , (Kyoto: 1969), pp. 23-177.
2 For information on the various Chinese translations of the Lotus, see Leon
Hurvitz, op. cit., pp. 188-189, Yazaki Sh6ken 9lQIEJ, "Hokekyodenyaku to
sono keitai iit f -#cc©1", in Sakamoto Yukio W**9, ed., Hokekyono
shiso to bunka& ©O L {L (Kyoto: 1965), pp. 227-239. Sakamoto Yukio,
,Ff
"Chugoku ni okeru Hokekyokenkyii-shi no kenkyu^Pi -TW t;5i~f~F~
Z", in Sakamoto Yukio. ed., Hokekyono Chugokuteki tenkai&WE@0 6nI§r
(Kyoto: 1972), pp. 3-9, and Kato Bunn6, Tamura Yoshir6 & Miyasaka Ko-
jir6, trans., The ThreefoldLotus Sutra (New York & Tokyo: Weatherhill/K6sei,
1975), pp. xiii-xiv.
3 On the early history of the study of the Lotus Sutra, consult Leon Hurvitz,
op. cit., pp. 189-205, Sakamoto Yukio, "Chugoku bukkyo to Hokkeshis6 no ren-
kan {W Ifit SNi©O, j ", in Sakamoto Yukio, ed., Hokekyo no shiso to bun-
ka, op. cit., pp. 489-507, Och6 Enichi, ed., op. cit., pp. 224-232 & 245-256, And6
Toshio ~te, "Hokekyoto Tendai ky6gaku int!t", in ibid., pp.
476-482, Sato Shingaku ftlG,r; "Riku-ch6 jidai ni okeru 'Hokekyo'no kenkyu
k6setsu ]_ia^7·f^^r4©:B;", Bukkyo Daigaku kenkyukiyo \^±tw
~W5fE 54 (1970), pp. 83-116, Sakamoto Yukio, "Chfgoku ni okeru Hokekyo
kenkyu-shi no kenkyu", op. cit., pp. 9-22, and Inari Nitsusen 9 in , Hokekyo
Ichijoshisono kenkyu&^ , ~©~ (Kyoto: 1975), pp. 18-45.
4 This contention is supported by the text proper of the Lotus:"Monks! When
the Tathagata sees that his time of nirvanahas arrived and his followers are pure
[at heart], firm in faith and understanding, thorough in comprehension of the
truth of emptiness, and profound in practice of meditation, he then assemblies
THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 49
themes the "uniting of three in one" (hui-sankuei-i E*-0-) and

the "exposing of the close at hand to reveal the beyond" (k'ai-chin
hsien-yiian rjA).5 By "three", they had in mind the three differ-
ent forms of teaching, pertaining to the three different vehicles of
gravakas, pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas; and by "one", they
had in mind the one teaching peculiar to the vehicle of the Buddha.
By the Lotus "uniting three in one", they meant that one of the
Suitra's chief purposes is to make known that the Tathagata instructs
a particular message to each of the three vehicles, mainly out of
consideration of their diverse intelligence and dispositions, while
all three-vehicle teachings share the selfsame goal of leading sentient
beings to the one Buddha-vehicle which embodies the Tathagata's
true intention.6 By "the close at hand", they referred to the Buddha's
phenomenal manifestations, which have material forms and are of
limited life-span; and by "the beyond", they alluded to the Bud-
dha's real body, which is invisible, intangible, and long lasting.
By the Lotus"exposing the close at hand to reveal the beyond",
they meant that another main concern of the Stitra is to demon-
strate that the Tathagata assumes transient, physical appearances
in the guise of such historical Buddhas as Dipamkara and Sakya-
muni, largely in order to instil in sentient beings a longing for his
instruction, while in reality, his being surpasses all bounds, and his
beginning and end are past human comprehension.7 The "three"
together various bodhisattvas and Aravakas,and preaches for them this [Lotus]
Siitra." (TakakusuJunjira i1i l3tM & Watanabe Kaikyoku A&St, ed., Taisho
ShinshiiDaizokyo ;!Efifgki9 85 vols. [Tokyo: 1924-1934] [henceforth ab-
breviated to T], vol. 9, p. 25c, 11.20-22)
Again, it is said:
"Mafijusri! This LotusSutra is the foremost teaching of the Tathagatas, and is the
most profound of all discourses. [The Tathaigatal bestowsit at the veryend,just as
that powerful king finally gave that brilliant jewel which he had guarded for
long." (Ibid., p. 39a, 11.15-17)
5 Refer to Sakamoto Yukio, "Chuigoku bukky6 to Hokkeshis6 no renkan",
op. cit., pp. 517-520, Tamura Yoshira Bt 3)y "Houn no 'HokkeGiki' no kenkyui
two9;;zc) " in Sakamoto Yukio, ed., Hokekyono Chugokuteki tenkai,
op.cit., pp. 183-184 and Inari Nitsusen, op.cit., p. 40 & p. 131.
6 We write here as if there are four distinct vehicles, viz., sravaka vehicle, pratye-
kabuddha vehicle, bodhisattva vehicle and buddha vehicle, largely because this
is the view of both Chih-i and Fa-tsang. However, there also exists the opinion
that the "bodhisattva vehicle" and "buddha vehicle" are actually different names
of the same vehicle, and so instead of four vehicles, there are only three. We shall
go into the problem of the relation of the "one vehicle" and "three vehicles" in
sec. 3.2 below.
7 The chapter "The Life-span of the Tathagata" (chap. 16 of Kumarajiva's
50 LIU MING-WOOD
and "close at hand" represent the "ch'iian 4" (provisional) aspect

of the Buddha, who, out of compassion, accommodates his infinite
knowledge and perfection to the finite understanding of mankind to
bring about its deliverance. The "one" and "beyond" signify the
"shih W" (essential) aspect of the Buddha, whose wisdom knows no
limit and whose mode of existence transcends all restrictions. It was
the common consensus of the first Chinese scholars of the Lotus that
the scripture is primarily concerned with elucidating the interrela-
tion of these two aspects of "ch'iian" and "shih" of the Tathagata.
1.2 The CentralThemesof Garland SuitraandIts Introduction

Into China8
The first Chinese translation of the entire GarlandSiitra was under-
taken by Buddhabhadra (359-429), and was completed in 420, that
is, one and a half decade after the appearance of Kumarajiva's ver-
sion of the Lotus.9 The Garlandcould hardly compare with the Lotus
in general popularity in the early years of its circulation. Never-
theless, it was universally recognized as a major Buddhist work,'0
and was very influential in the sixth century in the North, where
it became a favourite text of the Ti-lun Jt!-, masters, such as Hui-
kuang J (468-537), Seng-fan g (476-555), T'an-tsun C1
(480-564?) and T'an-yen 2Thi (503-581), whose teachings repre-
version) contains one of the most famous descriptions of the Buddha's longevity
in the Buddhist Canon, and is often quoted in support of the idea of the eternal
nature of the Buddha.
8 For synopses of the GarlandSatra, see G.P. Malalasekera, ed., Encyclopaedia of
Buddhismvol. 2 (Colombo: Government Press of Ceylon, 1966), pp. 438-441,
Thomas Cleary, Entryinto theInconceivable (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
1983), pp. 171-205 and Kawada Kumatar6 )II &Rbt3 "Buddha Kegon-Kegon-
gyo no k6satsu 14 gt- c in Nakamura Hajime 4i*lt, ed., Kegon
shiso*,,tP, (Kyoto: 1960), pp. 21-62.
9 For details on the formation of the GarlandSatraand its various Chinese trans-
lations, see G.P. Malalasekera, ed., op. cit., pp. 435-438, F.H. Cook, Hua-yenBud-
dhism (University Park & London: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977),
pp. 21-22, Yutsugi Ryoei 7 Kegon Taikei ; (Tokyo: 1975), pt. 1,
chaps. 2 & 3, Ishii Kyodo ~4*I, Kegon Kyogakuseiritsu-shi;) RtL
Tokyo: 1964), pt. 2, chaps. 1 & 2, Kimura Kiyotaka tt4itf, Shoki Chiugoku
Kegonshiso no kenkyi , (Tokyo: 1977), pt. 1, chap. 1, Nan-
t'ing 14e "Hua-yen-tsung shih " in Chang Man-t'ao R ed., Hua-
yen-tsungchi p'an-chiaochi ch'i fa-chan I (Taipei: 1978), pp.
247-253, and Tz'u-pin , "Hua-yen-ching kai-shu ti FtL", in Chang Man-
ta'o, ed., Hua-yentien-chiyen-chiu 7 (Taipei: 1978), pp. 1-6.
10 Indeed, it appears to have commanded even higher respect among early
Chinese Buddhists than the Lotus. Refer to the concluding paragraph of next
section.
sented the initial Chinese response to Yogacara thought.1' While

sharing with the Lotus the pride of place as one of the foremost Maha-
yana stitras in the eyes of most Chinese Buddhists, the Garlanddiffers
markedly from the Lotusin its background, style and content:
i) The Garlandopens with a majestic scene of the Tathagata sitting
under the Bodhi-tree worshipped and praised by a huge assembly
of bodhisattvas, gods, men, demons, etc.,12 which suggests that it
is the record of the first words of Sakyamuni after his enlightenment,
and so stands for the advent of the Buddha's preaching career. The
Lotus, as we have seen, was taught by Sakyamuni when his sojourn
in samsara was approaching its end, and as such represents the
conclusion of the Buddha's lifework.13
ii) Propounded by Sakyamuni fresh from his enlightenment, the
Garland is commonly considered to be the purest expression of the
Buddha Dharma and so correlates with the aspect "shih" of the
Lotus. However, it includes no corresponding elaboration of the
aspect "ch'iian". A famous passage in the Garland even depicts such
leading Hinayana saints as Sariputra, Maudgalyayana, Mahaka-
gyapa and Katyayana as being totally oblivious before the Tatha-
gata's display of supernatural power,14 which is generally taken to
indicate that the unadulterated Truth as embodied in the Garland
is not suitable for sravakas and bodhisattvas of limited intelligence.
The Lotus, on the contrary, reports several times the Tathagata's
conversations with representative figures of the Hinayana tradition,
in which it was predicted that Sariputra, Maudgalyayana, Maha-
kagyapa, Katyayana, and many other Hinayana arhats as well,
would eventually attain Buddhahood.15
iii) As a text devoted to the elucidation of the aspect "shih" of the
Tathagata, the Garland gives some of the most divine and awe-
inspiring portrayals of the Buddhist enlightenment experience.16
Furthermore, it relates step by step, and in great detail, the numer-
11 On the early history of the study of the Garlandin China, refer to G.P. Mala-
lasekera, op. cit., pp. 442-443, Yutsugi Ryoei, op. cit., pp. 24-38, Ishii, Kyod6,
op. cit., pt. 3, chap. 2, secs. 2 & 3 and Kimura Kiyotaka, op, cit., pt. 1, chaps. 2
& 4.
12 See T, vol. 9, p. 395a, ff.
13 See n. 4 above.
14 See T, vol. 9, pp. 679b-680c.
15 See T, vol. 9, p. 1lb, p. 21c, p. 20b & p. 21b respectively.
16 Good examples are its descriptions of the World of Lotus-Womb and the
Tower of the Bodhisattva Maitreya. See T, vol. 9, pp. 412a-415a & pp. 780b-
782b. For an English account of Maitreya's Tower, refer to D.T. Suzuki, Essays
in Zen Buddhism3rd series (New York: Samuel Weiser, Inc., 1976), pp. 132-141.
52 LIU MING-WOOD
ous stages a bodhisattva has to pass through before he can achieve

the supreme end of Buddhahood.17 The Lotus, on the other hand,
despite its frequent eulogization of the "one Buddha-vehicle" and
"the beyond", is surprisingly reticent with respect to their precise
nature and content.18 And stranger still, it contains no detailed,
systematic instruction on religious practice.19
The above-mentioned disparities of the two sitras did not escape
the attention of their early Chinese readers, as clearly demonstrated
by presently available information.
1.3 P'an-chiao andEarly Opinionsof theRelationbetweenthe

