IR Part II

International Relations Shakoor Kakar
CSS 2016
Syllabus and Contents (Paper II; 100 Marks)
I. International Relation between two Wars
II. Cold War Page 39 VU

and Africa.
III. Post Cold War
IV. International and Regional Organizations VU page 53

, NAFTA,
SAARC, SCO, OIC, ECO, WTO.
V. Foreign Policy of Selected Countries

sia, China, UK, India, Pakistan and EU
VI. South Asia

-making and Peace-Building in South Asia: Analytical overview of peace processes between/among the
states of South Asia especially between India and Pakistan.
greements and accords, Indus Water Treaty; Composite Dialogue; Sir Creek &
Siachen border, Visa and People to people contact; Trade; and Role of civil society.
tion---Rise of
Taliban, AL-Qeada & 9/11; Operation Enduring Freedom; The Bonn Process - Withdrawal
VII. Weapons of Mass Destruction
- Programs and Postures: Indian-Pakistan Nuclear Doctrines

ear Non –Proliferation Regime: International Atomic Energy Agency, Nuclear Non -proliferation Treaty;
Nuclear Supplier Group; Partial Test Ban Treaty; Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty; Fissile Material Cut -off Treaty
-Proliferation, Nuclear Civil Deal Regime
VIII. Contemporary Issues
alestine Issue
Shakoor Kakar
sh_kakar77@yahoo.com
2
CSS IR Part II: By Shakoor Kakar
Chapter One: International Relation between Two Wars

1. Russian Revolution,
2. Fascism
3. League of Nations,
4. Second World War
Background
The First World War (also known as the Great War) began between European states on European batt lefields, but
extended across the globe. It was the first modern, industrialized total war, as the belligerents mobilized their
populations and economies as well as their armies, and as they endured enormous casualties over many years. The
Great War brought the demise of four European empires: Russian, German, Austro -Hungarian and Ottoman (in
Turkey)
Since 1900 world politics has been transformed in a variety of ways, reflecting political, technological, and
ideological developments, of which three are examined in this chapter: (1) the transition from European crises to
modern, industrialized total war; (2) the end of empire and the withdrawal of European countries from their imperial
acquisitions; and (3) the cold war: the political and military and nuclear confrontation between the United States and
the Soviet Union. the three principal changes outlined above provide a framework for exploring events and trends
that have shaped international politics and the world we now inhabit.
How the first war Began?
The heir to the Habsburg throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863–1914), visited Sarajevo in Bosnia, a radical
Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip (1894–1918) attacked and assassinated the archduke and his wife.
Austria was outraged and blamed Serbia, claiming that Serbia had supported the terrorist organization known as the
Black Hand. Austria had already been leaning toward challenging Serbian nationalism, and this provided the perfect
opportunity.
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Germany had already thrown its support behind Austria
by issuing the infamous ―blank check,‖ promising Austria that they would provide any financial or other support for
Austria in the case of war. Germany and Austria both knew that Russia was an ally of Serbia and would likely enter
the fray.
In response, Russia mobilized its forces. Germany then issued an ultimatum to Russia to stand down. On August 1,
Germany declared war on Russia. Since France was an ally of Russia, Germany declared war on France two days
later. Britain warned Germany that if it invaded neutral Belgium to get at France, Britain would be forced to
retaliate.
Ignoring the warnings, Germany invaded Belgium, and Britain declared war on Germany on August 4. Over the
next 10 days , Austria declared war on Russia, and France and Britain declared war on Austria. Italy declared it
would remain neutral.
In less than a month, the belligerent Germany and Austria dragged an entire continent into war. During the war the
two sides were The Triple Entente or the Allies, Britain, France, Russia, and later Italy and the United States. And
the Central Powers, including Germany, Austria-the belligerent Germany and Austria-Hungary, and later Turkey
and Bulgaria.
Shakoor Kakar
3
1. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia
Introduction
The Bolsheviks and Mensheviks emerged as rival factions within the Russian Social Democratic Labor party, a
Marxist organization, at its 1903 congress in Brussels and London. Leninʹs followers, who gained a short ‐lived
ascendancy in 1903, became known as Bolsheviks (majority), and Martovʹs backers were dubbed Mensheviks
(minority). The Mensheviks adhered to the belief of veteran revolutionary Georgy PLEKHANOV that a bourgeois ‐
led, democratic revolution bringing Russia into the capitalist era would have to precede the socialist revolution.
Lenin, on the other hand, argued that a revolution of workers and peasants, if properly led, could establish socialism
in one stage. The two factions finally split into separate parties in 1912. The Bolsheviks, however, gained control of
key workersʹ soviets (councils) and toppled the provisional government in November (October, O.S.) 1917.
White Army: Between 1918 and 1922 the Bolsheviks were confronted with civil war, intervention by foreign
troops, and terrible famine. ʺWhiteʺ armies of soldiers loyal to the czar challenged the Bolshevik ʺRedʺ armies.
NEP: A program allowing limited capitalism, the New Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced in the USSR by V.I.
LENIN in 1921 to alleviate the economic failings and political discontent. for forced collectivization of agriculture
and rapid industrialization.
Leon Trosky: He was second only to Vladimir Ilich LENIN. A charismatic orator and superb tactician, he was also
a brilliant theorist whose writings greatly influenced socialist movements worldwide. His practical skills enabled
him to plan the Petrograd uprising in November 1917 and to create the Red Army that saved the Bolshevik regime
in the ensuing Civil War (1918‐20). But his fierce independence and aloofness prevented him from gaining broad
party support after Leninʹs death, in his unsuccessful struggle for power with Joseph STALIN.
STALIN
Following the successful November Revolution, Stalin was appointed to seemingly mundane administrative posts
such as commissar of nationalities (1917‐23) and commissar of workersʹ and peasantsʹ inspection (1919‐23), but in
1922, without fanfare, Stalin became general secretary of the p artyʹs Central Committee. Stalin became the
preeminent Soviet leader after the death of Vladimir I. LENIN in 1924. From 1929 until his own death in 1953,
Stalin held absolute authority. Outwardly modest and unassuming and intellectually unimpressive, he ap plied a
shrewd, practical intelligence to political organization and manipulation. Because he rarely appeared to be what he
was, Stalin was consistently underestimated by his opponents, who usually became his victims. He brought his
country to world power status but imposed upon it one of the most ruthless regimes in history.
World War II Leadership
In world affairs, Stalin began to fear the growing power of Nazi Germany. After abortive attempts to reach an
accord with the Western democracies, he concluded (1939) a nonaggression treaty with Hitler. After Germany
invaded Poland at the start of World War II, Stalin acted to expand Soviet influence in Europe by occupying eastern
Poland and attacking Finland. The nonaggression pact with Germany, however, proved short‐lived when German
troops invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.
Shakoor Kakar
4
Last Years
In 1945, Stalin was at the height of his power and prestige, regarded as his countryʹs savior by millions of his
subjects. The period between 1945 and his death in 1953, however, saw a new wave of repression and some of
Stalinʹs worst excesses. Returned prisoners of war were incarcerated in concentration camps. New duties on peasants
reduced many to the status of serfs, and his imposition of Communist regimes on Eastern European nations helped
create the perilous climate of the COLD WAR. Stalin now turned on many of his closest associates. In early 1953 he
announced that he had uncovered a plot among the Kremlinʹs corps of doctors; new arrests seemed imminent, and
many feared another great purge. Stalin suddenly died, however, on Mar. 5, 1953. Stalinʹs reputation declined in the
USSR after Nikita KHRUSHCHEV revealed many of Stalinʹs crimes in 1956.
Analyses
The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in November 1917 took that country out of World War I and, in many respects,
also took it out of Europe and launched it on a bold experiment: building a communist state based on the ideas of
Karl Marx. The impact of the 1917 Russian Revolution was at least as great as that of the French Revolu tion of 1789
in terms of both its domestic consequences and its international implications. The year 1917, like 1789, was one of
great political, social, and economic revolution. Also, like their French counterparts, the Russian revolutionaries
claimed that their ideology was transcendent and universal, and they fully believed that the revolution in Russia
would be the spark to ignite revolutions throughout the world.
The communist ideology of the new Russia was both anti-capitalist and atheistic, so the Western governments,
especially the United States, feared and distrusted it. The U.S. government hoped and expected that the communist
regime in Russia would fail and refused to extend diplomatic recognition to the new government until 1933. The
fear and hostility between Russia and the West were intensified by the communists‘ stated desire to spread
communism elsewhere in the world, including into Western Europe and the United States. These tensions were
muted somewhat during the interwar years because both the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR), the new name for the communist state, were focused on internal, rather than international, issues,
and then during World War II because of their common alliance against Hitler‘s Germany. But with the end of
World War II and the emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as the world‘s two superpowers, those
tensions reemerged and dominated international politics during the Cold War.
Much of the cold war antagonism between the Soviet Union and the United States can be traced back to this episode
in the history of American and European foreign policy.
Shakoor Kakar
5
2. Fascism
Fascism is a political system in which the state has all the power. All citizens must work for the country and the
government. A dictator or another powerful person is the head of such a state. He uses a strong army and a police
force to keep law and order. He is often a strong, authoritarian leader who is, at the beginning, admired by many
people. Fascism first appeared after World War I when Benito Mussolini came to power in Italy. In Germany of the
1930s Adolf Hitler‘s National Socialism rose to power. Fascism also appeared in Japan, Spain and Argentina.
Fascist leaders want to make their state strong and powerful. They claim that only the strongest and fittest in the
population can survive. With the help of a strong army they go to war and expand their territory. There is no
freedom of speech.
Causes of Fascism
Fascism became a strong movement during the first part of the 20th century for many reasons. Most states had no
experience with democracy because they were ruled by a king or queen. After World War I many people were
disappointed and angry because the war destroyed a lot of their country or because some of their land was taken
away from them.
Background
In the 1920s and 1930s, a worldwide economic depression caused many people to lose faith in democracy and
capitalism. Extreme ideals arose. Communists celebrated what they saw as the failure of capitalism. Strong le aders
arose who supported intense nationalism, militarism, and a return to authoritarian rule. Fascism emerged in
Germany and Italy.
Fascist states were characterized by:
1. Blind loyalty to a leader

