HYDRAULICS

(BFC 2072 / BFC 21103)

Prepared by:-

MR WAN AFNIZAN BIN WAN MOHAMED

DEPT. OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
FAC. OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
e-mail: afnizan@uthm.edu.my
 CHAPTER 2

UNIFORM FLOW IN
OPEN CHANNEL
 Learning Objectives
To explain uniform flow concept in open
channel.
To define resistance flow formula that is
associated with uniform flow.
To justify the technique used in normal
depth determination.
To design the best effective section for a
drainage.
 CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN CHANNEL

CROSS SECTION

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

RESISTANCE FORMULAE

CHEZY, MANNING, GANGUILLET-

KUTTER, BAZIN
.... Cont ‘
CONTENT

CONVEYENCE FACTOR

NORMAL DEPTH CALCULATION

BEST HYDRAULIC DESIGN FOR

OPEN CHANNEL
 INTRODUCTION

 In uniform flow, the normal depth, yo occurs when depth of

water is same along the channel.
 Area, wetted perimeter, velocity and discharge is same along
the channel.
 Energy Grade Line (EGL), Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
and channel surface is parrallel.

EGL
Gradient = S
HGL
Gradient = Sw
Channel bottom
Gradient = So
.... Cont ‘ INTRODUCTION

 Therefore, in uniform flow ;

So = Sw = S
 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN
CHANNEL CROSS SECTION

 Velocity distribution is shown in the following figure ;

v
Note:
- v max occurs just
( Elevation view ) below the water
surface.
- Mean velocity,
v = 0.6d

( Plan view )
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Piezometer

ETL
EGL GCT = S
hL
v12/2g
v12/2g
HGL v22/2g
GCH = v22/2g
P1/ ρg
ρ Sw

E1 P2/ ρg
ρ E2 P1/ ρg
ρ
1 Aliran, Q

2 P2/ ρg
ρ

z1
DATUM z2

DATUM

Figure 2.1: Flow inside pipe Figure 2.2: Uniform flow in open channel
.... Cont ‘ BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

 Bernoulli theorem states that TOTAL ENERGY for

every element is SAME.
(Under condition : There is no other energy that
enter or out from the system)
 The Bernoulli’s equation is based on the following
assumptions.

 Fluids doesn’t have friction (viscosity).

 Fluids density is constant.
 Flow is constant.
 .... Cont ‘ BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

According to Fig. 2.1 & 2.2 it can be concluded that :-

2 2
P1 v 1 P2 v 2
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g … (Bernoulli’s Eq.)

Which; ETL = Energy Total Line

EGL = Energy Grade Line
HGL = Hydraulic Grade Line)

v2/2g = Velocity head

ρg
P/ρ = Pressure head

z = Static head
 RESISTANCE FORMULAE

CHEZY’S EQUATION

 Derivation of Chezy’s equation :

EGL

θ
Wsinθ yO
yO
θ θ τ

Figure 2.3
NOTE :

θ = tan θ→ If θ is small (normally in open channel) where tan θ = So

 RESISTANCE FORMULAE
.... Cont ‘ CHEZY’S EQUATION

Known that :-
a) W = ρgAL (W = Weight of water)

b) sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ So

c) Shear force = PLττo (ττo = Flow shear

stress with channel surface)
 RESISTANCE FORMULAE
.... Cont ‘ CHEZY’S EQUATION

For flow in an open channel ;

ΣF = ma (a = 0 → same velocity)
Which :-
ΣF = Total force = Wsinθ
θ - PLττo
Therefore :-
ΣF = 0
θ - PLττo = 0
Wsinθ
ρgAL So = PLττo
A
τ o = ρgS o
P
τ o = ρgS o R ……. (i)
 RESISTANCE FORMULAE
.... Cont ‘ CHEZY’S EQUATION

For flow inside pipe ;

f ρv 2
τo = ……. (ii)
In which; 8

f = Friction factor

Thus, for actual fluids, flow inside pipe is same with

flow in open channel, hence(ii) = (i);
fρv 2 8g
= ρgS o R If C = hence
8 f
8g
v= RSo v = C RS o
f
 RESISTANCE FORMULAE
.... Cont ‘ CHEZY’S EQUATION

Chezy equation by
But Q = Av, thus; Antonie Chezy
(1769), France.
Q = AC RS o
Which :
A = Area of channel

C = Chezy’s coefficient (unit : m0.5/s)

