Fatigue Consideration in

Engineering Design
Siraj Ahmed
Professor
Department of Mechanical Enginering
MANIT, Bhopal
 Contents
• Introduction Fatigue Failure
• Introduction to Fracture Mechanics
• Fatigue Cracks Initiation and Growth
• Fatigue Testing
• S-N Curve
• Types of Loading
• Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
• Residual Stress
• Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
 …….Contents
• Effect of Mean Stress
• Design against Fatigue
• Failure Criterion
• Multi-Axial Stresses
• Cumulative Fatigue Damage
• Combating Fatigue
 Tensile TEST
Material: Mild (Low Carbon) Steel

Brittle Material: High Carbon Steel

A Limit of Proportionality
B Elastic Limit
C Upper Yield Point
D Lower Yield Point
E Ultimate Tensile Stress
F Point of Fracture
Determination of 0.1%
PROOF STRESS
Permanent ‘set’ after
Straining beyond the
YIELD POINT
Tensile Test for different METALS
Typical Stress-Strain Curves for Hard
Drawn Wire Materials
Typical Tension Test Results for different
types of Nylon and Polycarbonate
 Introduction Fatigue Failure
• Action of cyclic, repeated or fluctuating
stresses
• level of stress below the yield strength or far
below the ultimate tensile strength
• stresses were repeated over a large number of
times
• Compressive, tensile, bending, shear, torsional
and/or combination of stresses
 Introduction Fatigue Failure
• Identified as progressive crack growth
• Until the section becomes so small that one
final application of stress causes fracture
• Characterized by two distinct areas of failure:
the progressive development of crack and
sudden fracture
• Give no warning, it is sudden and total and
hence dangerous
 Three Distinct Stages
• Initial fatigue damage leads to initiation and
crack nucleation

• Progressive cyclic growth or propagation of a

crack until the remaining un-cracked cross-
section of a part become too weak to sustain
the imposed load

• Sudden failure of remaining cross-section

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics
• How different materials fracture when subjected to
stresses

• Two major branches as theoretical and computational

fracture mechanics

• Actual material is neither homogenous and nor

isotropic

• An isotropic material is having same properties in

three directions.
 Fracture Mechanics
Defects (points of stress concentration)
• cracks
• voids
• inclusions which may be non-metallic
• micro cracks
• weld defects
• grinding defects
• quench cracks
• surface laps
• scratches due to machining
• processing, handling marks etc.
 Fracture Mechanics
• Toughness of a material is the property which
offers resistance to fracture

• Fracture mechanics is the study of criteria

that develop the
sudden growth of pre-existing crack
Stress Concentration
 Stress Concentration
• At high stress level at crack tip, local yielding
will occur for ductile materials

• Local micro-fracture will occur for brittle

materials and it will produce a network of
fine cracks

2a
Stress Concentration Factor Kt = 1 + ( )
b
 Crack Propagation in Three Modes
Mode-I Tensile Stress
Mode-II In-Plane Shear Stress
Mode-III Anti-Plane Shear Stress
Examples of Mode-I Crack Propagation

Single Edge Notched

Three Point Bend

Four Point Bend Compact Tension

Fracture – Ductile Fracture (static loading)
• Fracture results in separation of stressed solid into two
or more parts.
• Ductile fracture : High plastic deformation & slow crack
propagation.

➢ Specimen forms neck and

cavities within neck
➢ Cavities form crack and
crack propagates towards
surface, perpendicular to stress.
➢ Direction of crack changes to
450 resulting in
cup-cone fracture
 Brittle Fracture (static loading)
• No significant plastic deformation before fracture
• Common at high strain rates and low temperature
• Micro-cracks nucleate due to shear
stress where dislocations are blocked
• Crack propagates to fracture

• Example: HCP Zinc ingle crystal SEM of ductile fracture

under high stress along {0001}

plane undergoes brittle fracture

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

SEM of brittle fracture
Ductile and Brittle Fractures (static loading)

Ductile fracture Brittle Fracture

 Brittle Fractures (cont..)
• Brittle fractures are due to defects like
➢ Folds
➢ Undesirable grain flow
➢ Porosity
➢ Tears and Cracks
➢ Corrosion damage
➢ Embrittlement due to atomic hydrogen
• At low operating temperature, ductile to brittle
transition takes place
 Fracture Toughness
• Cracks and flaws cause stress concentration.