Lotus Sutra and Garland Suitra
Early reflections on the relation between the Lotus and the Garland
in China were closely connected with the question of p'an-chiao FUR9.
P'an-chiao, commonly acknowledged as a central feature of Chinese
Buddhism, is basically concerned with distinguishing and integrat-
ing various systems of Buddhist ideas, various forms of Buddhist
religious cultivation and various strata of Buddhist texts, with the
view of highlighting their distinctive characteristics as well as re-
conciling their apparent disparities. Its advent can be traced back
to the circle headed by Kumarajiva and his followers at the begin-
ning of the fifth century.20 And it is in the p'an-chiao teaching of
Hui-kuan 4, , a leading disciple of Kumarajiva, that we encounter
the first Chinese discussion on the positions of the Lotus and the
Garland.21
17 A large part of the Garlandis devoted to the delineation of the fifty-two bod-
hisattva stations leading to Buddhahood. See n. 8 above and discussion of the
Garland'scontent and structure in Ishii Kyodo, op. cit., pt. 2, chap. 3.
18 See remark in Sugura Shinjo JB0i, "Indo Bukky6 to Hokkeshis6 to no
renkan -f v lf;1 I,CD ^ O ", in Sakamoto Yukio, ed., Hokekyono shiso
to bunka,op. cit., p. 451.
19See the highly perceptive comment on the nature of the Lotusin Mou Tsung-
san 2;,, Fo-hsingyupan-jo{f±fiq (Taipei: 1977), pp. 576-579, and remark
in Ando Toshio, op. cit., pp. 494-495.
20 For information on the advent of the
practice of p'an-chiaoin China, consult
Och6 Enichi, "Ky6os hanjaku no genshi keitai SklJO~, ~,l,", in Och6
Enichi, ChugokuBukkyono kenkyu, lPSf{©POfR, vol. 2 (Kyoto: 1980), pp. 145-
161, and Araki Noritoshi M ,AtR, "Nanch6 zenpanki ni okeru ky6s6 hanjaku
no seiritsu ni tsuite i~c.J ~7l;
-o[,'C\", ~Jf) in Fukunaga
Mitsuji Jg*c3t, ed., ChugokuChuseino shukyo to bunka rPf~qt:~ ©<~k:
(Kyoto: 1982), pp. 239-413.
21 Biography of Hui-kuan in Hui-chao -K3, Kao-sengchuanrf{-(, T, vol. 50,
p. 368b-c.
As a student of Kumarajlva, Hui-kuan was naturally familiar

with his master's translation of the Prajiiap&ramitd-sitras,Vimalakir-
and the Lotus. Since
tinirdesa-sitra, Visesacintabrahmapariprcchii-sfitra
he had also assisted in the translation of the Garland22and had
participated in the preparation of the socalled "Southern Version"
of the Mahayana Mahiiparinirvana-sutra(henceforth abbreviated to
MNS),23 he must also have had intimate knowledge of these two
influential works. The immense disagreements in purport and theme
of this wide assortment of Buddhist scriptures could not have failed
to catch his notice, and it was apparently with the intention to
explain away these disagreements that he drew up his famous p'an-
chiao scheme of "two teachings and five periods", which has been
related as follows:
Formerly, when the MNS was first brought to [the region of] the Lower Yangtze,
the monk Hui-kuan of the Tao-ch'ang Temple A of the Sung X [Dynasty]
composed a preface for it, in which he classified Buddhist teachings roughly into
two categories:
i) Sudden teaching: such as the GarlandSOthawhich was meant only for bo-
dhisattvas and which discloses the Truth completely.
ii) [Gradual teaching:] From his first [turning of the wheel of Dharma at] the
Deer Park to [his] final [nirvana at] the Crane Grove, [the Tathagata led
his audience step by step] from the easy to the profound, and this is known as
"gradual teaching".
Within the gradual teaching, there are five periods:
i) Distinct teaching of the three vehicles: [The Tathagata] lectured for the
sravakasthe four [noble] truths, preached for the pratyekabuddhas the twelve-
fold [chain of] dependent origination, and explained for the bodhisattvas the
six paramitas. [Since each vehicle] practised different deeds and reaped
different fruits, [this period of teaching] is called "distinct teaching of the
three vehicles".
ii) The Praj2pairamita-sutras instruct [all] three faculties (i.e., the three vehicles)
in common, and [so] is called "common teaching of the three vehicles".
iii) The Vimalakirtinirdeda-sOtra and V;isesacintabrahmapariprccha-istra extol the
bodhisattvas and reprove the stavakas, and [so;] is called "teaching which
reproves and extols".
iv) The Lotus Sutra unites the three vehicles and [demonstrations] their con-
vergence on the one ultimate goal [of Buddhahood], and [so] is called
"teaching of convergence".
v) [What] the MNS [propounds] is called "teaching of eternity".24
22 See Fa-tsang, Hua-yen-chingchuan-chi .*JK , T, vol. 51, p. 154b, 11.10-

chi
11 & 22, and Hua-yent'an-hsiaan X:, T, vol. 35, p. 122c, 1.19.
23 See Hui-kuan's biography in Hui-chao, op. cit., T, vol. 50, p. 368a, 11.20-23.
24 Chi-tsang , San-lunhsUan-i -I ;, T, vol. 45, p. 5b, 11.4-14.
54 LIU MING-WOOD
Table1 Hui-kuan'sP'an-ChiaoSystemof Two TeachingsandFive Periods

Two TEACHINGS FIVE PERIODS
i) Sudden Teaching
(GarlandSutra)
- i) Distinct Teaching of the Three Vehicles
ii) Common Teaching of the Three Vehicles
(Prajtaparamitta-sutras)
ii) Gradual Teaching- iii) Teaching which Reproves and Extols
& Visesacintabrahma-
(Vimalakirtinirdeia-snitra
pariprcched-siitra)
iv) Teaching of convergence (LotusSutra)
- v) Teaching of eternity (MNS)
As we can easily see from the above account, Hui-kuan begins by

classifying Buddhist texts into the two categories of "sudden teach-
ing" and "gradual teaching", according to the method employed
in preaching them. Since only the Garland is cited as representing
the first category, it is not far-fetched to conclude that this classifica-
tion is introduced largely in order to account for the peculiar charac-
ter of the Garland.By "sudden teaching", Hui-kuan means the direct
revelation of the whole truth. Now, as the Buddha communicated
the whole Truth in the Garland, the Sutra naturally comprises thor-
ough delineations of this Truth and the road leading to its realiza-
tion. Thus, the special care the Garlandtakes to depict the path and
the experience of enlightenment is explained. Furthermore, as the
Buddha communicated the Truth directly in the Garland, those lis-
teners of limited wisdom naturally could not comprehend its mes-
sage. Thus, the state of oblivion of the sravakas and pratyekabuddhas
among the audience of the Suitra also becomes intelligible.
With the exception of the Garland, all other central Buddhist
scriptures are placed by Hui-kuan under the category of "gradual
teaching", in which the Truth is disclosed slowly by degree. Hui-
kuan further divides the Buddha's gradual process of revealing the
Truth into five periods, and assigns the Lotus to the fourth period,
whose characteristic is to unite the three vehicles and demonstrate
their convergence on the one ultimate goal of Buddhahood", which
is none other than the functions of "uniting three in one" and "ex-
posing the close at hand to reveal the beyond", which we have re-
ferred to in our discussion of the Lotus, in sec. 1.1 above. Preached
after a long process of preparation during which the Hinayana and
Mahayana were taught, either together, indiscriminatingly (first
and second periods) or as one superior to the other (third period),
the Lotus is understandably more accessible to the general audience
than the Garland and so is comprehensible not only to bodhisattvas
but to gravakas and pratyekabuddhas as well. The postulation of
a fifth period helps to account for the singular silence of the Lotus,
with respect to the essence of the one Buddha-vehicle, which it
constantly alludes to, for to elaborate the eternal, blissful, personal
and tranquil character of Buddhahood is not its task, but is the
concern of the MNS, commonly acknowledged to have been ex-
pounded by Sakyamuni immediately before his nirvana.
Hui-kuan's view of the Garland and the Lotus, as evinced in his
theory of "two teachings and five periods", was echoed in nmany
of the p'an-chiao schemes which appeared in the following century.
In these early Chinese p'an-chiao schemes, the Garlandwas variously
labelled as "round teaching" (yiian-chiao [), "one vehicle teach-
ing" (i-ch'eng chiao -*R), "sudden teaching" (tun-chiao OR),
"teaching of characteristics" (yu-hsiang chiao ) "doctrine of
reality" (chen-shih tsung fIX), "doctrine of the eternal" (ch'ang
tsung ) "doctrine of the dharmadhaitu"(fa-chieh tsung ;
etc.,25 with the distinct connotation that it represented the Buddha
Dharma in its purest and most perfect form. As for the Lotus, it
figured less prominently than the Garland in early Chinese discus-
sions of p'an-chiao. When it did appear, it was often given the name
of "teaching of convergence" (t'ung-kueichiao rpi"R) or "teaching
of no-characteristic" (wu-hsiang chiao ) and was frequently
cited as a category of "gradual teaching", in which it was invariably
placed before the MNS,26 so giving the impression that it remained
one step away from the culmination of the Buddha's evangelical
career, and was still not the total expression of the final Truth. Such
classifications and characterizations of the two stitras strongly sug-
gest that the Garlandis a truer and fuller representation of the Bud-
dhist gospel and occupies a higher place in the Buddhist Canon
than the Lotus, an opinion which must have been quite widespread
in Chih-i's time, as it was constantly alluded to in the writings of
the Madhyamika master Chi-tsang i (549-623), one of Chih-i's
eminent contemporaries.27
2. Chih-i on the Lotus Stitra and the Garland Stitra
2.1 The Lotus Sitra and Garland Suitrain Chih-i's Scheme of Five
Periods of Teaching:
Chih-i, as is well-known, claims as the scriptural basis of his
25 Consult the list in Kimura Kiyotaka, op. cit., pp. 75-78.
26 Refer to Chih-i's and Fa-tsang's accounts of the early Chinese p'an-chiaosys-
tems in Fa-hua hsi2an-i
z;-*X, T, vol. 33, p. 801a-b and Hua-yen wu-chiao chang
* i:T, T, vol. 45, pp. 480b-481a respectively.
27 For example, see Chi-tsang, Fa-hua hsuan-lun T, vol. 34, p. 366a,
56 LIU MING-WOOD
T'ien-t'ai teaching the Lotus Sutra, which he places above all Bud-
dhist texts, including the Garland. His p'an-chiao scheme of "five
periods" can be considered as a reformation of the theory of "five
periods" of Hui-kuan with the aim of establishing the preeminence
of the Lotus.28
As first propounded in the Fa-hua hsiian-i 'gg2 ,29 Chih-i's
scheme of "five periods" is part of a larger p'an-chiao system, which
divides the Buddha's teachings into the three categories of"sudden",
"gradual" and "indeterminate" according as how they were taught
and received by their audiences.30 As an illustration of the sudden
teaching, Chih-i quotes the famous simile of the rising sun first
shining on the high mountains before letting its rays fall on the hills,
11.12-14 and Fa-huayu-i &,X , T, vol. 34, p. 635a, 11.5-6. Also refer to n. 51
below.
28Biography of Chih-i in Kuan-ting XIR. Sui T'ien-t'ai chih-cheta-shihpieh-
chuanFX-II· fiJ(g, T. vol. 50, pp. 191a-197c and Tao-hsian AM, Hsi
Kao-seng-chuan - f', T, vol. 50, pp. 564a-568a.
29 The following discussion of Chih-i's theory of five periods is based entirely
on the concluding section of the Fa-hua hsiian-i titled "Shih chiao-hsiangMRM",
which is devoted mainly to the subject of p'an-chiao.See T, vol. 33, p. 806a, if.
For orthodox accounts of Chih-i's scheme of five periods, consult Leon Hurvitz,
op. cit., pp. 230-244, Kenneth K.S. Ch'en, Buddhismin China(Princeton: Princeton
1
University Press, 1964) , pp. 306-307,
, and Ando Toshio. endai-gaku (Kyo-
to: 1968), pp. 60-81.
30 The division of
"sudden", "gradual" and "indeterminate" was not an in-
vention of Chih-i. As we have seen, Hui-kuan had already classified the Buddha's
teachings into "sudden" and "gradual". To these two, a third category of "in-
determinate" was later added to account for the peculiar character of the Sri-
malsimhan&da-sutra and Suvarnaprabhdsa-sutra; and this system of three teachings
enjoyed considerably popularity in Southern China in the late fifth and sixth
centuries. For more detail, consult Yoshida Kazuhiro [IBILA, "Henkata
fuj6 kyo ni tsuite {§-, X"C", Otani gakuho k@3* 56.1 (1976), pp.
27-39. With the introduction of a further category of "secret teaching", there
came into existence the so-called "four methods of conversion" (hua-i ssu-chiao
{LM{VI[), commonly considered as one of the key p'an-chiaoschemes of the T'ien-
t'ai School. It should be noted that even though the invention of the list "sudden",
"gradual", "indeterminate" and "secret" can be attributed to Chih-i, the im-
portance attached to it came largely from later T'ien-t'ai masters, and the designa-
tion "four methods of conversion" appears in none of Chih-i's extant writings.
For brief, orthodox description of the "four methods", see Leon Hurvitz, op. cit.,
pp. 244-248, Kenneth K.S. Ch'en, op. cit., pp. 308-309 and Ando Toshio, Tendai-
gaku, op. cit., pp. 81-92. For discussions on the place of the scheme of "four meth-
ods" in Chih-i's p'an-chiaoteaching, see Sekiguchi Sindai M nkt "Kegi shiky6
ron {LtRfei", in Sekiguchi Sindai, ed., TendaiKyogakuno KenkyuI-Jilk©
ft[ (Tokyo: 1978), pp. 37-54, Ikeda Rosan i9Af, "Goji hakky6 ron H:
A/Je", in ibid., pp. 173-178, and Mitomo Keny6 -E2;l, "Tendai ni okeru
en.ton.zen no teigi to ky6han -
4~t-5 fJdF ", in ibid., pp.
&
]- .' c ~r
271-282.
plains and valleys,31indicating that he means by "sudden teaching"