R = Hydraulic radius
.... Cont ‘ RESISTANCE FORMULAE

GANGUILET & KUTTER’S (1869) EQUATION

0.00155 1
23 + +
So n
C= (SI Unit)
n 0.00155
1 + 23 +
R So

Which :

n = Kutter (roughness coefficient)

.... Cont ‘ RESISTANCE FORMULAE

BAZIN’S (1897) EQUATION

87
C=
m (SI Unit)
1+
R
Which :

m = Bazin (roughness coefficient)

EXAMPLE 2.1

A trapezoidal channel having 3 m base

width and sides slopes of 2:1 (H:V)
conveying flow at uniform depth of 1.2 m.
Channel slope is 0.003 and Kutter’s
coefficient is 0.011. Find flow velocity and
discharge.
SOLUTION:
Given:-
Trapezoidal channel
B=3m
z =2
yo = 1.2 m
So = 0.003
n = 0.011 (Kutter)
v ??? & Q ???
SOLUTION

A = By + zy2
= (3.0)(1.2) + (2)(1.2)2
= 6.48 m2

P = B + 2y 1 + z 2 R=A/ P
P = 3 + ( 2)(1.2) 1 + (2)2 = 6.48 / 8.37
= 8.37 m = 0.77 m
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘
0.00155 1
23 + +
So n
C =
n 0.00155
1+ 23 +
R So
0.00155 1
23 + +
C= 0.003 0.011 = 88.37
0.011 0.00155
1+ 23 +
0.77 0.003

Therefore, flow velocity : Flow discharge :

v = C RS o Q = Av
v = (88.37) (0.77)(0.003) Q = (6.48) (4.25)
v = 4.24 m/s Q = 27.54 m3/s
.... Cont ‘ RESISTANCE FORMULAE

MANNING’S EQUATION

2
1
Q= AR 3 So Most popular !!
n

Where ;
A = Channel area (m2)
C = Chezy’s coefficient (m0.5/s)
n = Manning’s coefficient
R = Hydraulic radius (m)
So = Channel slope
.... Cont ‘ RESISTANCE FORMULAE
TYPES OF CHANNEL SURFACE MANNING VALUE, n

Natural Channel:

i) Clean and Straight 0.030

ii) Vegetation 0.100
iii) Mountain River 0.040 – 0.050

Artificial Channel:

i) Earth ground (clean) 0.022

ii) Earth ground (vegetation) 0.027 – 0.035
iii) Cement (plane / smooth) 0.011
iv) Cement (mortar) 0.013
v) Concrete 0.017
vi) Stone (covered) 0.013

vii) Masonry (inside cement mortar) 0.015

viii) Aspalt (smooth) 0.013

ix) Aspalt (rough) 0.016
x) Steel 0.012
xi) Reap Wood 0.012
xii) Unreap Wood 0.013
EXAMPLE 2.2

Water flows inside trapezoidal channel

having sides slope 1.5, base width 2.5 m,
channel slope 0.0016 and Manning’s
coefficient 0.012. If normal depth inside
the channel is 3 m, what is the
discharge?
SOLUTION:
Given:-
z = 1.5
B = 2.5 m
So = 0.0016
n = 0.012
yo = 3 m
Q ???
SOLUTION

Sketch of the problem :-

3m 1

1.5

2.5 m
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

From Manning’s formula :

2
1
Q = AR 3 So
n

Find A & R ;

A = By + zy 2
A = (2.5)(3) + (1.5)(3)2
A = 21 m2
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

P = B + 2y 1 + z 2

P = 2.5 + ( 2)( 3) 1 + (1.5)2

P = 13.32 m
Thus ;
A
R=
P
21
R=
13.32
R = 1.577m
Therefore ;

1
Q= ( 21)(1.577)2 3 0.0016
0.012

Q = 94.84 m 3 /s
 CONVEYENCE FACTOR

 The carrying capacity of the channel section

For Chezy Q = AC R S o
K = AC R

For Manning 1 2/ 3
Q = AR So
n
1
K = AR 2 / 3
n

Hence, both of them

(Chezy & Manning) Q = K So (unit K = m3/s)
NORMAL DEPTH CALCULATION

Normal depth determination

approaches :