K 1 = Y  a
K1 = Stress intensity factor.
σ = Applied stress.
a = edge crack length
Y = geometric constant

KIc = critical value of

stress intensity Example:
Al 2024 T851 26.2MPam1/2
factor (Fracture toughness) 4340 alloy steel 60.4MPam1/2
= Y  f a
Critical Stress intensity factor KIc
K1 = Y a K Ic = Y f a
Stress intensity factor K is a parameter that amplifies the
magnitude of the applied stress that includes the geometrical
parameter Y (load type). Stress intensity in any mode situation is
directly proportional to the applied load on the material. If a very
sharp crack can be made in a material, the minimum value of KI can
be empirically determined, which is the critical value of stress
intensity required to propagate the crack. This critical value
determined for mode I loading in plane strain is referred to as the
critical fracture toughness KIc of the material with units of stress
times the root of a distance. The units of KIc imply that the fracture
stress of the material must be reached over some critical distance in
order for KIc to be reached and crack propagation to occur. The
Mode I critical stress intensity factor KIc is the most often used
engineering design parameter in fracture mechanics and hence
must be understood if we are to design fracture tolerant materials
used in bridges, buildings, aircraft, or even bells.
 Measuring Fracture Toughness
• A notch is machined in a specimen of sufficient thickness B.
• B>>a plain strain condition.
• B = 2.5(KIc/Yield strength)2
• Specimen is tensile tested.
• Higher the KIc value, more
ductile the metal is.
• Used in design to find
allowable flaw size
 Fatigue Cracks Initiation and Growth
• Regions where the strains are most severe

• Materials contain defects

• Regions of stress concentration

• Structural defects

• Under the action of cyclic loading, a plastic zone, or region

of deformation develops at the defect tip. This zone of high
deformation becomes an initiation site for a fatigue crack
 Fatigue Cracks Initiation and Growth
• It begins at a local discontinuity such as
notch, crack or other regions of high stress
concentration

• On microscopic scale, the most important

feature of the fatigue process is nucleation of
one or more cracks under the influence of
reversed stresses, followed by development of
cracks at grain boundaries
 Fatigue of Metals
• Metals often fail at much lower stress at cyclic loading
compared to static loading.
• Crack nucleates at region of stress concentration and
propagates due to cyclic loading.
• Failure occurs when
cross sectional area
of the metal too small Fracture started here
to withstand applied
load.
Fatigue fractured
surface of keyed
shaft
Final rupture
 Static and Fatigue Failure
• When machine part fails due to static loads,
they normally develop a very large defection.
The failure stress has exceeded the yield
strength, and the part is replaced well in
advance of failure.

• Fatigue failure is sudden without prior

warning and hence dangerous.
 Three Progressive Stages

• Stage I: Initiation of cracks and their propagation by

slip-plane fracture. Fracture is about two to three
grain size around origin. In each grain, the fracture
surface is a long and well-defined crystallographic
plane.

• Stage II: Change of orientation of one main fracture

plane in each grain from one or two shear planes to
many shear planes.

• Stage III: Reduced cross-section can not sustain the

applied load, leads to failure.
 Fatigue Failure Characterized
• Absence of plastic deformation
• Fracture surface partly looks smooth and
partly rough
• Statistical in nature or experimental results
are repeated
• Relationship between amplitude of stress and
cycles to failure
• Always begins at areas of high stress
concentration
 Fatigue cracks appear to start from
Surface
• Inherently weak
• Exposed to atmosphere
• Worked and handled
• Stress is always high on the surface
• May carry some stress concentration

If Surface is protected or strengthened, fatigue

failure may be reduced
Structural Changes in Fatigue Process
• Crack initiation first occurs.
• Reversed directions of crack initiation caused surface
ridges and groves called slipband extrusion and
intrusion.
• This is stage I and is very slow (10-10 m/cycle).
• Crack growth changes
direction to be perpendi-
cular to maximum tensile
stress (rate microns/sec).
• Sample ruptures by ductile Persistent slip bands
In copper crystal
failure when remaining
cross-sectional area is small to withstand the stress.
 Fatigue Testing
• To determine the fatigue strength of the material