2. Use of violence and terror
3. Strong military
4. Censorship and government control of news
5. Extreme nationalism
6. State control of the economy
7. Strict discipline
8. Rule by dictator
MUSSOLINI IN ITALY
Italians were not satisfied with the way other countries treated them after World War I. Italy was in trouble after
WWI. Treaties had given away land that the Italians had expected to control. In addition, many war veterans could
not find jobs. Trade was slow, taxes were high, and many workers were on strike. Benito Mussolini took advantage
of the unrest, gathering a following of war veterans and other unhappy Italians. He called his group the Fascist Party
and pledged to solve the nation‘s problems, strengthen Italy and gain more land for Italy. He also vowed to outlaw
rebellion among workers and get rid of communism.
He created his own private army with their own uniforms. Mussolini‘s followers were aggressive and started fights
with other citizens and regular soldiers in the streets. Finally, in 1922 Mussolini became dictator of Italy.
On Oct. 28, 1922, after the Fascists had marched on Rome, Mussolini secured a mandate from King VICTOR
EMMANUEL III to form a coalition government. In 1925‐26, after a lengthy crisis with the parliament following
the assassination of the Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti, he imposed a single‐party, totalitarian dictatorship. They
ended free elections, free speech, and the free press. They killed or jailed their enemies. Grasping desperately for
order, Italians put the goals of the state above their individual rights.
Shakoor Kakar
6
His policies
In the mid‐1930s, Mussolini turned to an aggressive foreign policy, conquering (1935‐36) Ethiopia and helping
General Francisco FRANCO in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR. Rapprochement (1936) with Hitlerʹs Germany was
expanded into a military alliance (1939). In April 1939, Mussolini rashly ordered his armies to occupy Albania.
However, he kept Italy out of World War II until June 1940, when the fall of France was imminent and the Germans
seemed to be winning the war.
Decline
After a series of Italian military disasters in Greece and North Africa, the leaders of his party abandoned Mussolini.
The king dismissed him on July 25, 1943, and had him arrested. But on September 12 the Germans rescued him,
making him puppet head of a government in northern Italy. In April 1945, Mussolini and his mistress, Clara Petacci,
tried to flee advancing Allied forces. Captured by Italian partisans at Lake Como, they were shot on April 28 and
their bodies were hung in a public square in Milan. Mussolini was later buried at Predappio, his birthplace. Although
popular with most Italians until the late 1930s, Il Duce (ʺthe leaderʺ) lost their support when he dragged his country
into a war it was unprepared to fight. Few expressed regret over either the overthrow of fascism or his death.
HITLER IN GERMANY
After WWI, the Kaiser stepped down. Germany was in chaos. A new democratic government, the Weimer Republic,
was blamed for agreeing to the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Inflation (high prices, low wages) created
major economic problems. The troubles of the time led to Nazi rise to power.
The abortive Communist revolution in Germany and the dictated Peace of Versailles determined Hitlerʹs decision to
enter politics. In 1919 he joined a small political faction in Munich and within the next year formed the National
Socialist German Workersʹ party (NSDAP). He directed the organization with an iron hand and us ed its meetings to
deliver forceful rhetorical assaults on Germanyʹs ʺenemies.ʺ In 1923 he led the party into the ill‐fated MUNICH
PUTSCH. This action resulted in his imprisonment. While in prison at Landsberg, Hitler wrote MEIN KAMPF,
which became the standard work of Nazi political philosophy.
The National Socialist Workers‘ Party became powerful. By 1933 the Nazis were the strongest party in Germany.
Their leader, Adolf Hitler, dissolved parliament, took over power and made Germany a fascist state. In t he following
years he built up a strong police force and the largest army in Europe.
Adolf Hitler promised to provide jobs and rebuild German pride. He stated that the Germans were a superior race
who was destined to build a new empire. In 1933, Hitler was appointed chancellor. Hitler was called the Fuehrer.
He claimed that the German people were better, stronger and more intelligent than any other people. Other groups,
especially Jews and Romanies were considered to be inferior. Hitler believed that Germany could survive only if it
got rid of these weak people. In the course of the war the Nazis killed over 6 million Jews and invaded most
countries in Europe. When Germany was defeated in 1945 the fascist government fell apart.
Totalitarian State
Hitler‘s Germany, called the Third Reich was a totalitarian state. He built a one-party government, ended civil
rights, silenced his enemies with force, put businesses under government control, and employed many people in
large works programs. Germany‘s standard of living rose. Hitler rearmed Germany and built its military which
violated the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler used the Jews as a scapegoat for Germany‘s problems. He instituted anti-
Semitic policies. He used education and the arts as propaganda tools to pu sh these policies. At first, Nazis organized
boycotts of Jewish businesses, but by 1938 they were seizing the property and businesses of Jews and selling them
to non-Jews. The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 took away the political rights and German citizenship of Jews. Few
German citizens worried about Hitler‘s policies. Most were pleased at the growth of German pride and Germany‘s
increased military and economic power.
Shakoor Kakar
7
Totalitarianism in Nazi Germany

i. Propaganda
The government controlled all sources of information – newspapers, radio, movies, and books. Schools taught Nazi
ideas and children joined the Hitler Youth. Forbidden books were burned. Goebbels Propaganda minister adroitly
orchestrated themes that were synchronized with Hitlerʹs successes in both domes tic and foreign affairs.
ii. Lack of Civil Liberties