 Trial & Error

 Graph

 Chart
 NORMAL DEPTH CALCULATION
.... Cont ‘ 1st APPROACH
TRIAL & ERROR METHOD

 Formula used (from conveyence factor formulae):-

2
3
Q
AR = If chezy coefficient
C So is given

RHS value is normally

…. 2.1
given
2
3
nQ If Manning
AR = coefficient is given
So
…. 2.2
EXAMPLE 2.3

Water flows uniformly at 10 m3/s in a

rectangular channel with a base width of
6.0 m, and channel slope of 0.0001.
Manning’s coefficient, n is 0.013. Using
trial and error method find the normal
depth.
SOLUTION:
Given:-
Rectangular channel
Q = 10 m3/s
B = 6.0 m
So = 0.0001
n = 0.013
yo ???
 SOLUTION

From Manning formulae :-

23 nQ
AR =
So
2
By o 3 nQ
[By o ] =
Remember B + 2y o So
rectangular formulae
: 2
By o 3 nQ
A = Byo yo =
P = B + 2yo B + 2y o B So
2
6y o 3 (0.013)(10)
yo =
6 + 2y o (6) 0.0001
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

2
6y o 3
yo = 2.17
6 + 2y o

Solve using trial 0.826

and error method :-
2.260

Trial of yo Value in LHS

(m)
1.0 0.826
2.0 2.260 ≈ 2.17
1.9 2.100 (Right Hand Side equation)
1.94 2.167 OK!

Therefore, normal depth yo = 1.94 m

EXAMPLE 2.4

Water flows uniformly at 8.2 m3/s in a

trapezoidal channel with a base width of
3.2 m, sides slopes of 2:1 (H:V) and
channel slope of 0.0001. Manning’s
coefficient, n is 0.011. Using trial and
error method find the normal depth.
SOLUTION:
Given:-
Trapezoidal channel
Q = 8.2 m3/s z=2
B = 3.2 m
So = 0.0001
n = 0.011
yo ???
 SOLUTION

From Manning formulae :-

23 nQ
AR =
Remember trapezoidal So
formulae : 2
By o + zy o 2 3
nQ
A = Byo + zyo2 [ By o + zy o 2 ] =
P = B +2yo(1+z2)1/2 B + 2y o 1 + z 2 So
2
3 .2 y o + 2 y o 2 3
(0.011)(8.2)
[ 3 .2 y o + 2 y o ]
2
=
3 .2 + 2 y o 1 + 2 2 0.0001

2
3 .2 y o + 2 y o 2 3
[ 3 .2 y o + 2 y o 2 ] = 9.02
3 .2 + 2 y o 5
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

Solve using trial and error method :-

Trial
0.826of yo Value in LHS
2.260
(m)
1.0 4.01
2.0 16.132
1.5 8.92 ≈ 9.02
1.51 9.76 (Right Hand Side equation)
1.509 9.02 OK!

Therefore, normal depth yo = 1.509 m

EXAMPLE 2.5

Water flows uniformly at 2.5 m3/s in a

3.0 m diameter of circular channel with
channel slope of 0.0015. Manning’s
coefficient, n is 0.017. Using trial and
error method find the normal depth.

SOLUTION:
Given:-
Circular channel
Q = 2.5 m3/s
d = 3.0 m
So = 0.0015
n = 0.017
yo ???
SOLUTION

Our problem is θ :-
Is the water level inside the channel at above @
below its center ??? :-

r - yo α α
r θ
r
yo
SOLUTION

Assume first water level is below

the center of channel

Known that :-

θ = 180o 2α in degree

θ = π 2α in radian

In which :-
1 r yo For water level below
α = sin the center of circular
r

Therefore :-
1 r yo
θ = π 2 sin
r
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

23 nQ
AR =
So
0.826 2
2.260
D2 3

D2
(θ sin θ) nQ
(θ sin θ) 8 =
8 θr S0

5
2
D -1 r yo o 1 r yo 3
π - 2 sin - sin 180 2 sin
8 r r nQ
2 =
So
1 r yo 3
r π 2 sin
r
 SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

5
2
3 -1 1.5 y o o 1 1.5 y o 3
π - 2 sin - sin 180 2 sin
8 1.5 1.5
2 = 1.097
0.826
2.260 1 1.5 y o 3
1.5 π 2 sin
1.5

Solve using trial and error method :-

Trial of yo Value in LHS
(m)
1.0 1.399 ≈ 1.097
0.87 1.069 (Right Hand Side equation)
0.88 1.094 OK!

Therefore, normal depth yo = 0.88 m

 NORMAL DEPTH CALCULATION
.... Cont ‘
2nd APPROACH

GRAPHICAL METHOD

 Using previous equation ( Eq. 2.1 & 2.2) yo can

be solved by plotting graph (normal depth, yo
against section factor AR2/3)
EXAMPLE 2.6

Water flows uniformly at 10 m3/s in a

rectangular channel with a base width of
6.0 m, and channel slope of 0.0001.
Manning’s coefficient, n is 0.013. Using
graphical method find the normal depth.