• A standard test specimen

• Specified load of varying nature for a number of

cycles upto the fracture

• A point load to produce pure bending stresses

Fatigue Testing
 Fatigue Testing
• developed by R.R. Moore
• completely reversed bending stresses
• Loads are applied on a ball bearing mounted
at one end of the specimen
• fatigue failure is statistical in nature
• many number of tests
• number of stress reversal cycles are recorded
upto the fracture
 Fully Reversed Failure Criteria
• Data comes from rotating-beam test

• Highly polished specimen of 0.3 inches (8 mm)

in diameter is subjected to pure bending
stresses that are alternated by rotating the
specimen

• Rotation is at 1725 rpm

• Takes 1/2 day to reach 106 cycles.

 Fatigue Testing
• stress S and number of revolutions N to
failure are plotted on semi-log paper

• For ferrous alloys graph becomes horizontal

S-N Curve (Ferrous Metals)
Typical S-N Curve for Steel
 S-N Curve
• N=½ to N=1000 cycles low-cycle fatigue
• N > 1000 cycles high-cycle fatigue

• finite life region up to N=10 7

• infinite-life region N > 107 cycles beyond
 S-N Curve
Equation of the S-N
log S = b log N + c
'
f

Solve for b and c assuming line intersect 106

'
cycles at e and 103 cycles at 0.8Sut
S

1 0.8Sut (0.8Sut ) 2
b = − log c = log
3 '
Se Se'
 Fatigue Strength and Endurance Limit
find Sf' when N is given

S = 10 N
'
f
c b
10  N  10
3 6

if Sf' is given and N is desired

c 1
−
N = 10 S b b
f 10  N  10
3 6
Fatigue Strength and Endurance Limit
Generalized Approach for Alloy Steel
Se = 0.5 Sut Sut ≤ 1400 MPa

Se = 700 MPa Sut > 1400 MPa

For Cast Iron and Cast Steel

Se = 0.45 Sut Sut ≤ 600 MPa

Se = 275 MPa Sut > 600 MPa

 S-N Curve for Non-Ferrous Materials
• For Aluminum Alloys and Magnesium Alloys
fatigue strength is based on 108 cycles (also
5X 108 cycles)
Typical S-N Curve for Non-Ferrous
Metals
 S-N Curve for Non-Ferrous Materials
• S-N curves for plastics have continually
decreasing fatigue strength with life N

• No knee point seen in the plot for copper or

nickel

• Components made from these materials must

always be designed for a finite life N
 Fatigue Strength
• Defined as the magnitude of completely
reversed stress for a particular number of
cycles to failure of a standard specimen of a
particular material

• In other words the value of stress on the

ordinate of the S-N diagram must always be
accompanied by a statement of the number
of cycle N to which it corresponds
 Endurance Limit
• For steels, a knee is observed in the characteristic plot
of stress level of completely reversed nature and
number of cycles to failure.

• Below this knee theoretically the failure will not occur

even for higher number of loading cycles or stress
cycles.

• Magnitude of completely reversed stress

corresponding to the knee is called endurance limit or
fatigue limit

• Endurance limit ranges from 35 to 60 percent of the

ultimate tensile strength of steels
 Types of Loading
• Cyclic Stresses
 Types of Loading
• Fluctuating Stress Cycles
 Types of Loading
• Completely Reversed Stress Cycles
Types of Loading
 Stress Conditions
Mean stress  max +  min
m =
2
Variable stress  max −  min
v =
2
Stress Range
 r =  max −  min
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
Machnine Element made of same material as
of standard specimen, modified to account for
various effects

• Material: Chemical composition,

basis of failure and variability
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
• Manufacturing: Method of manufacture
heat treatment
surface condition and
stress concentration

• Environment: Corrosion
temperature and
stress-state
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
• Design: Size
shape
life
stress-state
stress concentration etc.
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
Se’ endurance limit of standard specimen