the direct manifestation of the complete Truth.32 When speaking
on the "gradual teaching", Chih-i refersto the much quoted passage
in the MNS concerning the successive production of five groups of
Buddhist texts by the Buddha,33 showing that he has in mind by
"gradual teaching" the progressive revelation of the Truth.34
All in all, we can say that Chih-i's conception of "sudden" and
"gradual" closely parallels that of Hui-kuan, which we have set out
in sec. 1.3 above.35
It is in his exposition of what make up the "sudden" and "gradu-
31 Fa-hua hsuan-i, T, vol. 33, p. 806a, 11.22-23. This simile appears in the
Garland,T, vol. 9, p. 616b, 11.14-16. Also see quotation in n. 46 below.
32 In the Fa-hua wen-chui Chih-i refers to the "sudden teaching" a
the "full truth" (liao-i chihli ) and "direct expression of the truth" (hui-li
chih-shuo*Ai,) (T, vol. 34, p. 33c, 11.11-13). In the Mo-ho chih-kuan#nJ IE,
he defines "sudden" as "immediate fulfilment" (tun-tsu ) and "immediate
consummation" (tun-chi4iW) (T, vol. 46, p. 33a, 11.9-10)
33 So it readsin MNS:
Good sons! It is just as milk is produced from cows, cream is produced from milk,
curd is produced from cream, butter is produced from curd, and ghee is produced
from butter. [Among the five flavours, that of] ghee is the best. Whoever takes
it will have all his ailments removed, [for] in it is embodied [the curing power of]
all medicines.
Good sons! The same is true of the Buddha. From the Buddha are produced
twelve categories of scriptures, from the twelve categories of scriptures are pro-
duced [various] suitras, from suitras are produced the vaipulyasitras, from the
vaipulyasu2trasare produced the Prajinaparamitii [-suitras],and from the Prajnuipa-
ramitti [-suitras]is produced the MNS, [which is the supreme among Buddhist
scriptures], just as ghee [is the supreme among the five flavours]." (T, vol. 12,
p. 449a, 11.5-12)
This famous passage, in which the twelve categories of scriptures,sutras, vaipulya
suitras,Prajhipdramiti-sutras and the MNS are symbolized by "five flavours" of
ascending value, is among the most deliberate attempts at p'an-chiaofound in
Indian Buddhist texts. It also forms the canonical basis of the theory of "five
periods" of Hui-kuan and Chih-i.
34 Chih-i so remarks in the Mo-ho chih-kuan:" 'Gradual' means 'by stages',
[i.e., the advancement] from the simple to the profound." (T, vol. 46, p. 33a, 1.9)
35 However, unlike his predecessors, Chih-i does not identify the "sudden",
"gradual" and "indeterminate" ways of instruction exclusivelywith some particul-
are Buddhist works, but contends that suitraspertaining to the category of "gra-
dual" may also employ from time to time the "sudden" and "indeterminate"
methods, and vice versa. Furthermore, the division of "sudden", "gradual" and
"indeterminate" is applied bv him not only to the classification of teachings but
also to the classification of various forms of meditation. Those are the main reasons
behind Chih-i's declaration that he adopts the traditional p'an-chiaocategories
of "sudden", "gradual" and "indeterminate" without abiding to their original
meaning. (Fa-huahsian-i, T, vol. 33, p. 806a, 11.16-17)
58 LIU MING-WOOD
al" teachings of the Tathagata that Chih-i puts forward his version
of the division of "five periods":
i) First Period
When the Buddha first attained the supreme enlightenment under
the Bodhi tree, he proclaimed the GarlandSitra, in which he related
directly his vision of ultimate Reality. This suddenmethod of in-
struction, however, proved unsuitable for the sravakasand pratyeka-
buddhas among the audience, who, due to their "dull roots" totally
failed to comprehend.
ii) Second Period:
Seeing that most of his listenerswere not yet ready for the immediate
communication of the entire Truth, the Buddha practised expedi-
ence and exchanged the sudden for the gradualmethod of tutelage.
So he left the Bodhi tree for the city of Varanasi, where he preached
the Hinayana Tripitakaand pronounced such doctrines as imper-
manence, four noble truths, twelvefold chain of dependent origi-
nation, etc., to render the mind of his lesser followers more recep-
tive to his guidance.
iii) Third Period:
Fearing that his audience would assume the Hmnayanateaching of
the second period as final, the Buddha proceeded to deliver in the
third period, such texts as the Vimalakirtinirdesa-suitra,
Visesacintabrah-
mapariprcchd-suitra and Aryiingulimaliyanamamahiivana-sutra, in which
he avowed that the Hinayana precepts previously prescribeddid not,
in fact, contain the real truth, and that there still existed higher
truths pertaining to the way of the Mahayana, and those were what
they should strive to realize. In this period, the Buddha chided the
inferior ideal of the Hinayana in order to instil in his listeners
aspiration for the superior goal of the Mahayana.
iv) Fourth Period:
After lauding the Mahayana at the expense of the Hinayana in the
third period, the Buddha went on to lecture the Prajnaiparamita-
s-tras, in the fourth period in which he expounded such major
Mahayana ideas as "emptiness" and the "neither birth nor ex-
tinction" of all dharmas mental and physical. He discoursed on
the "distinctive wisdom" (pu-kungpan-jo >F;KW), i.e., wisdom
distinctive of the bodhisattva-vehicle, as well as the "common
wisdom" (kungpan-jo ) i.e., wisdom common of the three
vehicles of Cravakas, pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas, and
elaborated the long, tortuous path leading to the supreme goal
of Tathagatahood.
v) Fifth Period:
Having gone through the gradualtraining of the second, third and
fourth periods, the listeners were finally prepared for the reception
of the full message. Only then did the Buddha address them with
the Lotus Su-tra,in which he disclosed his "original intention" (pen-
huai *t ) and his true eternal nature. Chih-i equates the Lotus with
the concept of "emptiness of the Garland Ocean" (Hua-yen-hai
k'ung g.W8;), which appears after the "mahaprajnia"in the list of
Buddhist tenets enumerated in the Wu-liang-i ching k, 36
and sums up the course of instruction of the Tathagata as follow:
Again, it is understood that the "emptiness of the Garland Ocean" expounded
after the [mahd]praj8iis the "roundand sudden"(yuan-tun[1tf) teachingqf theLotus.
Why? [Because] on first attaining enlightenment, [the Buddha] preached purely
the roundand sudden[teachingof the Garland].For those who failed to comprehend
as their great capacity was not yet developed, he [went on to] rinse out [their
defilements] and to bring to maturity [their understanding] by instructing them
with the Hinayana] Tripitaka,vaipulya[sutras]and Prajfiaparamitii [-zutras].When
their roots were [finally] sharpened and their defilements were removed, and when
they could [at last] receive the "round and sudden [message, the Tathagata]
lectured forthwith the Lotus,disclosing to them the Buddha's [true] knowledge and
vision so that they could enter the dharmadhatu, in like manneras the Garland[did
to thewiseat thebeginning].37
Judging solely from the above passage, it appears that the Lotus is
concerned with the exposition of the same "round and sudden"
teaching and is conducive to the entrance into the same "realm of
Truth" (dharmadhatu)as the Garland, with the difference that being
the product of the closing period instead of the beginning period of
the Buddha's teaching career, it was comprehensible not only to
bodhisattvas but to all three vehicles alike. After the lecturing of the
Lotus, there were still people in the assembly who remained un-
converted, notably those five thousand monks, nuns and lay fol-
lowers who were recorded as having left the Tathagatha's presence
due to their arrogance and evil roots, in the second chapter of the
Lotus.38 In order to also gather these stubborn ones into his fold,
the Buddha expounded, right before his death, the MNS, in which
he went through once again the principal ideas he had set out in the
preceding periods. In this last work of his earthly life, the Buddha
laid special emphasis on the concept of the eternal, blissful, per-
sonal and pure nature of Buddhahood, for fear that on witnessing
his nirvana, his followers would be overwhelmed with the feeling
of impermanence and as a consequence, lose confidence in the
Buddhist way.
36 See T, vol. 9, p. 386b, 1.25. It is the common belief of Chinese Buddhists
that the Wu-liang-iching was lectured by the Buddha as a preface to the Lotus.
37 T, vol. 33, p. 808a, 11.11-16.
38 See T, vol. 9, p. 7a, 11.7-11.
60 LIU MING-WOOD
Table2 Chih-i'sP'an-ChiaoSystemof ThreeTeachingsandFive Periods