Only the Nazi Party was allowed and rival political parties were outlawed. The Gestapo (secret police) arrested and
executed people without a trial.
iii. Anti-Semitism
Jews lost their property and citizenship. Their shops and synagogues were destroyed. They were forced to wear a
yellow Star of David on their clothing. They were moved to ghettos and concentration camps.
iv. Economic Controls

Agricultural and industrial production was controlled. Labor unions and strikes were outlawed. Germans were put to
work building public works and weapons. They were drafted into the military.
HITLER‟S FOREIGN POLICY

Hitlerʹs foreign‐policy goals were spelled out in Mein Kampf:
i. To overturn the Versailles settlement and unite all Germans in a single Greater Germany,
ii. To destroy Bolshevism,
iii. And to conquer and colonize Eastern Europe.
At first he proceeded cautiously. He withdrew Germany from the League of Nations as early as October 1933, but
he offset criticism by repeated declarations of his peaceful intentions and by concluding a series of bilateral
agreements, including a nonaggression pact with Poland (1934). As the indecisiveness of his opponents became
clear, Hitler acted more forcefully. In March 1935 he announced the rearmament of Germany in open violation of
the Treaty of Versailles. He was rewarded by Britainʹs concurrence in the form of an Anglo ‐German Naval Pact
(June 1935). The following year, without warning, he remilitarized the Rhineland, and France remained immobile.
The two major European democracies, fearful of war, seemed set on the course of appeasement.
Bolstered by the formation (1936) of the Rome‐Berlin AXIS and the Anti‐Comintern Pact with Japan, Hitler
outlined his war plans to the German military leaders in a secret meeting in November 1937. Several of them
objected and were promptly dismissed.
In March 1938 he annexed Austria (the Anschluss). Britain and France joined Italy in signing the Sudetenland over
to Germany.
In March 1939, German troops completed the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. After Hitler took Czechoslovakia,
Britain and France finally mobilized their troops. Belatedly, Britain and France moved to guarantee Polandʹs
integrity.
Nazi soviet Pact 1939: In the Nazi‐Soviet Pact of Aug. 23, 1939, a vehemently anti‐Communist Germany shocked
the world by coming to terms with the USSR, a necessary preliminary to Hitlerʹs imminent attack on Poland. The
Soviets, having failed to achieve a working relationship with Britain and France, chose to make a deal with Nazi
Germany instead.
Invasion of Poland: Britain advised Germany that Poland would receive British assistance if Hitler invaded.
Nevertheless, Hitler invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, and took it in just four weeks using a style of warfare
known as the blitzkrieg, or lightning war. The invasion of Poland generally marks the beginning of the war
Shakoor Kakar
8
He was surprised but prepared when France and Britain declared war on September 3. The pact with the USSR
provided him the opportunity to crush his enemies in the west piecemeal. The real fighting began in 1940 with the
Nazi takeover of Denmark and Norway, followed by the much-anticipated invasion of Belgium and France.
Attack on USSR. In June 1941, Hitler cast aside the Nazi‐Soviet Pact and invaded the USSR, as he had always
planned. He was rewarded with several major victories in classic battles of encirclement. The Soviets, however,
turned the tide‐‐first at Moscow (December 1941) and later at Stalingrad (winter 1942‐43). Moreover, in December
1941, the United States‐‐a factor that Hitler had barely considered‐‐entered the war.
Battle of Stalingrad: Stalingrad, now VOLGOGRAD, in the USSR, was the site of a critical WORLD WAR II
Soviet victory that reversed Germanyʹs advance to the east. On November 19, Soviet forces under Gen. Georgy
Zhukov attacked north and south of the city, encircling the Germans, who finally surrendered on Feb. 2, 1943.
Soviet losses were 750,000 troops, whereas Germany and its allies lost 850,000.
Turning of the table against Germany: By mid‐1943, Hitlerʹs time of trial had begun. The bloody retreat from
Russia had commenced, North Africa was lost, his Italian ally Benito MUSSOLINI had fallen, and German cities
were being demolished by Allied bombing. In June 1944 the Allies landed on the coast of France, opening the long ‐
awaited second front. Hitler was the victim of an assassination attempt by a group of his own officers on July 20,
1944, but he miraculously survived. A physical wreck, he became increasingly bitter and isolated.
With German defenses crumbling in the east and west, Hitler finally realized that his fate was sealed. Having
appointed Adm. Karl DOENITZ as his successor and married his long ‐time companion Eva BRAUN, he committed
suicide in Berlin on Apr. 30, 1945. This signaled the disintegration of the Third Reich and the end of the Fascist era.
FASCISM IN OTHER COUNTRIES