Se endurance limit of actual component

Se = ka kb kc kd ke kf Se’
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
ka surface finish factor
kb size factor
kc reliability factor
kd temperature effect factor

ke modifying factor for stress concentration

kf miscellaneous effect factor

Surface Finish ka for Steel
 Size Effect Factor kb
general guidance

kb = 1 for d ≤ 8mm

1.189 d - 0.097 for 8 mm < d ≤ 250 mm

 Reliability Factor kc
Reliability factor of standard rotating-beam
specimens are assumed to be 1.0 for material
and manufacturing accuracy
 Temperature Effect Factor
kd = 1 for T  350 oC

kd = 0.5 for 350 oC < T  500 oC

 Stress-Concentration Effects
• Fatigue stress-concentration factor Kf and
Endurance limit modifying factor ke
for the round rotating-beam standard specimens is
taken as 1.0

Kf = (Endurance limit of notch free specimen)

/(Endurance limit of notched specimen)

• Most mechanical parts have holes, grooves, notches or

other kind of discontinuities
 Stress-Concentration Effects
• endurance limit modifying factor ke is related
to Kf as follows
1
ke =
Kf
 Miscellaneous Effects
• If there is any other variation exists in particular
situation then same can be accommodated in terms
of miscellaneous effect factor kf like residual stress

• In corrosive atmosphere the failure due to fatigue

stress is more likely to occur at lower stress level or
in less number of stress cycles because of lowered
fatigue resistance
 Residual Stress
• may improve or reduce the enurance limit

• Normally compressive residual stress is

desirable

• Few industrial processes such as shot peening,

hammering and cold rolling impart residual
compressive stresses into the surface of the
part and improve the endurance limit
 Stress Concentration and
Notch Sensitivity
Stress Concentration due to presence of
key ways, fillets, slots projections, threads

• Due to irregularities and sudden changes in the

geometry of a component
• Variations in the cross-section
• Shoulders are designed on shafts so that the
bearings can be seated to take thrust loads
• Key slots for securing pulleys, gears and other
mountings
 Stress Concentration and
Notch Sensitivity
Theoretical stress concentration factor K t

2A
K t = (1 + )
B

Elliptical crack in
semi-infinite plate
 stress concentration factor
normal stress  max
Kt =
o
shear stress  max
K ts =
o
Fatigue stress concentration factor
Kf = (Endurance limit of notch free specimen /
Endurance limit of notched specimen)
 Notch sensitivity factor q

K f −1
q=
Kt − 1
If q = 0 then Kf = 1 and

for q = 1 Kf = Kt and the component has

full sensitivity
 Notch sensitivity factor q
• In analysis or design work first determine Kt
from the geometry of the part.

Then material having been specified, q can be

found and equation is solved for Kf

K f = 1 + q( K t − 1)
Notch sensitivity factor q
 Notch sensitivity factor q
depends upon number of factors

• elastic constant
• tensile strength
• type of loading
• size of the section
• geometry of notch
• grain size

finer grain size resuls in a higher value of q than for

coarse grain size in the material.
Effect of Mean Stress
Design against Fatigue
 Notations
σe Endurance Limit N Fatigue Strength

N cycles under zero mean stress conditions for

completely reversed bending loads

σ a V amplitude of variable stress

σUT ultimate tensile strength of the material

σY yield strength of the material

σm mean stress value

Criteria of Failure due to Fatigue
Failure criterion of Modified-Goodman used
because:
• It is straight line and the algebra is linear
• It is easily graphed
• Answer can be scaled from the diagram as a
check
 Failure Criterion
• Most test results fall within the envelope formed
by the parabolic curve of Gerber criterion and
the straight line of Goodman

• Soderberg failure criterion provides additional

margin of safely in design against fatigue

• It is usual to apply a factor of safety F to both the

variable or alternating stress and steady or mean
stress, and equations become,
Governing Equations of Criteria of Failure
With Design Factor of safety n
The stress na and nm can
replace Sa and Sm
Soderberg Line

Modified-Goodman
Line

Gerber Failure
Criterion

ASME-Elliptic Line

Langer First
Cycle Yielding
 residual compressive stress
improve the fatigue behavior

e ( m −  r )n
a = [1 − ]
n  UT

may be induced by a process of shot peening

 Example 1
• A steel bolt of 3000 mm2 in cross-section is
subjected to a static mean load of 180 kN.
What value of completely reversed direct
fatigue load will produce failure is 107 cycle ?
Use Soderberg relationship and assume that
the yield strength of steel is 360 N/mm2 and
the stress required to produce failure at 107
cycles under zero mean stress condition is 240
N/mm2
 Hint Example 1