THREE TEACHINGS FIVE PERIODS
i) Sudden Teaching- i) GarlandSitra
- ii) Hinayana Tripitaka
iii) Vimalakirtinirdeia-sutra
& Viiesacintabrahma-
ii) Gradual Teaching pariprcchai-si2tra
iv) Prajnadparamita-sutras
- v) LotusSutraand MNS
iii) Indeterminate Teaching
Comparing Chih-i's scheme of "five periods" with that of Hui-

kuan, we can observe the following dissimilarities which throw
light on the subject we have on hand:
i) While both masters deem the sudden method of instruction as
characteristic of the Garland,and agree that the Garlandembodies/
preaches/enunciates the Buddha Dharma in its pure form, Hui-
kuan makes no attempt to assign the Suitra to a particular epoch in
the Tathagata's lifework. Chih-i, on the other hand, places the
Stitra at the very commencement of the Tathagata's mission of
universal salvation; we have already mentioned the textual basis
for this opinion in sec. 1.2 above.
ii) In the scheme of Hui-kuan, the Lotus represents the fourth
period, in which the Tathagata demonstrated the convergence of
the three-vehicle teachings on the one ultimate goal of Buddhahood.
As for the elucidation of the eternal essence of nirvana and Bud-
dhahood, Hui-kuan sees this as the task of the fifth period and the
peculiar theme of the MNS, but not that of the Lotus. Chih-i does
not deny that the MJVS takes the explication of the eternal nature
of nirvana and Buddhahood as its chief concern, but he is most
emphatic that this same idea is likewise present in the Lotus,39and
the same is true of other ideas traditionally considered to be peculiar
to the MNS, such as the possession of Buddha-nature by all sentient
beings, the eventual enlightenment of the icchantikasetc..40 In
Chih-i's scheme of "five periods", the Lotusshares with the MNIS
the distinction of being the repository of Sakyamuni's final words
and is allocated to the last stage of the Buddha's evangelical career.
iii) In putting the MA'S after the Lotus chronologically, Hui-kuan
is, in fact, following the orthodox view that the MNS was preached
by the Buddha right before his nirvana. However, this arrangement
also carries the strong suggestion that it is the MNS, not the Lotus,
39 For example, see Fa-huahsiuan-i,T, vol. 33, p. 709c, 1.20, p. 769a, 11.5-16
& p. 802c, 11.19-28.
40 See ibid., p. 746a, 11.7-25, p. 757b, 11.5-12 & p. 803a, 11.5-19.
which stands for the apex of the Buddha's teaching. While Chih-i
cannot dispute the common consensus, well supported by textual
evidence, regarding the occasion of the delivery of the MNS, he
cannot endorse the notion that the MNS is superior to the Lotus.
He resolves the dilemma by placing the Lotuson a par with the MNS
as a work of the fifth period, and goes on to assign to the latter only
the secondary role of tidying-up loose ends and clarifying the
lesson of universal enlightenment already present in the former.
In doing so, Chih-i affirmsthe supreme position of the Lotuswithout
necessitating any revision of the popular belief regarding the origin
of the MNS.41
2.2 Chih-i'sOpinionof theGarland Sutra andLotus Sutra

Our exposition of Chih-i's scheme of five periods, especially
his designating of the teachings of both the GarlandSiitraand Lotus
Sutraas "round and sudden" in the last quotation, may convey the
impression that the two scripturesboth embody the ultimate Truth,
only that they were lectured at different times and are fit for differ-
ent types of sentient beings. This is, as a matter of fact, not exactly
the Master's stand. While Chih-i certainly considers that both the
Garlandand the Lotus exemplify the central Buddhist ideal of the
"round", he is also of the belief that only the Lotusexpresses the
"round teaching" (yuan-chiao[ER) perfectly, whereas the Garland
still retains some features of the "distinct teaching" (pieh-chiaofIJ
fk).42 "Distinct teaching" and "round teaching", as is well known,
constitute the last two of the four categories of teachings which form
another of Chih-i's p'an-chiaoscheme commonly referred to as the
"four dharmas of conversion" (hua-fassu-chiao{Li&M ). Here is
hardly the place to enter into the details of this complicated p'an-
chiaoscheme. Suffice it to mention that, according to Chih-i, both
the "distinct" and "round" teachings preach the "middle path"
and reveal the highest goal of Buddhahood, unlike the first "pitaka
teaching" (tsang-chiao R) and the second "common teaching"
(t'ung-chiaoAiZ), which stress respectively the concepts of "im-
permanence" and "emptiness" and aim only at the extinction of
41 For Chih-i's view of the relation between the Lotusand the MiNS, refer to,
for instance, ibid., p. 726c, 11.5-10, p. 745c, 1.23-p. 746a, 1.26, p. 792b, 11.6-19,
p. 803a, 11.22-27 & p. 808c, 1.28-p. 809a, 1.9
42 For example, see ibid., p. 688c, 1.28-p. 689a, 1.5, p. 706c, 1.27-p. 707a, 1.3
& 754c, 11.23-24, and Ssu-chiaoI R9.^, T, vol. 46, p. 725a, 11.22-25, p. 727a,
11.20-25 & p. 765c, 1.27-p. 766a, 1.2.
62 LIU MING-WOOD
suffering and the cessation of rebirth. However, in the case of the

"distinct teaching", the "truth of the middle" (chung-tirhn) is
conceived apart from the "truth of emptiness" (k'ung-ti t and
the "truth of the provisional" (chia-ti1.X); and the sphere of the
Buddha is regarded as detached from the sphere of common ex-
perience. As it underlines the transcendence of the realm of the
perfect and its separation from the realm of the imperfect, and is
not yet free from all discriminations, it is given the epithet "dis-
tinct". The "round teaching", on the contrary, propounds the
oneness of the three truths of "emptiness", "the provisional" and
"the middle", and declares the "non-difference" of the pure and
the defiled, the supramundane and the mundane, nirvana and
samsara, etc.. Since in it, all dichotomies vanish and all oppo-
sitions are reconciled, it is designated as "round". Because of this
one-sidedness and differentiation, the "round teaching" is judged
by Chih-i to be the paragon of the Buddha Dharma.43
Chih-i's reason for attributing the character of the "distinct",
i.e., discriminatory tendency, to the Garlandcan be seen in his
comments on the dissimilarities between the Garlandand the Lotus
which we have noted in sec. 2.1 above. On the point that the
Garlandis intelligible only to bodhisattvas of the highest intelligence,
whereas the Lotus extends its message to all three vehicles alike,
Chih-i observes:
Just as the newly arisen sun first shines on the tall mountains, [only beings] who
have planted deep their good roots [can] respond to this sudden teaching. The
sudden teaching is originally not meant for the small [vehicle], and even though
those of the small [vehicle] are present [among the audience], they remain as
deaf and dumb. It is because the "small" (Hinayana) can not bear the "great"
(Mahayana), and the "great" (Mahayana) is separate from the "small" (Hina-
yana). This is the case, for example, with the Garland(Siitra).
Again, there is a truth [which like] sunlight shines on all objects high and low
equally, and [which like] the gnomon shadow template gauges [the sun's] shad-
ows long and short as they are.44[On hearing it,] people whether of bent heads,
or of subdued voice, or of confused [mind], or of little virtue, will all fulfil Bud-
dhahood. It would not suffer some to attain nirvana alone, but would deliver
43 For systematic exposition of the scheme of "four dharmas of conversion" in

Chih-i's writing, consult Ssu-chiaoI, T, vol. 46, p. 721a-p. 725b. For recent ac-
accounts, refer to Leon Hurvitz, op. cit., pp. 248-271, Ando Toshio, Tendai-gaku,
pp. 92-111, Sekiguchi Sindai, "Keho shikyo ron f1L&gEV", in Sekiguchi
Sindai, ed., op. cit., pp. 55-65, and Mou Tsung-san, op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 624-648.
44 The gnomon shadow template is an astronomical instrument used together
with the gnomon in ancient China to measure the length of the sun's shadow to
determine the solstices. See Joseph Needham, Scienceand Civilizationin China,vol.
3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959), pp. 284-287.
all to the nirvana proper to the Tathagata.45 It is as found in this [Lotus]Satra.46
Some may think that since the Garlandis meant only for beings
who "have planted deep their good roots", it must be more pro-
found and closer to the Buddha's original intention than the Lo-
tus, which appeals to the "high and low equally". Chih-i, on the
contrary, finds that it was precisely the same shortcoming as the
Garland,for in holding that "the small can not bear the great, and
the great is separate from the small", it demonstrates its firm ad-
herence to the division of the "small" (i.e., Hinayana) and the
"great" (i.e., Mahayana), and so is not yet totally free from the mis-
guided penchant of considering the perfect as existing apart from
the imperfect, characteristic of the "distinct teaching". The Lotus,
on the other hand, transcends even this last remnant of differentia-
tion in taking under its wings all sentient beings, be they "of bent
heads, or of subdued voice, or of confused mind, or of little virtue",
and thereby represents most perfectly the principle of non-duality,
typical of the "round teaching". Chih-i frequently disparages the
Garlandfor falling short of the ideal of universal Buddhahood in
barring sravakas and pratyekabuddhas from its gospel:
Now, we [would like to] ask teachers of the Garlandif the supreme [form of] sudden
teaching [of the Garland]affirmsthat all sentient beings possessthe Buddha-nature.
If [it does teach that all sentient beings] possess [the Buddha-nature], why did
it not predict that the two vehicles would attain Buddhahood when they heard
[this] Suitra,but rather [described them] as deaf and dumb? If it is said that the
two vehicles originally possessed the Buddha-nature, but [had lost it when they]
accepted in haste the small [fruit of arhatship], just as [a tree] having its main root
eradicated, [we would like to know if those whose] main root [of Buddha-nature]
has been destroyed are curable; or if they are incurable. If they are curable,
why no [attempt is made to] cure [them in the Garland]?If they are incurable,
how can it then be maintained that [the Garlandbelieves] that all sentient beings
likewise possess the Buddha-nature? So, we can see that [thenotionof theexistence
of] incurable[beings]of the Garlandis an expedientteaching,while [theideaof] thecura-
bility [of all] of theLotusis thetruedoctrine.47
We have also contrasted in sec. 1.2 above the Garland'sexhaustive
description of the experience of enlightenment and the process lead-
ing up to, it with the Lotus'brevity in these matters, and indeed, in
nearly all orthodox Buddhist matters. Some may again take this as
evidence of the superiority of the Garland.Chih-i remarks on the
Lotusapparent poverty of content after relating, in turn, the central
45 This is one of the most quoted statements of the Lotus.See T, vol. 9, p. 13c,
11.7-8.
46 Fa-huahsuan-i, T, vol. 33, p. 683b, 1.11-c, 1.4.
47 Ibid., p. 757a, 11.21-28.
64 LIU MING-WOOD
themes of the Garland(first period), the four Agamas (second period),