SOLUTION:
Given:-
Rectangular channel
Q = 10 m3/s
B = 6.0 m
So = 0.0001
n = 0.013
yo ???
SOLUTION

Plot the graph normal depth, yo against section factor (AR2/3) with n
= 0.013, Q = 10 m3/s, B= 6.0 m and So = 0.0001 :-

A = By o
A = 6y o ……. (i)

P = B + 2y o
P = 6 + 2y o ……. (ii)

6y o
R= ……. (iii)
6 + 2y o
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘
Substitude (i – iii) into the following formula :-

23 nQ
AR =
So
23 ( 0.013 ) (10 )
0.826 AR = = 13.0
2.260 0.0001

Yo A P R AR2/3
(i) (ii) (iii)
0.0 0.00 6.00 0.00 0.00
0.5 3.00 7.00 0.43 1.71
1.0 6.00 8.00 0.75 4.95
1.5 9.00 9.00 1.00 9.00
2.0 12.00 10.00 1.20 13.55
2.5 15.00 11.00 1.36 18.45
3.0 18.00 12.00 1.50 23.59
3.5 21.00 13.00 1.62 28.91
4.0 24.00 14.00 1.71 34.38
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

From graph, normal depth yo = 1.94 m

 NORMAL DEPTH CALCULATION
.... Cont ‘ 3rd APPROACH
CHART METHOD
 Section factor, Zo is divided with B8/3 ( B = Channel width )
or d8/3 ( D = Channel diameter )
 Limited if channel is triangular
 Formula used :-

2
AR 3 nQ Rectangular &
=
8 8 Trapezoidal shape
B3 SoB 3 …. 2.3

2
AR 3 nQ
= Circular shape
8 8
do 3 Sodo 3 …. 2.4
 NORMAL DEPTH CALCULATION
.... Cont ‘

nQ
=
So B 8 3
Figure 2.4 : Determination of normal depth using chart method
EXAMPLE 2.7

Water flows through rectangular channel

at 10 m3/s having base width 6 m,
channel slope 0.0001 and Manning’s
coefficient 0.013. Find normal depth
using chart method ?
SOLUTION:
Given:-
Q = 10 m3/s
B =6m
So = 0.0001
n = 0.013

yo ???
SOLUTION

Find value at x - axis :-

2
AR 3 nQ
=
8 8
B3 So B 3

Consider at left side equation :-

nQ (0.013)(10)
=
8
(0.0001)(6)8 3
SoB 3

nQ
= 1.19 (value at x - axis)
8
SoB 3
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

Refer design chart (Figure 2.4), at value of :-

nQ yo
= 1.19 (x - axis) ; = 2.0 (y - axis)
8 B
SoB 3

Solve by substituting B = 6 m , hence normal depth, yo :-

yo
= 2.0
B
y o = ( 2.0)(6)

y o = 12.0 m
 NORMAL DEPTH CALCULATION

VERY WIDE CHANNEL

 Defined as rectangular channel (B >> 10yo)

 Sides of the channel immeasurable.
 Example of flow that occurs in a very wide channel , surface
runoff & flood phenomenea.
 When a graph is plotted :-
y
Note:
The bigger B, R will approach to y.

R
HENCE FOR A VERY WIDE
CHANNEL → R = yo .
B
 NORMAL DEPTH CALCULATION

DISCHARGE PER-UNIT WIDTH

 Used for rectangular channel only.

 From formulae :-

Q
q=
B
and known that :-
Q = AV
qB = (By o ).v

q = yo v
EXAMPLE 2.8

Water flows through a very wide

channel at a rate of 2.5m3/s.m having
base width of 6 m, channel slope is 0.005
and Manning’s coefficient 0.013. What is
the normal depth?
SOLUTION:
Given:-
q = 10 m3/s
B =6m
So = 0.005
n = 0.013

yo ???
SOLUTION

Using the following formulae :-

23 nQ
AR =
So
Remember for a
2 n(q.B ) very wide channel ;
[By o ][ ]yo 3 =
So R = yo
5 nq
y o3 =
So
3
nq 5
yo =
So
3
(0.013) (2.5) 5
yo =
0.005
yo = 0.63 m
 BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION

Shape that will be studied :

 Rectangular

 Trapezoidal

 Triangular
BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION

What
is
Effective Section
 BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION
.... Cont ‘
 BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION → Can convey Discharge
maximum (Qmax) or Hydraulic Radius maximum (Rmax) with
Wetted Perimeter minimum (Pmin)
 How it is derived ??? → P is differentiated from Manning
formula.