180 X 103
m = = 60 N/mm2
3000

60
 v = 240(1 − ) = 200 N/mm2
360

Load = 200 X 3000 = 600 kN

 Example 2
• A stepped steel rod, with smaller section 60 mm
in diameter, is subjected to a fluctuating direct
axial load which varies from +180 kN to -180 kN.
If the theoretical stress concentration due to the
reduction in section is 2.4, the notch sensitivity
factor is 0.96 , the yield strength is 540 N/mm2
and the fatigue limit under rotating bending is
360 N/mm2. Calculate the factor of safety, if the
fatigue limit in tension-compression is 0.84 of
that in rotating bending.
 Hint Example 2 (all stresses N/mm2 )
K f = 1 + q( K t − 1) = 1 + 0.96( 2.4 − 1) = 2.34

180(103 )
 max =
 2
= 63.66  min = −63.66
(60)
4
63.66 − ( −63.66)
 mean = 0 v = = 63.66
2
0.84 e 0.84(360)
N = = = 126
Kf 2 .4
N  mF 126 0 XF
v = (1 − )  63.66 = [1 − ]  F = 1.97
F y F 540
 Multi-Axial Stresses
• CASE I Fully Reversed Multi-Axial Stresses

 =  +  +  −  1v 2 v −  2 v 32 v −  3v 1v
'
v
2
1v
2
2v
2
3v

• For two-dimensional case

 =  +  −  1v 2 v
'
v
2
1v
2
2v
 Multi-Axial Stresses
• Factor of safety = Endurance Limit /
Variable multi-axial Stress

e
Nf = '
v
 Multi-Axial Stresses
• CASE II Fluctuating multi-axial stresses
according to Von Mises criterion

1
 =
'
v [( xv −  yv ) 2 + ( yv −  zv ) 2 + ( zv −  xv ) 2 + 6(2xyv + 2yzv + 2zxv )]
2

1
 m' = [( xm −  ym ) 2 + ( ym −  zm ) 2 + ( zm −  xm ) 2 + 6(2xym + 2yzm + 2zxm )]
2
 Multi-Axial Stresses
• for biaxial stress
 v' =  xv2 +  yv2 −  xv yv + 32xyv

 m' =  xm
2
+  ym
2
−  xm ym + 32xym
General Approach of Design Steps
• Plot modified Goodman diagram
• Determine variable and mean components of
stress at the areas of concern on the part
• Use appropriate stress concentration factors
• Convert to variable and mean Von Mises
stresses
• Plot these stresses and find the factor of
safety
General Approach of Design Steps
• Design Equations

 '
 '
− m
+ v
=1
S yc S yc
 '
 '
m
+ v
=1
Sy Sy
 '
 '
m
+ v
=1
S ut Sf
Modified Goodman Diagram
 Cumulative Fatigue Damage
• For Example a car traveling over varying types
of roads, stresses will vary according to
varying road conditions.

• Miner law proposed that a machine element

in such varying conditions of stresses will be
subjected to damages at varying amount
which is proportional to the number of cycles
for a particular stress level.
 Cumulative Fatigue Damage
• Fraction of total damage occurring for one series
of stress cycle is represented by the ratio of
number of cycles n of that stress level to the
number of cycles N required to fracture the
component at the same type of stress level.

• Ratio n/N is called the cycle ratio and Miner’s law

proposed that failure takes place when the sum
of the cycles ratios equals to one.
Cumulative Fatigue Damage

n
 N =1
n1 n2 n3 nn
+ + + ....... + =1
N1 N 2 N 3 Nn
 Cumulative Fatigue Damage
• Sequence of application of the different stress
levels is important

• Application of higher stress level initially is

more harmful effect on fatigue life than the
application of lower level of stress on the
machine element
 Example 3
The value of the fatigue strength at various stress
amplitude level for low-alloy constructional steel fatigue
specimens are given below.