the vaipulyasuitras (third period), the Prajivipciramitui-sutras
(fourth
period) and the MNS (fifth period):
All these miscellaneous suitrasare adapted to the understanding of others with
the view of bringing benefits to others, and do not discuss the understanding of the
Buddha and the direction of his interest. This [Lotus]Sitra is not so. Regarding
the doctrines [which make up the Buddhist] system [of thought], the Mahayana
and Hinyana methods of meditation, the ten powers and [four forms of] fearless-
ness [of the Buddha], and various rules and customs [of the Buddhist religion],
it makes no mention at all. For they have already been recounted in sutras of the
previous [periods]. It only discourses on the advent of the Tathagata's evangelical
work; how he gave and took, and [resorted to] the sudden and gradual [methods
of instruction] as the time dictated in between; and how his great cause [of uni-
versal salvation] finally came to its conclusion. [It exhibits] the framework of
[the Buddhist] gospel, and [makes known] the expedient means [the Buddha
employed to fulfil] his great mission.48
The Lotus does not dwell on "the doctrines which make up the
Buddhist system of thought, Mahayana and Hinayana methods of
meditation, the ten powers and four forms of fearlessness of the
Buddha, and various rules and customs of the Buddhist religion",
etc., because these have already been treated in detail in scriptures
of the preceding four periods. As the representative text of the fifth
and final period, the Lotusis devoted rather to the exhibiting of
"the framework of the Buddhist gospel" and the demonstration of
"the expedient means which the Buddha employed to fulfill his
great mission", i.e., to the clarification of the real purposes behind
the doctrines and practices prescribed in the earlier suitras and to the
determination of their relative position in the Tathagata's entire
lifework. In Chih-i's opinion, all Buddhist scriptures other than the
Lotus,each with its unique thesis and emphasis, "are adapted to the
understanding" of sentient beings "with the view of bringing bene-
fits" to them. Their functions and validity are tied up with specific
needs and situations, which, however, they have not themselves
made explicit. It is only in the Lotus,when his time of nirvana is
becoming immanent, that the Buddha proclaims to his followers
the true intention of his sojourn in samsara, making public the
provisional role of all his previous instructions and laying open the
spirit of non-duality which constitutes his true understanding:
Again, there is the difference that the other teachings cater for the dispositions
[of their listeners] in order to bring them benefits, and do not relate the [real]
intention of the Tathagata's mission of salvation. This [Lotus]Sutra, [On the other
hand,] explains how the Buddha planted skilfully the seeds of the sudden, gradual,
indeterminate and secret [methods of instruction] for the sake of sentient beings
48 Ibid., p. 800b, 11.11-16.
at the beginning of his evangelical work,49[how] he subdued [their evil thoughts],

nourished [their virtues] and brought to maturity [their good roots] by [resorting
to] the five tastes of the sudden and the gradual in between,50 and [how,] also
with the five tastes of the sudden and the gradual, he [finally] delivered them
[from their non-enlightened state. In this Siitra, [the Buddha] at once delivers
[sentient beings], brings to maturity [their good roots], and plants [the seeds of
various methods of instruction] repeatedly without remission. Mighty in his great
power, he benefits [sentient] beings [throughout] the three periods [of past,
present and future].51
In other words, what we have in the Lotus is a "meta-course" or
"second level discourse", whose function is to review the "first-
level discourses" which make up the rest of the Buddhist Canon.
As it has the more fundamental objective of uncovering "the real
intention of the Tathagata's mission of salvation", it naturally
would not dwell on the individual items of his expedient teachings.
2.3 The MadhyamakaBackgroundof Chilh-i's View of the Garland

Suitra and Lotus Sutra
Chih-i's assessment of the Garland and the Lotus merits our at-
tention, for it reflects vividly the doctrinal orientation of T'ien-t'ai
Buddhism, viz., the importance placed on the transcending of all
dichotomies and discriminations, and the interpretation of all
particular Buddhist ideas and practices as skilful means catering for
sentient beings of dissimilar intelligence and inclinations. It lends
strong support to the widely accepted theory that the T'ien-t'ai
teaching, as established by Chih-i, has its doctrinal root in the
philosophy of the Madhyamaka School,52 which, ever since it was
first founded by Nagarjuna, has always enjoined the abandonment
of all dualities and one-sidedness through its teaching of the "middle-
way", and has underscored the heuristic intent of all conventional
Buddhist precepts and tenets by subjecting tendencies to consider
them as absolute to the most merciless critique. Indeed, the Lotus'
elaborate exposition of the Tathagata's expedient method of in-
struction and its singular silence on nearly all popular Buddhist
subjects, can easily be construed by sympathizers of the Madhya-
mika way as confirmation of their critical stand and as corrobora-
49 Refer to n. 30 above for information on these methods of instruction.

50 The "five tastes" refer to the teachings of the "five periods". See n. 33 above.
We have observed in sec. 2.1 above that the scheme of five periods originates
from the more general division of "sudden" and "gradual".
51Ibid., p. 684a, 11.9-14.
52 For example, see Leon Hurvitz, op. cit., p. 24 and Anda Toshio, Tendai-gaku,
op. cit., pp. 10-14, 17-18 & 33-34.
66 LIU MING-WOOD
tion of their abstention from taking determinate positions on or-

thodox Buddhist problems. We have already noted in sec. 1.1 the
close connection between the first propagation of the Lotusin China
and the Madhyamika circle of Kumarajiva and his disciples. It is
also worth observing that Chi-tsang, the chief figure in the revival
of Madhyamika thought in China in the late sixth century and a
contemporary of Chih-i, was also a fervent commentator on the
Lotus and held a view of the relation between the Lotus and the
Garlandhighly reminiscent of that of Chih-i.53Chih-i's singling out
of the Lotusas the foremost Buddhist scripture can be taken as the
consummation of this high respect for the Lotuswhich has always
been part of the Chinese Madhyamika tradition.
3. Fa-tsangon the Lotus Suitraand Garland Suitra
3.1 Fa-tsangon the Timeof Preachingof the Lotus Suitraand Garland

Stitra
Turning to Fa-tsang's account of the relation between the Lotus
and the Garland,we find striking parallels with that of Chih-i.54
There is in Fa-tsang's writings no systematic chronology of Bud-
dhist texts comparable to Chih-i's scheme of five periods, but so far
as the sequence of appearance of the Lotusand the Garlandis con-
cerned, the two masters seem to be in perfect agreement. Like
Chih-i, Fa-tsang also believes that the Garlandwas the first suitra
propounded by the Tathagata; and he criticizes vehemently those
who assign its preaching to times other than the second week after
the Buddha's enlightenment.55As to why the Buddha opened his
teaching mission with the GarlandFa-tsang explains:
Since [the Buddha] wanted to adapt to the capacities [of sentient beings] and
bestow [on them] gradually [various] "derivative teachings" (mo-chiao*R), it
was appropriate [of him] to demonstrate at the very beginning the "fundamental
53 For information on Chi-tsang's view of the Lotusand its relation to the Gar-
land, read Hirai Shunei ' Chu-igokuHannyashiso-shikenkyu ,
OFt (Tokyo: 1976), pp. 488-490 and my article "Chi-tsang hstieh-shuo ch'u-
t'an- I wu-te wei chi-pen ching-shen ti Chi-tsang chiao-hstieh ARW&PR (=)
- l ffinXtGiWb99RR" %NeiMing MM 113 (1981) pp. 13-15.
54 Biographies of Fa-tsang in Choe Ch'i-won WRi, ku-
T'ang Ta-chien-fu-ssu
ssu-chufan-ching ta-te Fa-tsang ho-shangchuan.A;kA, 04f
T, vol. 50, pp. 280c-285c and Tsan-ning *Al, Sung Kao-seng-chuan *?%fR%,T,
vol. 50, p. 732a-b.
55 For instance, see Hua-yent'an-hsilanchi T, vol. 35, p. 127b,
1.24-c, 1.12, Hua-yen-chingwen-ta T, vol. 45, p. 602c, 11.6-9 and
Hua-yenkuan-moi-chi = T. vol. 45, p. 657c, 11.21-22.
dharmas" (pen-fa A&). [For doing so] would make clear that it was with the
[fundamental dharmas] as basis that the "derivative [teachings]" subsequently
arose. So the Buddha lectured at the very beginning the [fundamental] dharmas
of this [Garland]Sutra, and later preached gradually at places such as the Deer
Park derivative dharmas such as those of the Hinayana.56
The Garlandwas proclaimed first, for it contains the "fundamental
dharmas" (i.e., the true essence of the Buddha Dharma), a proper
understanding of which is necessary for the correct comprehension
of the significance of the "derivative teachings" (i.e., teachings
adopting to the capacities of sentient beings) which were given
later.
Fa-tsang is less precise with the time of instruction of the Lotus,
but judging from the following passage in which he contrasts the
function of the Lotus and the MNS with that of the Garland, it ap-
pears that he is also of the view that the Lotus is a text pertaining to
the concluding period of the Buddha's life:
As for the two types of one-vehicle [teaching, they are]:
i) [That which] demonstrates [the truth of] the [vehicle] after criticizing the
contrary [teachings of the other vehicles]: such as the Loths Sutra, which
criticizes [the idea of] the actual extinction of the two [vehicles of sravakas
and pratyekabuddhas],57 and the MNS, which criticizes [the belief in the
existence of sentient beings] devoid of Buddha-nature. Both [scriptures]
preach the one-vehicle [teaching] only after confronting with the provisional
[teachings of the other vehicles] and reconciling and criticizing them.
ii) [That which] reveals [the truth of] the one [vehicle] directly as it is in itself:
such as the GarlandSutra,which does not deal with [the teachings of] the two
vehicles, because [its function] is not to criticize, and because [its aim] is to
disclose directly to the great bodhisattvas the Dharmadhatu and the practices
leading to Buddhahood.
So, when [the Buddha] first taught the Garland,there was no provisional [teaching]
to reconcile, and when he last instructed the MNS, he reconciled all provisional
[teachings] previously [delivered].58
In this quotation, Fa-tsang distinguishes two types of one-vehicle
teaching: "that which reveals the one vehicle directly as it is
in itself", and "that which demonstrates the truth of the one vehi-
cle after criticizing the contrary teachings of the other vehicles",
the former being represented by the Garland which inaugurated
the Buddha's lifework, whereas the latter, being represented by the
MNS and the Lotus. Fa-tsang does not mention exactly when the
Lotus was first taught, but since he couples it with the MNS and
56 Hua-yent'an-hsiianchi, T, vol. 35, p. 108b, 11.19-22.
57 That is, the idea that sravakas and pratyekabuddhas become extinct on at-
taining the nirvana without residue and can not return to the realm of samssara
to cultivate the way of Buddhahood.
58 Ibid., p. 114b, 11.20-25.
68 LIU MING-WOOD
attributes a similar role to them both, it is not far-fetched to conclude

that in his eyes, the Lotus must be similar to the MNS in being
"last preached" by the Tathagata. This conjecture finds further
support in the list of "five stations" with which Fa-tsang concludes
his study of the various approaches in the periodization of Buddhist
teachings:
So, in sum, there are on the whole five stations:
i) The fundamental one-vehicle teaching: such as what is taught in the Garland.
ii) The Hinayana teaching [in which the true] meaning [remains] hidden.
iii) The Mahayana teaching [in which the true] meaning [remains] hidden.
iv) The three-vehicle teachings [which] reveals clearly [the true meaning].
The first three are such as mentioned in the Samdhinirmocana-suitra.59
v) The one-vehicle teaching [which] criticizes the contrary [teachings of the
other vehicles], such as what is taught in the Lotus,the MNS, etc..60
Here, the Garlandis cited alone as the text pertaining to the first
station, while the Lotusis given along with the MNS as a work
belonging to the fifth and last station.
3.2 The Lotus Sutra, the Garland Stitra and the One VehicleTeaching
Quotation 53 speaks of the Garland as the embodiment of the
"fundamental dharmas", which reminds us of Chih-i's notion of
the Garlandas the revelation of the pure Truth. Quotation 55 refers
to both the Garland and the Lotus as the "one-vehicle teaching",
with the difference that the Garland discloses the truth of the one
vehicle directly at the beginning, whereas the Lotus demonstrates
it after "having confronted with the provisional teachings of the
other vehicles" at the end, which recalls Chih-i's depiction of the
Garland and the Lotus as the same "round and sudden teaching"
taught respectively at the commencement and the close of the
Buddha's teaching career. Fa-tsang's conception of the Garland
and the Lotus can also be discerned from his account of the one
vehicle of the "distinct" and of the "common" teachings and their
relation with the teachings of the three vehicles.
We have already alluded to the "one vehicle" and "three vehi-
cles" several times in our foregoing exposition. The terms "one
59 The Samdhinirmocana-sitra divides the Buddha's teachings into three periods,

the first exclusively for Hinayanists, the second exclusively for Mahayanists, and
the third for Hinayanists and Mahayanists alike. See T, vol. 16, p. 697a, 1.23-b,
1.9 and Etienne Lamotte, trans., Sarmdhinirmocana-sutra (Louvain: Universite de
Louvain, 1935), pp. 206-207.
60 Hua-yenT'an-hsuanchi, T, vol. 35, p. 115b, 1.27-c, 1.1.
vehicle" and "three vehicles" had already appeared in such early