Japan
The situation in Japan was similar. The economy was in bad condition and people had little to eat. Many Japane se
wanted the military to take over the government and Japan to be a strong country again. In the 1930s Japan started
expanding its power. It hated other Asian countries and wanted all of Asia under Japanese control.
Spain
Spain was another fascist country in Europe. General Franco led a nationalist movement in the Spanish Civil War, in
which he got help from Italy and Germany. After winning the war Franco became dictator of Spain and ruled the
country until he died in 1975.
Argentina
In Argentina Juan Peron led a fascist movement that lasted for a decade and in Chile a military group under the
command of Augusto Pinochet held on to power for almost two decades.
NEO FASCISM
Although fascist parties were forbidden in many counties after World War II fascis m wasn‘t completely dead. Neo-
fascist groups have emerged throughout the world. Their members have different views of the values of society.
They want strict anti-immigration laws. Foreigners should leave the country.
The police should have more rights. There should be more law and order in a country. Neo-fascists do not want
relations with other countries.
Neo-fascist movements perform acts of violence and are sometimes involved in terrorist attacks but they are too
small to start a wide-scale rebellion in a state.
Shakoor Kakar
9
3. Second World War
The German invasion of Poland in 1939 set off World War II. Two competing alliances, the Axis and the Allies,
faced off in Europe, Africa, and the Pacific.
 In 1939, construction began on Nazi concentration camps to kill Jews and members of other groups.
 After his moves into the Rhineland (March 1936), Austria (March 1938), and Czechoslovakia (September
1938 and March 1939), the Führer turned his eyes to Poland. On April 28, 1939, Hitler spoke before the
Reichstag. He demanded that the Polish Corridor, along with its port city of Danzig, be returned to
Germany..
10-year nonaggression pact
Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin signed a 10-year nonaggression pact with Hitler on August 23.
Hitler hated communism, as Stalin despised fascism. Nonetheless, Hitler did not want to fight both the Allies and
the Soviet Union. And Stalin wanted to keep his country out of a costly European war.
In the public part of the pact, Germany and the Soviet Union promised not to attack each other. Se cretly, however,
they agreed that they would divide Poland between them. They also secretly agreed that the USSR could take over
Finland and the Baltic countries (Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia).
Fall of Poland
Hitler attacked Poland France and great Britain declared war on Germany on September 3. After his victory, Hitler
annexed the western half of Poland. That region had a large German population.
On September 17, after his secret agreement with Hitler, Stalin sent Soviet troops to occupy the eastern half of
Poland. Stalin then began annexing the regions in the second part of the agreement. Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia
fell without a struggle, but Finland resisted. In November 1939, Stalin sent nearly 1 million Soviet troops into
Finland.
The Phony War
For almost seven months after the fall of Poland, there was a strange calm in the land fighting in Europe. After their
declaration of war, the French and British had mobilized their armies. They stationed their troops along the Maginot
(MAZH•uh•noh) Line. There they waited for Germans to attack—but nothing happened. Both stared each other for
seven months ―the phony war.‖
The Holocaust Begins: 1938, 17-year-old Herschel Grynszpan (GRIHN•shpahn), a Jewish youth from Germany,
was visiting an uncle in Paris. When he came to know that after living in Germany for 27 years, his father had been
deported to his native Poland. On November 7, wishing to avenge his father‘s deportation, Grynszpan shot an
employee of the German Embassy in Paris. When Nazi leaders heard the news, they launched a violent attack on the
Jewish community.
The ―Final Solution‖ officially reached its final stage in early 1942. At that time, the Nazis built extermination
camps equipped with gas chambers for mass murder. The Nazis built the first six death camps in Poland. Six million
Jews died in the death camps and in Nazi massacres . Fewer than 4 million European Jews survived the horrors of the
Holocaust.
Shakoor Kakar
10
Fall of Denmark and Norway
Suddenly, on April 9, 1940, the phony war ended. Hitler laun ched a surprise invasion of Denmark and Norway. He
planned to build bases along the Norwegian and Danish coasts to strike at Great Britain. In just four hours after the
attack, Denmark fell. Two months later, Norway surrendered as well.
Fall of France
In May of 1940, Hitler began a dramatic sweep through Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg. This was part of a
strategy to strike at France. Keeping the Allies‘ attention on those countries, Hitler then sent an even larger force of
tanks and troop trucks to slice through the Ardennes (ahr•DEHN). This was a heavily wooded area in northeastern
France and Luxembourg.
France seemed doomed to defeat. On June 10, sensing a quick victory, Italy‘s Benito Mussolini joined forces with
Hitler and declared war on both Great Britain and France. Italy then attacked France from the south. By June 14,
Paris had fallen to the Germans . Nazi troops marched triumphantly down the city‘s main boulevard. After France
fell, a French general named Charles de Gaulle (duh GOHL) fled to London . There, he set up a government-in-exile
committed to reconquering France.
Invasion of Great Britain
Hitler now turned his mind to an invasion of Great Britain. His plan—Operation Sea Lion—was first to knock out
the Royal Air Force (RAF) and then to land 250,000 soldiers on England‘s shores. Germany‘s air force, began
bombing Great Britain.
Two secret weapons helped turn the tide in their favor. One was an electronic tracking system known as radar.
Developed in the late 1930s, radar could tell the number, speed, and direction of incoming warplanes. The other was
a German code-making machine named Enigma. With Enigma in their possession, the British had German secret
messages open to them. With information gathered by these devices, RAF fliers could quickly get to their airplanes
and inflict deadly harm on the enemy.
 The Battle of Britain continued until May 10, 1941. Stunned by British resistance, Hitler decided to call off
his attacks. The Battle of Britain had ended. And, from it, the Allies had learned a crucial lesson: Hitler‘s
advances could be blocked.
INVASION OF USSR (Eastern Front)
Instead, he turned his attention east to the Balkans and the Mediterranean area —and to the ultimate prize, the Soviet
Union.
 Meanwhile within a week, Italian troops had pushed 60 miles inside Egypt, forcing British units back. Then
both sides dug in and waited. in December, the British decided to strike back. The result was a disaster for
the Italians. By February 1941, the British had swept 500 miles across North Africa. They had taken
130,000 Italian prisoners. Hitler had to step in to save his Axis partner.
As early as the summer of 1940, Hitler had begun planning to attack his ally, the USSR, by the following spring.
The Balkan countries of southeastern Europe were key to Hitler‘s invasion plan.
Fall of Yugoslavia and Greece
Shakoor Kakar
11
In the face of overwhelming German strength, Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary cooperated by joining the Axis
powers in early 1941. Yugoslavia and Greece, which had pro - British governments, resisted. On Sunday, April 6,
1941, Hitler invaded both countries. Yugoslavia fell in 11 days. Greece surrendered in 17. In Athens, the Nazis
celebrated their victory by raising swastikas on the Acropolis.
 June 22, 1941, the roar of German tanks and aircraft announced the beginning of the blitzkrieg invasion.
The Soviet Union was not prepared for this attack. With its 5 million men, the Red Army was the largest in
the world. But it was neither well equipped nor well trained. He called that plan Operation Barbarossa.
Battle of Leningrad
As the Russians retreated, they burned and destroyed everything in the enemy‘s path. Russians had used this same
strategy against Napoleon. By September 8, Germans had surrounded Leningrad and isolated the city from the rest
of the world.
More than 1 million people died in Leningrad that terrible winter. Yet the city refused to fall.
Turning point of WW II
Seeing that Leningrad would not surrender, Hitler looked to Moscow, the capital and heart of the Soviet Union. A
Nazi drive on the capital began on October 2, 1941.
 By December, the Germans had advanced to the outskirts of Moscow. Soviet General Georgi Zhukov
(ZHOO•kuhf) counterattacked. As temperatures fell, the Germans, in summer uniforms, retreated. Their
fuel and oil froze. Tanks, trucks, and weapons became useless. Ignoring Napoleon‘s winter defeat 130
years before, the Führer sent his generals a stunning order: ―No retreat! They held the line against the
Soviets until March 1943. Nonetheless, Moscow had been saved and had cost the Germans 500,000 lives.
Entry of USA
Between 1935 and 1937, Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts. The laws made it illegal to sell arms or lend
money to nations at war. But President Roosevelt knew that if the Allies fell, the United States would be drawn into
the war. In September 1939, he persuaded Congress to allow the Allies to buy American arms.
On September 4, a German U-boat suddenly fired on a U.S. destroyer in the Atlantic. Roosevelt ordered navy
commanders to respond. They were to shoot German submarines on sight. The Unite States was now involved in an
undeclared naval war with Hitler. To almost everyone‘s surprise, however, the attack that actually drew the United
States into the war did not come from Germany. It came from Japan.
Japan
Like Hitler, Japan‘s military leaders also had dreams of empire. Japan was overcrowded and faced shortages of raw
materials. To solve these problems — and to encourage nationalism—the Japanese began a program of empire
building that would lead to war. Japan overrun China and Indochina an area now made up by Vietnam, Cambodia,
and Laos.
By August 1940, Americans had cracked a Japanese secret code. They were well aware of Japanese plans for
Southeast Asia. If Japan conquered European colonies there, it could also threaten the American controlled
Philippine Islands and Guam. To stop the Japanese advance, the U.S. government sent aid to strengthen Chinese
resistance.
Shakoor Kakar
12
Early in the morning of December 7, 1941, American sailors at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii awoke to the roar of
explosives. Within two hours, the Japanese had sunk or damaged 18 ships, including battleships —nearly the whole
U.S. Pacific fleet. Some 2,400 Americans were killed—with more than 1,000 wounded. News of the attack stunned
the American people. The next day, Congress declared war on Japan.
In January 1942, the Japanese marched into the Philippine capital of Manila. The Japanese also hit the British,
seizing Hong Kong and invading Malaya. By February 1942, the Japanese had reached Singapore. After a fierce
pounding, the colony surrendered. By March, the Japanese had conquered the resource -rich Dutch East Indies (now
Indonesia), After Malaya, the Japanese took Burma,
By the time Burma fell, Japan had conquered more than 1 million square miles of land with about 150 million
people. According to the centuries -old warrior code called Bushido, a Japanese soldier must commit suicide, or hari-
kari, rather than surrender. So Japanese soldiers had contempt for Allied prisoners of war.
In April 1942, the United States wanted revenge for Pearl Harbor. So the United States sent 16 B-25 bombers under
the command of Lieutenant Colonel James H. Doolittle to bomb Tokyo and other major Japanese citie s. The bombs
did little damage.
The Battle of Midway Japan next targeted Midway Island, west of Hawaii. The island was home to a key American
airfield. American pilots destroyed 332 Japanese planes, all four aircraft carriers, an one support ship. Yamamoto
ordered his crippled fleet to withdraw. By June 6, 1942, the battle was over. One Japanese official commented, ―The
Americans had avenged Pearl Harbor.‖ The Battle of Midway had also turned the tide of war in th e Pacific against
the Japanese.
General Douglas MacArthur was commander of the Allied land forces in the Pacific. In Feb ruary 1943, after six
months of fighting on land and at sea, the Battle of Guadalcanal finally ended. After losing 23,000 men out of
36,000, the Japanese abandoned the island they came to call ―the Island of Death.‖
Germany‘s victories slowed considerably during 1942. The United States had entered the war, boosting t he Allies‘
morale and strength.
Churchill urged that Britain and the United States strike first at North Africa and southern Europe. The strategy
angered Stalin. He wanted the Allies to open the second front in France.
On July 20, 1944, a plot to assassinate Hitler by a group of German officers failed. Under torture, one conspirator
accused war hero General Erwin Rommel of involvement in the plot. However, many believe that he knew nothing
of the plot. Hitler believed that he did. He offered Rommel a choice—a public trial or suicide and a state funeral. On
October 14, 1944, Rommel took poison and died.
The Battle of Stalingrad
Turning Point at Stalingrad: On February 2, 1943, some 90,000 frostbitten, half-starved German troops surrendered
to the Soviets. These pitiful survivors were all that remained of an army of 330,000. Stalingrad‘s defense had cost
the Soviets over 1 million soldiers. The city they defended was 99 percent destroyed.
Mussolini toppled
On July 10, 1943, Allied forces of 180,000 soldiers landed on Sicily and captured it from Italian and German troops
by August. The conquest of Sicily toppled Mussolini from power. On July 25, King Victor Emmanuel III fired the
dictator and had him arrested. On September 3, Italy surrendered.
Shakoor Kakar
13
But the Germans seized control of northern Italy and put Mussolini back in charge. Finally, the Germans retreated
northward, and the victorious Allies entered Rome on June 4, 1944.
On April 28, 1945, as the Germans were retreating from northern Italy, the Italian resistance ambushed some trucks.
Inside one of them, resistance fighters found Mussolini disguised as a German soldier. The following day, he was
shot, and his body was hanged in the Milan town square.
The D-Day: Battle of Normandy
By 1943, the Allies began secretly building a force in Great Britain. Their plan was to attack the Germans across the
English Channel. The D-Day Invasion By May 1944, the invasion force was ready.
Thousands of planes, ships, tanks, landing craft, and 3.5 million troops awaited orders to attack. American General
Dwight D. Eisenhower, the commander of this enormous force, planned to strike on the coast of Normandy, in
northwestern France. the invasion of Normandy was the greatest land and sea attack in history. The day chosen for
the invasion to begin—called D-Day—was June 6, 1944.
Despite heavy casualties, the Allies held the beachheads. A month later, more than 1 million additional troops had
landed. On July 25, the Allies punched a hole in the German defenses. Soon, the Germans were retreating. On
August 25, the Allies marched triumphantly into Paris. By September, they had liberated France, Belgium,
Luxembourg, and much of the Netherlands. They then set their sights on Germany.
The Battle of the Bulge: Last Shots of Germans to save their homelands
As Allied forces moved toward Germany from the west, the Soviet army was advancing toward Germany from the
east. Hitler now faced a war on two fronts. In a desperate gamble, the Führer d ecided to counterattack in the west.
After the Battle of the Bulge, the war in Europe neared its end. By the middle of April, a noose was closing around
Berlin. Three million Allied soldiers approached Berlin from the southwest. Six million Soviet troops a pproached
from the east—some of them just 40 miles from the capital.
The end of Hitler: The end of Drama
While Soviet shells burst over Berlin, Hitler prepared for his end in an underground headquarters beneath the
crumbling city. On April 29, he married his long-time companion, Eva Braun. He also wrote his final address to the
German people. In it, he blamed Jews for starting the war and his generals for losing it. ―I myself and my wife
choose to die in order to escape the disgrace of . . . capitulation,‖ he said. ―I die with a happy heart aware of the
immeasurable deeds of our soldiers at the front.‖ Two days later, Hitler shot himself after taking poison. His new
wife simply swallowed poison. The bodies were then carried outside and burned.
On May 7, 1945, General Eisenhower accepted the unconditional surrender of the Third Reich from the German
military. President Roosevelt, however, did not live to witness the long -awaited victory.
He had died suddenly on April 12, as Allied armies were advancing toward Berlin. Roosevelt‘s successor, Harry
Truman, received the news of the Nazi surrender.
The Japanese Retreat By the fall of 1944, the Allies were moving in on Japan. Nevertheless, on June 22, the
bloodiest land battle of the war ended. The Japanese lost 110,000 troops, and the Americans, 12,500.
Atomic bomb:
Shakoor Kakar
14
The first atomic bomb was exploded in a desert in New Mexico on July 16, 1945. President Truman then warned the
Japanese. He told them that unless they surrendered, they could expect a ―rain of ruin from the air.‖ The Japanese
did not reply. So, on August 6, 1945, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, a Japanese city of
365,000 people. Almost 73,000 people died in the attack. Three days later, on August 9, a second bomb was dropped
on Nagasaki, a city of 200,000. It killed about 37,500 people.
On the morning of August 6, 1945, the B-29 bomber Enola Gay, flown by commander Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, Jr.,
took off from Tinian Island in the Mariana Islands. At precisely 8:16 A.M., the atomic bo mb exploded above
Hiroshima, a city on the Japanese island of Honshu.
The Japanese surrendered to General Douglas MacArthur on September 2. The surrender took place aboard the
United States battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay. With Japan‘s surrender, the war had ended. Now, countries faced
the task of rebuilding a war-torn world.
 The United States survived World War II undamaged, allowing it to become a world leader.
Results of WWII
By the end of World War II, Europe lay in ruins. Close to 40 million Europeans had died—two-thirds of them
civilians.
Führer Adolf Hitler, SS chief Heinrich Himmler, and Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels had escaped trial by
committing suicide. However Of the 22 defendants, 12 were sentenced to death. Göring cheated the executioner by
killing himself. The rest were hanged on October 16, 1946. They were cremated in the same ovens that had burned
so many of their victims.
Even after these disasters, some Japanese military leaders wanted to continue the fight. In a radio broadcast on
August 15, 1945, Emperor Hirohito urged the Japanese people to lay down their arms and work together to rebuild
Japan.
In February 1946, MacArthur and his American political advisers drew up a new constitution. It changed the empire
of Japan into a parliamentary democracy like that of Great Britain. The Japanese accepted the constitution. It went
into effect on May 3, 1947. Still bitter over Pearl Harbor, Americans did not provide much aid for rebuilding Japan.
The United States did send 2 billion dollars in emergency relief.
Shakoor Kakar
15
Causes Of World War II
i. Invasion of {Poland was immediate cause