2
1
Q = AR3 So Note :
A, n & So value - fix
n
5
1 A3
Q= So
n 2
P3

∂P
Attempt to get Qmax → Pmin P min ⇒ =0
∂y
 BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION
.... Cont ‘

 Advantages of P minimum :

 Reduced flow friction

 Reduced construction cost

How to determine best effective section ???

Get P equation in ∂P ∂P
=0
y value ∂y ∂y
.... Cont ‘ BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION

RECTANGULAR CHANNEL

A = By (i)
from (i);
A
B= (ii)
y
P = B + 2y (iii)
Substitude (ii) into (iii):
A
P = + 2y or P = Ay-1 + 2y
y
Differentiate P against y:

dP - A
= 2 +2=0
dy y
A = 2y2 ……. (iv)
.... Cont ‘ BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION

RECTANGULAR CHANNEL

Substitude (i) into (iv) at LHS :

By = 2y2 B = 2y ……. (v)

maka;
Substitude (v) into (iii):
P = 2y + 2y
P = 4y
Known that R = A/P
2y 2 y
R= R= ……. (vi)
4y 2
.... Cont ‘ BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION

TRAPEZOIDAL CHANNEL

P = B + 2y 1 + z 2 (i)
T = B + 2zy (ii)
A = By + zy 2 (iii)
from (iii);
A
B = - zy (iv)
y
Eq.(iv) is put into (i):
A
P= zy + 2y 1 + z 2
y
Differentiate P against y and yield to:
.... Cont ‘ BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION

TRAPEZOIDAL CHANNEL

T = 2L 4y 3
2 T=
A=y 3 3
P = 2y 3 y
R=
2
1
z=
3
.... Cont ‘ BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION

TRIANGULAR CHANNEL

In brief, BES for triangular can be derived through :

2
P = 2y 1 + Z
Differentiate P against z, dp/dz = 0 eventually:

z =1 A=y 2

P = 2y 2
y 2
R=
T = 2y 4
 BEST EFFECTIVE SECTION
.... Cont ‘
To sum up …. (this formula need to remember !!)

AREA WETTED HYDRAULIC TOP WIDTH

SHAPE PERIMETER RADIUS
(A) (P) (R) (T)

2 y
Rectangular 2y 4y 2y
2

y 2
Triangular y2 2y 2 2y
4

2
y 4y 3
Trapezoidal y 3 2y 3
2 3

z = 1/ 3 For another z or sides slope angle use this formula

@ θ = 60°°
B = 2y 1 + z 2 − 2zy to get new A value
EXAMPLE 2.9

Water flows 14.5 m3/s inside trapezoidal

channel having channel slope 0.002 and
Manning’s coefficient 0.017. Find the best
effective section for this channel.

SOLUTION:
Given:-
Q = 3.45 m3/s
Sides angle = 45°° → ∴ z = 1
So = 1 : 1200
n = 0.014
B ?? ... y ??
SOLUTION

 Characteristics of best effective section (BES) for trapezoidal

shape ( z = 1) Cannot use normal BES trapezoidal formula :-
y
A ??? R=
2

 Find A from this formula :

A = By + zy 2 …. (i)

 Find B by substitute z = 1 into the following formula:

2
B = 2y 1 + z − 2zy This formula is derived
from T = 2L
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

B = 2y 1 + z 2 − 2zy

B = 2y 1 + 12 − ( 2)(1)( y )
B = 0.8284y …. (ii)

 Substitute B = 0.8284y into (i)

A = By + zy 2
A = (0.8284y )( y ) + (1)( y 2 )
A = 1.8284y 2

 Therefore BES (trapezoidal) characteristics

for z = 1 are:-
y
A = 1.8284y 2 R =
2
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

 Using this equation :

23 nQ
AR =
So … (iii)

 Substitute A & R best effective formula (trapezoidal)

into (iii) :

2
[ 1.8284y ]
2 y  3 nQ
 2  = S
o
 2
 3
2  (0.014) (3.45)
8  
y3 =  
1
(1.8284)
1200
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

Therefore :

y = 1.150 m

Known that :

B = 0.8284y
B = (0.8284)(1.150)

B = 0.953 m
TIME’S UP …

THANK YOU