Buddhist texts as the Agamas, and can also be found in such in-
fluential Mahayana works as the Prajiniparamita-sitras, Vimalakirtin-
irdesa-sutraand the Garland.61But it is the Lotus which furnishes the
most important scriptural basis for Chinese discourses on the con-
cepts. The most celebrated, in this connection, is the parable of the
burning house, which appears in chapter three of Kumarajiva's
version of the text. Thus, it is said that in a certain town, there
dwelled a wealthy elder who had a large number of sons. One day,
a fire broke out, and soon every side of his mansion was in flames.
Though the elder tried to lure and admonish his children with kind
words, the sons, totally engrossed in their games, were completely
oblivious to the danger and seemed not to understand him. Seeing
that there was only one gate and it was impossible to carry every
child out on his back, the elder, remembering that his sons liked
attractive toys, informed them that there were a variety of goat
carts, deer carts and bullock carts by the gate for them to play with.
Hearing this, the sons raced with each other to scramble out of the
burning house to get what they desired. Faced with his children's
demand for the carts, the elder, his mind then at ease and ecstatic
with joy, gave each of them a lofty and spacious cart adorned with
precious objects and drawn by white bullocks of pure skin and with
the speed of wind.62 To many Chinese Buddhists, including Chih-i
and Fa-tsang, this parable indicates that besides the expedient
teachings directed to the three vehicles of gravakas, pratyekabud-
dhas and bodhisattvas, which the goat carts, deer carts and bullock
carts signify, there is a "one-vehicle teaching" which expresses the
Tathagata's "true intention" and which is represented by the white
bullock carts.63 And it is in examining and explaining the relation
between the "one-vehicle teaching" and three-vehicle teachings that
Fa-tsang gives in the Hua-yen wu-chiaochang YT , his central
work, his clearest statement on the nature and relation of the
Garlandand the Lotus.64
61For the history of the development of the concepts of "one vehicle" and
"three vehicles", consult Inari Nitsusen, op. cit., chaps. 4-8.
62 See T, vol. 9, pp. 12b-13c.
63 Of course, it can be argued that the white bullock carts are actually the
bullock carts promised by the elder to his sons. If this is the case, there would only
be three vehicles, not four, the "buddha-vehicle" being identical with the "bod-
hisattva vehicle". Whether the Lotusteaches the existence of three or four vehicles
is a hotly debated question in Chinese Buddhism. For account of the problem,
consult Fujita Kotatsu EIS, "Ichijo to sanjo *< *", in Och6 Enichi,
ed., Hokkeshiso, op. cit., pp. 352-405 and Inari Nitsusen, op. cit., chaps. 3 & 9.
64 T, vol. 45, pp. 477c-480b.
70 LIU MING-WOOD
Fa-tsang begins his section on the problem of "one vehicle" in

the Hua-yenwu-chiaochangby distinguishing two types of one vehi-
cle, viz., that of the "distinct teaching" (pieh-chiaoSIJR) and that
of the "common teaching" (t'ung-chiaorJ.). With respect to the
"one vehicle of the distinct teaching" (pieh-chiaoi-ch'engAI-*),
he further discerns two aspects: the "aspect of fruit" (kuo-fen;3)
which is the realm of the Buddha, and the "aspect of cause" (yin-
fen ) which consists of truths and practices conducive to the
attainment of the "fruit". Of these two aspects, the first, being the
ultimate reality, is ineffable and cannot be put into words, and so
what can be said and taught about the "one vehicle of the distinct
teaching" is its second "causal aspect". However, even this aspect
of the "one vehicle of the distinct teaching" is far superior to the
three-vehicles, and that is why it is said to be "distinct". Fa-tsang
enumerates ten points which render the "one vehicle of the distinct
teaching" distinctfrom the three vehicles :65
i) Difference between being "provisional" (ch'iian*) and "es-
sential" (shih E):
Like the goat, deer and bullock carts, the three-vehicle teachings are
merely "provisional means" to entice sentient beings away from the
realm of samsara which is the burning house; while the one-vehicle
teaching carries the "essential truth" to be realized by all on reach-
ing enlightenment, like the white bullock carts received by all the
sons when they were finally delivered from danger.
ii) Difference of being "instruction" (chiaoft) and "meaning"
(i a):
The three-vehicle teachings are "expedient instructions", while
the one-vehicle teaching embodies the "true meaning" of the
Buddha Dharma.
iii) Difference as objects of expectation:
The three vehicles drawn by goats, deer and bullocks were what the
sons originally "expected" from the elder, not the one vehicle drawn
by white bullocks.
iv) Difference in amount of excellent characteristics:
In the Lotus,the bullock carts are merely given as one among the
three types of carts promised by the elder to his children, without
further specifications, while the white bullock carts are depicted as
endowed with myriads of "excellent qualities".
v) Difference in level of attainment:
The three-vehicle teachings lead at most to the "attainment" of
the seventh of the ten bodhisattva stages, while the one-vehicle
65 Ibid., p. 477a, 1.23-p. 478b, 1.24.
teaching is conducive to the fulfillment of the higher stages.66

vi) Difference as objects of exhortation:
The Tathagata "exhorted" his followers to pass on the one-vehicle
teaching only to men and women of great faith.
vii) Difference in the faculties of recipients:
The one-vehicle teaching, unlike the three-vehicle teachings, can
only be received by bodhisattvas of mature roots.
viii) Difference in degree of difficulty:
It is more "difficult" to seek for, and to believe in, the one-vehicle
teaching than in the three-vehicle teachings.
ix) Difference in the truth revealed:
The "truth" as given in the one-vehicle teaching is more com-
prehensive and perfect than that contained in the three-vehicle
teachings.
x) Difference of being "fundamental" (pen *) and "derivative"
(mo *):
The one-vehicle teaching is the "fundamental" teaching, on which
all "derivative teachings", i.e., three-vehicle teachings, converge
and from which all derivative teachings derive their validity.
Fa-tsang repeatedly cites the Garland as exemplary of the "one
vehicle of the distinct teaching",67 thus demonstrating his concep-
tion of the Garland as the representation of the Truth in its "dis-
tinct", i.e., immediate and unadulterated, aspect, a conception,
as we have seen, also endorsed by Chih-i.
If Fa-tsang tends to emphasize the distinction between the one
vehicle and three vehicles in his explication of the "one vehicle of the
distinct teaching", he is more concerned with showing their affinity
in his account of the "one vehicle of the common teaching" (t'ung-
chiao i-ch'eng J Fa-tsang discusses the "one vehicle of the
common teaching" under seven headings, in which he delineates
the several ways in which the "one vehicle" and "three vehicles"
are interconnected:68
i) With respect to the intermingling of doctrinal items (yo fa-
hsiang chiao-ts'an C,
66 For resume of the ten bodhisattva stages as given in the Daiabhuimika-sutra
(which also forms part of the Garland),refer to Har Dayal, TheBodhisattvaDoctrine

in BudddistSanskritLiterature(Delhi: Motilal Barnarsidass, 1975), pp. 285-291,
and Leon Hurvitz, op. cit., pp. 366-367.
67 For example, see Hua-yenwu-chiaochang, T, vol. 45, p. 478a, 11.28-29 &
p. 480b, 11.6-9, Hua-yent'an-hsuanchi, T, vol. 35, p. 116a, 1.27 & p. 132b, 11.23-
24, and ru-hsinfa-chiehchi T vol. 45, p. 642c, 11.26-27.
T,
68 Hua-yenwu-chiaochang,T, vol. 45, pp. 478c, 1.12-p. 479a, 1.10.
72 LIU MING-WOOD
The one-vehicle and three-vehicle teachings share some common

themes with each other, though they may differ in their treatment
of them. For example, the net of Indra, which symbolizes the truth
of the mutual inclusion of all objects big and small in the one-vehi-
cle teaching, also appears in the writings on the three vehicles.69
Conversely, we find in texts of the one vehicle allusions to various
supernatural powers attributed to the Buddha in the three-vehicle
teachings.
ii) With respect to the incorporation [of the three vehicles in the
one vehicle] as its expedient means (yo shefang-pienC,,7I5fi):
Judging from the fact that the three-vehicle teachings are employed
by the Tathagata as expedient devices to guide sentient beings to
the Truth of the one vehicle, they may also be designated as "one
vehicle".
iii) With respect to [the three vehicles] as stemming from [the one
vehicle] (yo so-liu pien rWFfiLW):
Being the expedient devices of the one-vehicle teaching, the three-
vehicle teachings have as their source the one-vehicle teaching.
iv) With respect to special excellence (yo shu-shengmen *Wrl):
The "bodhisattva vehicle" among the three vehicles may likewise
be called "one vehicle", for even though the two are different in one
being "provisional" and the other being "fundamental", they are
equally excellent "vehicles" carrying bodhisattvas to the most per-
fect enlightenment.
We shall skip the other three ways, for they involve references to
complicated passages in the Lotus, the Mahiiyanasamgraha-sistraand
the K'ung-mu chang L of Chih-yen WO (602-668), Fa-tsang's
teacher. Nevertheless, the central message of Fa-tsang's exposition
of the "one vehicle of the common teaching" is evident: the one
vehicle and the three vehicles are not mutually exclusive, and the
three-vehicle teachings have their base in, and obtain their signifi-
cance from, the one-vehicle teaching. Of the many Buddhist texts,
Fa-tsang most frequently cites the Lotus as an illustration of the "one
vehicle of the common teaching",70 thus showing his understanding
of the Lotus as the one vehicle which unites the three vehicles, an
69 For discussion on the net of Indra and its symbolic significance in Hua-yen
thought, refer to F.H. Cook, op. cit., pp. 2-3, and my article, "The Harmonious
Universe of Fa-tsang and Leibniz-A Comparative Study", PhilosophyEast &
West32.1 (1982), p. 65.
70 For example, see Hua-yent'an-hsUanchi, T, vol. 35, p. 116a, 11.26-27 and
the next quotation.
understanding which, as we have perceived, is pivotal of Chih-i's

theory of the import of Lotus.
Fa-tsang's view of the Garlandand the Lotuscan also be discerned
from his comment on the "chiao"(instructions) and "i" (meanings)
of the one vehicle and three vehicles:
i) The [white] bullock carts in the open space have their specific "instruction"
and "meaning", viz., they illustrate the perfect [inter-] embodiment of the
primary and the secondary again and again ad infinitumas taught in the
Garland.This refers to the one vehicle of the distinct teaching.
ii) The three carts (i.e., goat carts, deer carts and bullock carts) by the door
have their specific "instruction" and "meaning", viz., what is spoken of in the
[burning house, i.e., the samsaric] realm is "instruction", while escaping from
[this realm] is "meaning". However, [from the final point of view of the
one vehicle,] "instruction" and "meaning" [on this level] are not different.
This refers to the three-vehicle teachings, and is as taught in the Samdhinirmo-
cana-sitra, rpgaciryabhumi-gdstra,etc.
iii) The three carts by the door indicate the instituting of expedient "instructions,"
while the great, white bullock carts otherwise conferred to the sons are the
demonstration of the real "meaning". This refers to the one vehicle of the
common teaching, and is as taught in the LotusSOtra.71
By "instructions", Fa-tsang refers to such things as speech and

writings, by means of which certain "meanings" are conveyed. The
one vehicle of the distinct teaching, the three vehicles and the one
vehicle of the common teaching, each has its particular "instruction"
and "meaning". In the case of the "one vehicle of the distinct teach-
ing", which is found mainlyin the Garland,both "instruction" and
"meaning" are directed to the illustration of the "perfect inter-
embodiment of the primary and the secondary again and again ad
infinitum",i.e., the harmonious correlation and interpenetration of
all elements of existence in the realm of Truth.72 As this vision of
reality is "over the heads" of average practitioners, the Buddha
thereby establishes the three-vehicle teachings, the several ways of
"instruction" of which have as their identical "meaning" the liberat-
ing of sentient beings from samsaric existence. However, this "mean-
ing" of the three-vehicle teachings does not represent the Tathagata's
real intention, and it is up to the "one vehicle of the common teach-
ing", whichis found mainlyin the Lotus,to point out to the listeners,
71Hua-yenwu-chiaochang,T, vol. 45, p. 480a, 11.7-14.