A Similar specimen is subjected to the following number of stress

cycles at the stress leve: 3000 at 540 N/m2, 12000 at 420 N/mm2 and
8000 at 360 N/mm2, after which the specimen remained unbroken.
How many additional cycles would the specimen withstand at stress
level of 480 N/mm2 prior to failure? Assume zero mean stress level.
 Hint Example 3

3000 12000 8000 n

+ + + =1
12000 54000 126000 24000

n = 11208 stress cycles

 Combating Fatigue
Performance of various Materials under Fatigue

Nf is number of cycle
to failure
 Combating Fatigue
Effect of Heat Treatment upon the Fatigue Limit of Steel
 Factors Affecting Fatigue Strength
• Stress concentration: Fatigue strength is reduced by
stress concentration

• Surface roughness: Smoother surface increases the

fatigue strength

• Surface condition: Surface treatments like carburizing and

nitriding increases fatigue life

• Environment: Chemically reactive environment, which

might result in corrosion, decreases fatigue life
 Example 4
• Fatigue behavior of a material for zero mean
stress is governed by  N = K where σr is the
a
r

range of variable cyclic stress, N is the number

of cycles to failure and K and a are material
constants. For N=106 at σr=360 N/mm2 and for
N=108 at σr=240 N/mm2 calculate K and a and
life of specimen in terms of number of cycles,
when subjected to a stress range of 120
N/mm2.
 Hint Example 4
Given, a log σr + log N = log K
substituting, a log 360 + 6 log 10 = log K
and a log 240 + 8 log10 = log K
evaluating, a = 11.36 and K = 1.09 x 1035
For given stress level of 120 N/mm2
11.36 log 120 + log N = 35.03
N = 2.63 x 1011 cycles
 Example 5

• A thin-walled cylindrical vessel 160 mm

internal diameter and with a wall thickness of
10 mm is subjected to an internal pressure
that varies from a value of – p/4 to p. The
fatigue strength of the material at 108 cycles is
235 N/mm2 and the tensile yield strength is
282 N/mm2. Determine a nominal allowable
value for p such that failure will not take place
in less than 108 cycles.
 Jack hammer component,
shows no yielding before
fracture.

Crack initiation site

Fracture zone
Propagation zone, striation
MAE dept., SJSU
Timing pulley

Crack started at the fillet

 Fracture surface of a failed bolt
exhibited beach marks, which is
characteristic of a fatigue failure

25 mm diameter steel pins from

agricultural equipment
Material: AISI/SAE 4140 low
allow carbon steel
 MACHINE DESIGN II
M 322
UNIT- I
Fatigue - Importance in Engineering design, concept of fatigue, fatigue strength and endurance limit , stress
concentration, Goodman and modified Goodman diagram, Soderberg and Gerber hypotheses, effect of
loading type, size, surface finish, notch, surface treatment , and corrosion, cumulative fatigue damage,
applied problems.

UNIT –II
Gears - design consideration, Hertzian stresses, design load, beam strength, surface strength, design
procedure for helical and spur gears, design calculation for bevel and worm gears.

UNIT – III
Creep- temperature considerations in design,creep, designing for creep, thermal stresses, applied problems.
Bearing- Classification, design of hydrodynamic bearings, selection of ball and roller bearings.

UNIT – IV
Design of the following:
1. Rotating Machines e.g. Centrifugal Pump, Compressor 2. Gear Box
Introduction to various CAD softwares.
 Books and References

(1) Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design (2011), 9/e, Tata

McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi.
(2) V. B. Bhandari (2017). Design of Machine Elements, 4/e, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi.
(3) Siraj Ahmed (2014). MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN, PHI,
Eastern Economy Edition ISBN: 978-81-203-4931-5 New Delhi.
(4) E.J. Hearn. Mechanics of Materials, Volume 2. Butterworth-
Heinemann Publisher, Oxford.
(5) Austin H. Church and Jagdish Lal. Centrifugal Pumps and
Blowers. Metropolitan Book Company, Delhi.
(6) N. K. Mehta. Machine Tool Design. Tata McGraw-Hill Publisher,
New Delhi.
(7) NPTEL Lecture Notes
Thanking
You