ii. Domestically German Nationalism to regain the lost provinces
iii. The rise of Fascism-Nazi regime championing racism animated the extreme vesrsion of Realism ―power
politics‖ ―every thing for state nothing out of states.
iv. Germany also resented punitive terms imposed by victors, heavy war indemnity
v. The loss of Alsace and Lorrain
vi. Germany was denied the membership of League of Nation until 1926.
vii. Proximate Cause: Why did the Germany was permit rearmament? The England hope Anglo-American
collaboration to maintain world order vanished when USA repudiated Versailles treaty ! Britain prepared to
preserve a new balance of power by encouraging German rearmament and revivial as counterweight
against the chance tha France or Soviet Union might dominate continental Europe.
viii. Chamberlain agreement to Hitler demands in Appeasement Policy.
ix. Great Depression of 1930‘s ; The collapse of International economic system also contributed to the war.
x. Japan invasion of Manchuria in 1937, Italy‘s absorption of Abyssinia complicated the situation
xi. The Great crime of Stalin The nonaggression pact with Germany 1939
xii. In final analyses, Hitler was no doubt the main cause; the war would not have been possible without Adolf
Hitler and his plans.
Consequences
i. The USSR absorbed sic hundred thousand territory
Shakoor Kakar
16
ii. Poland was compensated witt the land taken from Germany.
iii. Germany was itself divided
iv. Pro USSR regime assumed power throughout the Eastern Europe. {Paved the way for trans formation in
world politics
v. Creation of New international organizations
vi. The US and Russian now held their hands the destinies of half of mankind; as foreseen in 1835by French
sociologist Alexis Tocquevile.
Shakoor Kakar
17
Chapter Two: Cold War