72"Perfect inter-embodiment of the primary and the secondary" and similar
phrases are used in the writings of Fa-tsang to denote the teaching of universal
harmony found in the Garland.See, for instance, Hua-yen-ching chih-kuei* , WM,
T, vol. 45, p. 594c, 11.17-18, Wang-chinhuan-yiiankuan T, vol. 45,
p. 640b, 1.27-c, 1, 1, Hua-yenfa-p'u-t'i-hsin chang TM.4L'g, , vol. 45,
p. 654b, 11.25-29, and Hua-yenkuan-moi-chi, T, vol. 45, p. 656a, 11.19-20.
74 LIU MING-WOOD
when they are finally well prepared, that both the "instruction"and
"meaning" of the three vehicles are actually likewise "expedient
instructions", the primary objective of which is to pave the way for
the disclosure of the "real meaning" which is the truth of universal
harmony originally made known in the "one vehicle of the distinct
teaching". Here, we encounter once again the idea of the Garland
as the direct communication of the Truth and the Lotusas the return
to the Truth after a long process of mediation, an idea which is
central to Chih-i's division of five periods.73
3.3 Fa-tsang'sAssessment
of theLotus Siitra andGarland Stitra
Given the remarkableresemblancein Chih-i's and Fa-tsang'scon-
ceptions of the Lotusand the Garland,it is all the more interesting to
observe that they differ markedlyfrom each other in their evaluation
of the two texts. We find in Fa-tsang's writings no critical remarks
on the Lotuscomparable to those Chih-i makes about the Garland,
but judging from the fact that Fa-tsang takes the Garlandas the
principle canonical basis of his philosophy, it is not far-fetched to
conclude that he regards the Garlandto be, in general, superior to
the Lotus.Fa-tsang's writings abound with eulogies of the Garland,
in which the Suitrais extolled as the "magnificent discourse" and
the "supreme teaching", which "exhausts the dharmadhatu" and
''pervades worlds innumerable as dust":
With respect to the GarlandSutra, it is the magnificent discourse [addressed to]
ocean [-like] gatherings of saints, and the supreme teaching illuminating the
kings of mountains.74 Vast and deep in ideal and wisdom, it exhausts the dharma-
dhltu and penetrates the true source. Limitless in its profound sayings, it is [all-
encompassing] like space and pervades worlds [innumerable as] dust.75
The one-vehicle teaching of the Garlandis referredto by Fa-tsang as

"dialogue corresponding to the true essence" and "discourse con-
taining the infinite truth":
Since the three-vehicle [teachings] are gradual [in nature], those who investi-
gate them can probe their limit; but as the one-vehicle teaching is round [in
character], those in quest of it can not descry its source. It is because as a dialogue
corresponding to the true essence, it exhausts the dharmadhaitu and pervades the
ten directions; and as a discourse [containing the infinite] [truth], it encompasses
[all] lands and seas and covers [all] nine ages.76
73 The quotation in n.58 above carries similar connotation.

74 That is, it is meant solely for the wisest. The phrase "kings of mountains"
refers to the famous simile of the rising sun in the Garland.See n. 31 above.
75 Hua-yent'an-hstlanchi, T, vol. 35, p. 107a, 11.24-27.
76 Hua-yenkuan-moi-chi, T, vol. 45, p. 656a, 11.16-18. "Nine ages" mean all
In Fa-tsang eye's, the Garlandis the king of scriptures, surpassing all

other Buddhist texts, including the Lotus,as the definitive statement
of the Buddhist gospel.
For his high respect for the Garland,Fa-tsang has offered many
reasons, which we need not go into one by one here. What require
special attention for our present purpose are those points on which
he entertains opinions directly opposite to those of Chih-i. We have
noted several times Chih-i's dissatisfaction with the Garlandfor being
exclusive. Fa-tsang also acknowledges that the Garlandis "intended
only for bodhisattvas, and receives not the Hinayanists",77 but
instead of taking this as a shortcoming, he regards it as a virtue.
Thus, among the excellent points which distinguish the one-vehicle
teaching of the Garlandfrom the three-vehicle teachings, Fa-tsang
mentions as one, its having among its audience only bodhisattvas
and devas, and no sravakas.78 And he further observes:
The five hundred Aravakassuch as gAriputraand Subhiiti who appeared as blind
and deaf in the assembly are used as a foil [to bring out the superiority of] the
of the one vehicle. Only [in contrast with the ignorant state of] those
dharmadhiitu
[Aravakas]did the profundity and broadness of this teaching [of the Garland]
become apparent, just as white becomes apparent in contrast with black.79
As Fa-tsang sees it, the fact that the Garlandis beyond the compre-
hension of the less intelligent is a consequence of its "profundity and
broadness" and so a proof of its preeminence. In this connection,
the disparity in Fa-tsang's and Chih-i's attitudes towards the "dis-
tinctness" of a teaching is particularly illuminating. In Chih-i's
p'an-chiao scheme of "four dharmas of conversion", "distinct teach-
ing" is given as a category separate from the "round teaching",
and the word "distinct" carries in Chih-i's writings the derogatory
connotation of being "discriminative" (ko-pieh Ma, ko-li ) Like
Chih-i, Fa-tsang also designates in his p'an-chiao as "round" the
most perfect form of Buddha Dharma, but he equates the "one
vehicle of the distinct teaching" with it:
Even though holy teachings are many in variety, there are essentially only five
[main categories]:
i) Hinayana teaching
ii) Elementary teaching of the Mahayana
iii) Advanced teaching [of the Mahayana]
times, including the three periods past, present and future, each with its past,
present and future.
chi, T, vol. 35, p. 117b, 1.11.
77 Hua-yent'an-hsiuan
78 Hua-yenwu-chiao chang,T, vol. 45, p. 484a, 11.10-13.
79 Hua-yen-chingchih-kuei,T, vol. 45, p. 592b, 11.21-24.
76 LIU MING-WOOD
iv) Sudden teaching

v) Round teaching
The first is the immature teaching of the two vehicles (i.e., Hinayana teaching);
thelast is theonevehicleof thedistinctteaching.80
On the whole, Fa-tsang does not share Chih-i's misgiving of a teach-

ing being too pure and too distinctive. On the contrary, he bases
his argument for the superiority of the Garlandexactly on these points.
We have perceived that Chih-i attributes the Lotus'silence on most
traditional Buddhist subjects to its being a second-level discourse
devoted to the revelation of the Tathagata's "real intention", and
deems the detailed expositions of the other suitras, including that of
the Garland,as indications of their first-level and provisional status.
Fa-tsang has proposed no explanation for the Lotus' peculiar re-
ticence in topics of common Buddhist concern. On the other hand,
he lauds the Garlandfor its comprehensive analyses of the path and
nature of Buddhahood, the relating of which he takes as the Suitra's
principal purpose.81 He specifies ten subjects on which the Garland's
explication surpasses those of the other scriptures :82
i) They (the three-vehicle teachings of the other suitras)have three buddhas;
we (the Garland)have ten buddhas.84
ii) They have six supernatural powers; we have ten supernatural powers.84
iii) They have three insights; we have ten insights.85
iv) They have eight [forms of] liberation; we have ten [forms of] liberation.86
80 Hua-yenwu-chiaochang, T, vol. 45, p. 481b, 11.7-9. Also see p. 482a, 11.9-

11. For further information on the system of "five teachings", the most important
of Fa-tsang'sp'an-chiaoschemes, consult Ishii Kyodo, op. cit., pp. 353-360, Kenneth
K.S. Ch'en, op. cit., pp. 318-319, and my article "The P'an-ChiaoSystem of the
Hua-yen School in Chinese Buddhism", T'oungPao 67 (1981) pp. 10-47.
81 Thus, of the ten reasons Fa-tsang enumerates for the preaching of the Garland
in the Hua-yent'an-hsuanchi, the fifth is "to manifest the merits" (hsien-te),
of Buddhahood and the sixth is "to demonstrate the stages" (hsien-weiWCfA) lead-
ing up to it. See T, vol. 35, p. 108b, 1.23-c, 1.8.
82 Hua-yenwu-chiaochang,T, vol. 45, p. 484b, 11. 10-16.
83 The three buddhas are the threefold body of the Tathagata, viz., dharmakaya,
sambhogakaya and nirmanakaya. For various lists of "ten buddhas" in the Garland,
refer to the table in Ishii Kyodo, op. cit., p. 432.
84 The six supernatural powers, together with the three insights, four forms of
fearlessness and eighteen distinctive characteristics mentioned below, are among
the most well-known of the Buddha's excellent marks. See William E. Soothill
& Lewis Hodous, A Dictionaryof ChineseBuddhistTerms (London: Kegan Paul,
Trench, Trubner & Co., 1937), p. 138, p. 66, p. 178 & p. 45 respectively.
85 Refer to n. 84 above for the three insights. As for the ten insights, see Gar-
land, T, vol. 9, p. 578a, 1.1 1-p. 580c, 1.3 & p. 662b, 11.16-25.
86 See Soothill, op. cit., pp. 39-40 for the eight forms of liberation. For the ten
forms of liberation, see Garland, T, vol. 9, p. 640a, 11.12-21.

v) They have four [forms of] fearlessness;we have ten [forms of] fearlessness.87
vi) They have five [forms of] vision; we have ten [forms of] vision.88
vii) They speak of three periods; we speak of ten periods.89
viii) They have four truths; we have ten truths.90
ix) They have four [powers of] reasoning; we have ten [powers of] reasoning.91
x) They have eighteen distinctive characteristics; we have ten distinctive char-
acteristics.92
The overall tenor of the above passage conveys unmistakably Fa-
tsang's admiration for the Garland,for its complete and accurate
treatments of such themes as liberation, truth, characteristicsof the
Buddha, etc. On discussing the significance of the Garland,Fa-tsang
sums up its content in the pairs of items :93
i. Innumerable "instructions" (chiao)and the "meaning" (i) they
convey.
ii. The "noumenon" (li 3) and the "phenomena" (shih%) arising
from it.
iii. "Wisdom" (chihW) and its objects (ching,).
iv. Religious "practices" (hsingfY) and "stages" (wei a:) of spiri-
tual development.
v. "Causes" (yin W) and "fruits" (kuo;) of enlightenment.
vi. "Secondary" (i fk) and "principal" (chengi) retribution.94
vii. "Essence" (t'i 1#) and its "functions" (yung JW).
viii. "Men" (jen A) and the "dharmas" (fa &) they teach.
ix. Manifestations "contrary to" (ni i) and "conforming with"
(shunJtR)the manifestant'snature.95
87 Refer to n. 84 above for the four forms of fearlessness. For the ten forms of
fearlessness,see Garland,T, vol. 9, p. 649c, 1.16-p. 650b, 1.24.

88 See Soothill, op. cit., p. 123 for the five forms of vision. For the ten forms of
vision, see Garland,T, vol. 9, p. 657c, 11.10-19.
89 "Three periods" are the three times of past, present and future. For the ten
periods, see Garland,T, vol. 9, p. 634a, 1.27-b, 1.5.
90The four truths are the famous four noble truths of suffering, cause of suffer-
ing, cessation of suffering, and way leading to the cessation of suffering. As for
the ten truths, see Garland,T, vol. 9, p. 555c, 1.2i-p. 556a, 1.5.
91See Soothill, op. cit., p. 178 for the four powers of judging. For the ten powers
of judging, see Garland,T, vol. 9, p. 636b, 11.5-14.
92 See n. 84 above for the eighteen distinctive characteristics. As for the ten
distinctive characteristics, see Garland,T, vol. 9, p. 650c, 1.6-p. 651b, 1.21.
93 Hua-yenchih-kuei,T, vol. 45, p. 594a, 11.7-25.
94 In the Buddhist theory of retribution and transmigration, "principal re-
tribution" indicates the resultant person, and "secondary retribution", the en-
vironment in which the person is born.
95 In order to convert sentient beings, bodhisattvas may manifest in forms
"contrary to" or "conforming with" their own nature, such as as heretics or as
virtuous men practising the Buddhist way.
78 LIU MING-WOOD
x. "Stimuli" (kan*i) which are sentient beings of varied disposi-

tions, and "responses"(ying I) which are the diverse manifestations
assumed by the saints to cater for their specific needs.
The number "ten" in Fa-tsang's teaching stands for the infinite,
and so these ten pairs of items representno less than the innumerable
dharmas which comprise the whole universe.96And it is in its being
the exponent of the innumerable dharmas of the universe and their
interrelation that Fa-tsang sees the principal claim of the Garland
for being the foremost Buddhist scripture.
3.4 The rogacairaBackground

of Fa-tsang'sViewof theLotus Suitra and
Garland Stitra
The above discussionof Fa-tsang's assessmentof the Lotusand the
Garlandbrings out a very significant point: Fa-tsang champions the
Garlandexactly the same reasonsfor which Chih-i criticizes it, which
is its being the direct and immediate representation of the Truth.
In doing so, it brings into relief Fa-tsang's ingrained preference for
the Truth in its absolute aspect, as contrary to Chih-i's preference
for the Truth in its mediated form; and affords us a glimpse of the
"transcendental" way of thinking of Hua-yen Buddhism, in con-
trast with the "dialectical" way of thinking of T'ien-t'ai Buddhism.
We have imputed Chih-i's partiality for the "mediated" and the
"dialectical" to the Madhyamaka inspiration of his thought. As
for Fa-tsang's predilection for the "absolute" and the "transcen-
dental", we can in turn attribute this to his close connection with
the so-called "old Yogacara tradition" of the Ti-lun and She-lun
j#5:kmasters, whose teaching represented the early Chinese inter-
pretation of Yogacara philosophy before the establishment in the
seventh century of the "new Yogacara tradition" led by Hsiian-
tsang I; (ca. 596-664) and his followers. The most distinctive
feature of this "old Yogacara tradition", as is well-known, was its
belief in the presence, in every sentient being, of an intrinsically
pure consciousness, which serves as the transcendental basis of en-
lightenment as well as the metaphysical ground of the entire phe-
nomenal order.97This idea of the pure consciousnessas the ultimate
96 A slightly different set of ten pairs of items appears in the Hua-yenwu-chiao
chang,where they are said "to illustrate the infinite". (T, vol. 45, p. 504c, 1.24)
97 For information on these early Chinese Yogacara schools, see D.S. Ruegg,
La Th6oriedu Tathagatagarbha et du Gotra(Paris: E~coleFranqaised'Extreme-Orient,
1969), pp. 439-442, Alfonso Verdu, DialecticalAspectsin BuddhistThought(Kansas:
Centre for East Asian Studies, University of Kansas, 1974), pp. 29-39, Paul
reality has been taken over by Fa-tsang, and forms the theoretical
background of his teaching of universal harmony.98 Having ac-
cepted an ontological reality, whose essence is enlightenment, Fa-
tsang is naturally especially interested in enquiring into its nature
and the practices conducive to its fulfilment. The Garland,with its
exhaustive accounts of the path and the experience of Buddhahood,
answers perfectly these concerns of his, and, therefore receives from
him the highest esteem.99
Conclusion
This comparative study, brief and tentative as it is, should suffice
to demonstrate the many similarities between Chih-i's and Fa-
tsang's conceptions of the Lotusand the Garland.Both maintain that
the Garlandwas the earliest and the Lotus among the latest texts
preached by the Tathagata. Both are of the opinion that the Garland
contains the "immediate" and the Lotusthe "mediated" expression
of the Truth. Furthermore,both contend that the Garlandwas direct-
ed only to those of the sharpestfaculties, while the Lotuswas intended
for beings of all levels of intelligence. The fact that they nevertheless
part ways in their assessment of the two scriptures, despite such
basic agreements, provides us with an excellent illustration of the
respective "dialectical" and "transcendental" approaches of their
thought, which we have, in turn, traced to the respective Madhya-
mika and Yogacara origins of their teachings. Thus, while Fa-tsang
sees the excellence of the Garlandin its being the direct revelation
of the Buddha's ultimate vision, and in its being "distinct" from the
inferior ways of the three vehicles, Chih-i finds precisely here its
weakness, as its doctrinal purity makes it totally unfit for the com-
mon run of mankind. To express Chih-i's view in Hegelian terms,
Magnin, La vie et l'oeuvrede Huisi (Paris: Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient,

1979, pp. 80-81, Diana Y. Paul, Philosophy of Mind in Sixth-CenturyChina
(Stanford: Stanford University Press 1984), chaps. 1 & 2. Katsumata Shunkyo
W & k,Bukkyoni okerushinshiki-setsu nokenkyA14i 7)if3 (Tokyo:
1961), sec. 3.
98 Most standard histories on Hua-yen Buddhism include long sections on the
Ti-lun and She-lun schools. See, for example, Ishii Kyodo, op. cit., and Takamine
Ry6shii AWISJ11,Kegonshiso-shi , (Kyoto: 1963). My articles "The
P'an-ChiaoSystem of the Hua-yen School in Chinese Buddhism" and "The Three-
Nature Doctrine and Its Interpretation in Hua-yen Buddhism", T'oung Pao 68
(1982), pp. 181-220 also aim at clarifying the close theoretical tie between Hua-
yen Buddhism and the "old Yogacara tradition".
99Also worth noting was the popularity the Garlandenjoyed among masters of
the "old Yogacara tradition".
80 LIU MING-WOOD
the Truth as embodied in the Garlandis the Truth in the abstract,

and so long as it is in the abstract, it is one-sided and exclusive. The
Truth has to become reconciled with the world (second, third and
fourth periods in Chih-i's scheme of "five periods") before it can
overcome the world (fifth period), and it is just in its being in "com-
mon" with the three vehicles that the Lotusis superiorto the Garland.
To perceive this contrast between the "transcendentalorientation"
of Fa-tsang and the "dialectical orientation" of Chih-i is a signifi-
cant step towards the comprehension of the basic doctrinal differ-
ences between the Hua-yen and T'ien-t'ai schools which the two
masters have helped to found.
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10the Lotus Sutra and Garland Sutra According To The Tiantai and Huayan Schools in Chinese Buddhism

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The "Lotus Sūtra" and "Garland Sūtra" According to the T'ien-t'ai and Hua-yen Schools in

THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLANDSUTRA

LIU MING-WOOD OJ17N

of the Lotus Suitraand Garland Suitraand

1.1 The Central Themesof the Lotus Sutra and

1 Summaries of the Lotuscan be found in H. Kern trans., Saddharmapundarika

themes the "uniting of three in one" (hui-sankuei-i E*-0-) and

and "close at hand" represent the "ch'iian 4" (provisional) aspect

1.2 The CentralThemesof Garland SuitraandIts Introduction

sented the initial Chinese response to Yogacara thought.1' While

ous stages a bodhisattva has to pass through before he can achieve

1.3 P'an-chiao andEarly Opinionsof theRelationbetweenthe

As a student of Kumarajlva, Hui-kuan was naturally familiar

22 See Fa-tsang, Hua-yen-chingchuan-chi .*JK , T, vol. 51, p. 154b, 11.10-

Table1 Hui-kuan'sP'an-ChiaoSystemof Two TeachingsandFive Periods

As we can easily see from the above account, Hui-kuan begins by

2. Chih-i on the Lotus Stitra and the Garland Stitra

plains and valleys,31indicating that he means by "sudden teaching"

Table2 Chih-i'sP'an-ChiaoSystemof ThreeTeachingsandFive Periods

Comparing Chih-i's scheme of "five periods" with that of Hui-

2.2 Chih-i'sOpinionof theGarland Sutra andLotus Sutra

suffering and the cessation of rebirth. However, in the case of the

43 For systematic exposition of the scheme of "four dharmas of conversion" in

all to the nirvana proper to the Tathagata.45 It is as found in this [Lotus]Satra.46

themes of the Garland(first period), the four Agamas (second period),

at the beginning of his evangelical work,49[how] he subdued [their evil thoughts],

2.3 The MadhyamakaBackgroundof Chilh-i's View of the Garland

49 Refer to n. 30 above for information on these methods of instruction.

tion of their abstention from taking determinate positions on or-

3. Fa-tsangon the Lotus Suitraand Garland Suitra

3.1 Fa-tsangon the Timeof Preachingof the Lotus Suitraand Garland

attributes a similar role to them both, it is not far-fetched to conclude

59 The Samdhinirmocana-sitra divides the Buddha's teachings into three periods,

vehicle" and "three vehicles" had already appeared in such early

Fa-tsang begins his section on the problem of "one vehicle" in

teaching is conducive to the fulfillment of the higher stages.66

66 For resume of the ten bodhisattva stages as given in the Daiabhuimika-sutra

(which also forms part of the Garland),refer to Har Dayal, TheBodhisattvaDoctrine

The one-vehicle and three-vehicle teachings share some common

understanding which, as we have perceived, is pivotal of Chih-i's

By "instructions", Fa-tsang refers to such things as speech and

71Hua-yenwu-chiaochang,T, vol. 45, p. 480a, 11.7-14.

The one-vehicle teaching of the Garlandis referredto by Fa-tsang as

73 The quotation in n.58 above carries similar connotation.

In Fa-tsang eye's, the Garlandis the king of scriptures, surpassing all

iv) Sudden teaching

On the whole, Fa-tsang does not share Chih-i's misgiving of a teach-

80 Hua-yenwu-chiaochang, T, vol. 45, p. 481b, 11.7-9. Also see p. 482a, 11.9-

forms of liberation, see Garland, T, vol. 9, p. 640a, 11.12-21.

fearlessness,see Garland,T, vol. 9, p. 649c, 1.16-p. 650b, 1.24.

x. "Stimuli" (kan*i) which are sentient beings of varied disposi-

3.4 The rogacairaBackground

96 A slightly different set of ten pairs of items appears in the Hua-yenwu-chiao

Magnin, La vie et l'oeuvrede Huisi (Paris: Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient,

the Truth as embodied in the Garlandis the Truth in the abstract,

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