1. Decolonization
2. Rise of Soviet Union and United States
3. DÉTENTE 1970
4. Cold War Period
1. Decolonization
Introduction
1. Reasons of Decolonization
2. Five aspects of decolonisation are worth highlighting.
3. Neo-colonism
4. DECOLONIZATION OF AFRICA AND MUCH OF ASIA
Conclusion
Introduction
Decolonization is the process whereby a colonial society achieves constitutional independence from imperial rule. It
is the reverse of colonization which is the period of European expansion into Africa, Asia, the Americas, and the
Pacific between the fifteenth and the early twentieth century that is generally associated with colonialism as a
system of rule.
There are a number of reasons why European states pursued the policy of colonization. They were driven by the
desire for raw materials and natural resources, new markets and investment opportunities, and concern over the
imperial ambitions of their rivals in Europe. Balance of power considerations often helped to fuel European
colonialism.
As a system of rule, colonialism was often violent and repressive. It tended to undermine indigenous cultural and
religious beliefs, led to the emergence of new class structures, and weakened traditional social bonds. People in the
colonies were sometimes forced to speak languages other than their own, to conform to legal and political norms
foreign to them, and were often regarded as racially inferior by their colonial overlords. However, some would argue
that colonialism has not been a wholly negative occurrence. In some cases it brought economic development and
modernisation, advancements in medicine and agriculture, and political liberalism and democracy to the less -
developed world. Whether these ‗positives‘ outweigh the long -term suffering of the colonised societies is a
debatable point.
1. Reasons of Decolonization
There are a number of reasons why decolonisation occurred during this period.
First, the European states were financially and militarily exhausted after the Second World War and could no longer
endure the costs of maintaining colonial empires in faraway corners of the globe. France and Belgium are exceptions
here. They hung on to their colonies with much more determination than the British.
Second, the United States pressured the European states into divesting themselves of their colonies. Third, self-
determination was an important political ideal in international relations throughout the twentieth century and it took
root in the colonies and fed resistance movements. The British in India (1940–47), the French in Indo-China (1946–
Shakoor Kakar
18
54) and Algeria (1954), the Dutch in Indonesia (1945–49), and the Belgians in the Congo (1959–60) are just some of
the many examples where the colonial states became involved in difficult and protracted struggles against local
insurgents.
Fourth, public opinion within Europe began to turn against colonial domination.
Finally, the United Nations began to support the process with its 1960 Declaration on Decolonisation.
2. Five aspects of decolonisation are worth highlighting.
The first is the role played by nationalism in arousing and maintaining popular support against colonial rule.
Second, the speed at which colonies achieved independence after 1945 varied greatly. In some cases, it was
achieved relatively quickly. In others the transition to self-rule was a gradual process.
Third, it is quite difficult to determine when decolonization begins and ends. Does it begin with revolutionary
opposition in the colony and end the moment the colonising power departs? Or does it also include the long period
of adjustment after the imperial power returns control to the colony?
Fourth, different colonies have had to employ different strategies to achieve independence. The Palestinian
Liberation Organisation (PLO) has used international terrorism, Mahatma Gandhi preached non-violent resistance
to British rule in India, and Ho Chi Minh had to fight a long guerrilla war, first against the French and then the
United States.
Fifth, decolonization has not always been accomplished easily or been successful.
3. Neo-colonism
Exiting colonial states often left the former colonies ill-equipped for self-rule, power vacuums have been created
leading to vicious and intractable civil wars, and local economies and markets have withered. It is perhaps worth
making one final point. Achieving independence has not necessarily meant the end of foreign intervention.
Economic ties have continued through trading relations, and European multinational corporations (MNCs) have
continued to flourish in former colonies. Indeed, some scholars argue that the formal end of colonialism was
followed by subtle forms of neo-colonialism.
4. DECOLONIZATION OF AFRICA AND MUCH OF ASIA
Decolonisation amounts to the granting or return of sovereignty to the colony. In contemporary terms,
decolonisation is most often associated with the achievement of political independence of Africa and much of Asia
from the European states after 1945. It began in earnest in the early 1950s and continues up to the present day.
Between 1980 and 1989, for example, Britain granted independence to Zimbabwe, Belize, Antigua, and Brunei. East
Timor has only just become independent after 25 years of colonial occupation by Indonesia. One might also regard
the end of Soviet rule over Eastern.
The demise of imperialism in the twentieth century marked a fundamental change in world politics. Various factors
influenced the process of decolonization. Different imperial powers and newly emerging independent states had
different experiences of withdrawal from empire.
British Empire
In 1945, the British Empire extended across the globe. Between 1947 and 1980, 49 territories were granted
independence. Withdrawal from India, the ‘Jewel in the Crown’ of the empire, in 1947 was the most dramatic. It
paved the way for the creation of the world’s largest democracy, though the creation of India and Pakistan led to
intercommunal ethnic cleansing and hundreds of thousands of deaths. How far the ensuing hostility between India
and Pakistan was avoidable and how far it reflected previous British efforts to divide and rule are issues for debate.
Shakoor Kakar
19
What is clear is that Indian independence was largely an exception in the early post -war years, as successive British
governments were reluctant to rush towards decolonization.
End of empire in Africa came towards the end of the 1950s and early 1960s. British withdrawal from Africa was
relatively peaceful, save for conflicts with indigenous revolutionaries, notably in Kenya (1952-6) and Malaya (1948-
60). From a European perspective, the British experience was more successful than the French. Ho wever the white
minority was aided and abetted by the South African government. Under apartheid, after 1948, the South Africans
engaged in what many saw as the internal equivalent of imperialism. South Africa also conducted more traditional
imperialist practices in its occupation of Namibia. It also exercised an important influence in post -colonial/cold war
struggles in Angola and Mozambique after the last European empire in Africa —that of Portugal—collapsed when the
military dictatorship was overthrown in Lisbon.
France
The British experience of decolonization stood in contrast to that of the French. In Indo -China after 1945, Paris
attempted to preserve colonial role, only withdrawing after prolonged guerrilla war and military defeat at the hands
of Vietnamese revolutionary forces.
In Africa, the picture was different. The wind of change also blew through French Africa, and under President
Charles de Gaulle, France withdrew from empire, while attempting to preserve its influence. In Algeria, however,
the French refused to leave. Algeria was regarded by many French people to be part of France itself. The resulting
war, from 1954 to 1962, led to up to 45,000 deaths, and France itself was brought to the edge of civil war.
Conclusion
The First World War produced the collapse of four European empires (the Russian, German, Austro -Hungarian, and
the Ottoman Empire in Turkey). Later on, at the same time that Europe was recovering from World War II and
being split in half by the Cold War, it was shedding its colonies. Different European powers had different attitudes
to decolonization after 1945: some, such as the British, decided to leave, while others sought to preserve their
empires, in part (the French) or whole (the Portuguese).
European powers adopted different attitudes to different regions/countries. For example, British withdrawal from
Asia came much more quickly after 1945 than from Africa.
The process of decolonization was relatively peaceful in many cases: it led to revolutionary wars in others (Algeria,
Malaya, and Angola), whose scale and ferocity reflected the attitudes of the colonial power and the nationalist
movements.
The struggle for independence/national liberation became embroiled in cold war conflicts when the superpowers
and/or their allies became involved, for example Vietnam.
Shakoor Kakar
20
2. Rise of Soviet Union and United States
The rise of America as a world power after 1945 was of paramount importance in international politics. Its conflict
with the Soviet Union provided one of the crucial dynamics in world affairs, and one that affected—directly or
indirectly—every part of the globe. In the West, historians have debated with vigour and acrimony who was
responsible for the collapse of the wartime relationship between Moscow and Washington. The rise of the US SR as
a global power after 1945 is equally crucial in this period. Relations between Moscow and its Eastern European ‘
allies’, with the People’s Republic of China (PRC), and with revolutionary forces in the ‘Third World’, have
been vital issues in world politics, as well as key factors in Soviet-American affairs.
Yalta Conference
In February 1945, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin met at the Soviet resort town of Yalta to
plan the final stages of World War II and to negotiate the postwar order in Europe. The Anglo-Americans were not
in a very strong bargaining position because they had liberated only France, whereas the Soviet army had pushed the
Germans out of most of Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Romania and were o nly about one
hundred miles from Berlin (which they would take three months later) (USSR Strong Position) Among the
provisions of the Yalta Agreements, as these negotiations came to be known, (leaving parts of eastern Poland to the
Soviet Union), the temporary division of Germany into occupation zones (with the Soviets occupying the eastern
part), and the agreement that the nations of Eastern Europe were to be democratic and ―friendly‖ to the Soviet
Union. The three leaders also agreed to begin work on a new international organization to be called the United
Nations (UN).
In later years, Yalta became a symbol of betrayal for many of the peoples of Eastern Europe who felt that the Allies
had given Stalin a free hand in the region. Indeed, in the three years following the Yalta Conference, the Soviets
systematically undermined democratic politics and established Soviet-style communist regimes throughout the area.
From the Soviet point of view, and especially from Stalin‘s, ―friendly‖ meant ―socialist‖
So consequently Britain requested USA to assume the management of Europe. USA in order to assist Turkey and
Greece from further communist onslaught issued Monroe Doctrine with a pledge to assist the democracy in the
Europe. This pledge to assist democracy everywhere, known as the Truman Doctrine, marked a sharp departure
from traditional American isolationism and was a virtual declaration of leadership of the free world.
The Mighty USSR
During and after World War II, eleven European countries with one hundred million people came under communist
rule. Moscow seized Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia during the war and incorporated them into the USSR.
Yugoslavia and Albania (neither one adjacent to Soviet territory) adopted communism but pursued their own paths
more-or-less independently of Moscow. Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania
were gradually converted into ―people‘s democracies‖ with political leaders subservient to Moscow and Soviet -style
political and economic institutions.
Shakoor Kakar
21
3. Cold War Period

1. INTRODUCTION OF COLD WAR PHENOMENON
iv. Capitalist Ideology and Practice
iii. Communist Ideology and Practice
ii. Two Power Blocks
i. Hotspot of conflict
2. THE COLD WAR AND ITS IMPACTS

i. The division of Europe into two blocks
ii. Truman Doctrine
iii. Marshal Plan 1947
iv. NATO: 1949
v. Warsaw Pact 1955
vi. Balance of Terror; Nuclear Arms Race
vii. Impacts on United Nation
3. Expansion of the Cold War Arena

4. Khrushchev Replaced Stalin
i. Cuban Missile Crisis
4. Reconciliation
5. DÉTENTE 1970
1. Causes of Detente
2. Negotiations, Summit and Treaties
i. SALT I: 1972
ii. The Helsinki Accords; 1975
iii. Trade relations
3. The End of Detente
6. REVIVAL OF COLD WAR

7. End of the Cold War
8. Demise of USSR
1. INTRODUCTION OF COLD WAR PHENOMENON

The Cold War refers to the phenomenon that overshadowed world politics from the end of WWII until the fall of the
former Soviet Union. It is one of the most significant events from the perspective of students of international relation s.
The term Cold War signifies the state of affairs in which bitter relations, hostility and confrontation between the two
post-WWII superpowers (US and USSR). The Cold War did not result in outbreak of a direct war between the
superpowers. The Cold War did result in an arms race, diplomatic confrontation, proxy warfare, ideological competition
which engulfed the entire world order. The Cold War resulted in formation of eastern and western power blocks and
corresponding alliances and institutions under the Communist and Capitalist power blocks.
The United States accused the Soviet Union of seeking to expand their version of communism throughout the world.
The Soviets, meanwhile, charged the United States with practicing imperialism and attempting to stop revolutionary
activity in other countries.
Cold War tensions increased the likelihood of a third world war, which could have led to devastating consequences due
to the possibility of nuclear conflict. The Korean War, the Vietnam War and the Soviet invas ion of Afghanistan were
some of the violent conflicts indirectly fueled by the Cold War.
Shakoor Kakar
22
Another manifestation was in the propaganda wars between the United States and the USSR. Indeed, it was far from
certain that a global nuclear war wouldn't result from smaller regional wars, which heightened the level of concern for
each conflict. This tension shaped the lives of people around the world almost as much as the actual fighting did.
i. Hotspot of conflict
One major hotspot of conflict was Germany, particularly the city of Berlin. Arguably, the most vivid symbol of the Cold
War was the Berlin Wall. The Wall isolated West Berlin (the portion of the city controlled by West Germany and the
Allies) from East Berlin and the territory of East Germany, which completely surrounded it and was supported by the
Soviets. The first major confrontation of the cold war took place over Berlin in 1948. The former German capital was
left deep in the heart of the Soviet zone of occupation, and in June 1948 Stalin sought to resolve its status by severing
road and rail communications. The crisis saw the deployment of American long-range bombers in Britain, officially
described as atomic capable, though none were actually armed with nuclear weapons.
ii. Two Power Blocks

The eastern (communist) power block led by the Soviets and the western (capitalists) power block by the US also
formed alliances. The communist nations were held together by the Warsaw Pact and the capitalist power block formed
NATO.
iii. Communist Ideology and Practice

The common ownership of means of production and distribution provided the political and economic basis for the
spread of communism, based on Marx‘s philosophy of empowering the proletariat. Communism in practice resulted in
dominance of a single political party and centralized decision making. The bureaucracy became the new bourgeoisie
under communism in practice.
iv. Capitalist Ideology and Practice

Capitalism is based on the notion of individual liberty and the right to own private prope rty. At the political level,
capitalism emphasized the need for democratic government, multiparty politics, the independence of the judiciary,
and freedom of press. In practice capitalism has caused problems for minorities, growing inequalities and argumen ts
concerning the role of the state in managing the economy.
2. THE COLD WAR AND ITS IMPACTS
i. The division of Europe into two blocks

The October Revolution of 1917 had sowed the seeds of Communism in Europe. The Soviet Union ‘s ambitions were
checked by the rise of fascism in Italy and Germany. The Soviets agreed to join France, Britain and the US to check the
power of the fascists during WWII. At the end of WWII however, tensions grew between the former Allies over
dividing the spoils of war. The Soviets were reluctant to grant Poland independence and did not want to vacate their
troops from eastern Germany. Communism spread to Poland and led to East Germany.
The Cold War intensified in the next few years and the Soviets managed to install Communist regimes in Bulgaria,
Hungary and in Romania. Thereafter, Albania, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia also came under the influence of the
Soviets and Finland‘s coalition government was also dominated by the Communists.
Europe was thus divided into two blocks: the Eastern block controlled by the Soviets and the Western block backed by
the US. The post-WWII outbreak of conflict in Greece between the government and the Communist guerillas was a
turning point in US foreign policy, when President Truman vowed to check the Soviet influence and to actively protect
its foreign interests abroad.
ii. Truman Doctrine

In 1946 and 1947, Turkey was under pressure from the Soviet Union to return some territory that it had seized from
Russia just after the communist revolution of 1917. Greece was mired in a civil war between the royalist government and
communist insurgents who had won broad popular support for their resistance to the Nazis during the world war.
Historically, both Greece and Turkey had looked to Britain to support them against their powerful northern neighbor.
But Britain, weakened by the war and a postwar financial crisis, informed the U.S. government that it could no longer
assume these responsibilities. American president Harry Truman went to Congress with a request for funds to assist the
two countries. This pledge to assist democracy everywhere, known as the
Shakoor Kakar
23
Truman Doctrine, marked a sharp departure from traditional American isolationism and was a virtual declaration of
leadership of the free world.
The Truman Doctrine was meant to fill the vacuum in power politics created by the weakening of Britain so as to
prevent the global domination of Communism. The Truman Doctrine offered direct assistance to Greece and to Turkey
to check Communist influence and bypassed even the UN mechanism (a trend which was to reoccur in later years).
iii. Marshal Plan 1947

Worried that the precarious political and economic conditions of some European countries provided a breeding ground
for communist expansion, in 1947, the United States launched the Marshall Plan, which provided $17 billion for the
reconstruction of Europe over five years.
The Marshal Plan (named after the US Secretary of Defense) was an extension of the Truman Doctrine to protect
(western) Europe from economic collapse and communist domination. Aid under the Marshal Plan was used to
reconstruct war ravaged Europe and it became the basis for lending for development to newly independent countries in
Africa, Asia and Latin America. Marshall Plan, also offered financial aid to Germany for rebuilding the allied countries
of Europe and repelling communism after World War The Marshall Plan offered the same aid to the Soviet Union and
its allies, if they would make political reforms and accept certain outside controls. Out of fear of having the Soviet Union
take advantage of the plan, the Americans made the terms deliberately difficult for the Soviet Union to accept. As a
result, the Soviets denounced these actions as imperialistic, and responded by enacting Comecon, or the Council for
Mutual Economic Assistance. This was an economic organization of communist states and a kind of Eastern Bloc.
iv. NATO: 1949
In April 1949, the United States sponsored the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which
guaranteed U.S. military protection for Western European countries under attack. This was the first peacetime military
alliance for the United States since the time of the Revolutionary War and was yet another indication of the shift of
power—political, military, and diplomatic—from Europe to the United States. The western allies—United States, the
United Kingdom, France, Italy, Canada, Portugal, Norway, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and
Iceland—signed the North Atlantic Charter.
The key article of the treaty--that an attack on one member would be treated as an attack on all—accorded with the
principle of collective self-defense enshrined in Article 51 of the UN Charter. In practice, the cornerstone of the alliance
was the commitment of the USA to defend Western Europe. In reality, this soon meant the willingness of the United
States to use nuclear weapons to deter Soviet ‘aggression’. The Soviet Union responded by forming the Warsaw Pact.
v. Warsaw Pact 1955

In 1955, in direct response to the threat of NATO, the Eastern Bloc nations of the Soviet Union, Poland, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania signed the Warsaw Pact and formed the Treaty of Friendship,
Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance. Interestingly, all the eastern European Communist states joined except for
Yugoslavia. As with NATO, the members of the Warsaw Pact promised to retaliate if one of the member states were
attacked. The single event that spawned the Warsaw Pact occurred in 1955 when West Germany joined NATO. East
Germany, naturally, joined the Warsaw Pact in 1956.
vi. Balance of Terror; Nuclear Arms Race
There was another dimension to the Cold War—the nuclear arms race and the ―balance of terror.‖ The U.S.
monopoly on nuclear weapons was broken with the detonation of an atomic weapon by the Soviet Union in
1949. After that, both sides engaged in a competitive arms buildup such that, by the 1990s, each superpower had
about twenty-five thousand nuclear weapons, including about eleven thousand on each side that were ―strategic
weapons‖ (i.e., those with intercontinental ranges). The strategic weapons were placed on Soviet or American
territory or on submarines, but many intermediate and short-range ones were placed on European soil, on either side
of the Iron Curtain. Britain and France, worried about being reduced to sideline spectators in world politics, also
developed their own independent nuclear arsenals. If the Cold War had become hot —and nuclear—much of the
destruction would have occurred in Europe.
vii. Impacts on United Nation
Shakoor Kakar
24
The UN also became a casualty of the Cold War. The UN, largely an inspiration of Roosevelt, was meant to replace
and improve upon the discredited League of Nations.3 In an effort to include all the major powers this time, each of
the Big Five victorious allies —the United States, the Soviet Union, China, France, and Britain —were given
permanent seats on the UN‘s governing Security Council, as well as veto power. In this way, any of the five could
prevent action that they disagreed with. With the emergence of the Cold War, however, the United States and the
Soviet Union could agree on hardly a single international issue, so UN action in settling international disputes was
constantly frustrated by U.S. or Soviet vetoes.
3. Expansion of the Cold War Arena
i. China: The Cold War soon shifted to Asia and became a global competition. In October 1949, Mao Zedong and
his communists won power in China, fueling fears in the United States of a global ―red tide‖ of communism. It was
with the initial backing of Soviets. The disposed Chiang Kai Sek government was exiled to Formosa, which is now
Taiwan.
ii. Korean War: The next year the spread of Communism to China also lent support to North Korea. The
communist North Korea attacked South Korea. The US backed the South Koreans. U.S. troops committed to Korea
were soon fighting communist Chinese forces in the north, and the American commander, Douglas MacArthur,
called for carrying the war into China (including using nuclear weapons). The Korean War stalemated, and an
armistice was signed in 1953.
iii. Vietnam: Within another few years, the United States was committed to protecting another Asian country, South
Vietnam, from the possibility of communist takeover. Soviet support to the North Viet namese led to more serious
US engagement in the conflict, due to the fear that Cambodia, Laos, Burma and Thailand could also become
Communist. Despite sending up to 600,000 troops to Vietnam by 1965, the North Vietnamese won the battle with
support of China and the Soviets.
vi. In the Middle East, the US provided active support to the Israelis but the Soviets were not able to influence the
ME conflict to its advantage. In Latin America, the Soviet influence in Cuban and Nicaragua made the US very
nervous and it supported brutal regimes like that of Pinochet in Chile to prevent its fall to communist influence.
The Congo, Ghana and Gold Coast got military and financial aid from the Soviets, which also led the US to take
counter measures in Africa.
v. In South Asia, besides Indian leaning towards the Soviet and the Pakistani inclination towards the US, the
invasion of Afghanistan became a major Cold War arena for a proxy war between the Superpowers.
4. Khrushchev Replaced Stalin
After the death of Stalin, Khrushchev emerged in 1955 as the new leader of the Soviet Union. He went to work right
away denouncing Stalin and the cruel form of communism he practiced. Khrushchev didn‘t stop with domestic
policy. He initially wanted to reform the belligerent foreign p olicy that had left the Soviets isolated from the west.
He shocked many within his party when he mentioned the possibility of a peaceful relationship with the west and the
hated capitalists. In 1961, he gave East Germany his blessings for the construction of the Berlin Wall, a huge
concrete wall that separated East and West Berlin. East Germany claimed the Wall was to protect East Berlin from
western aggression; its name was the Anti-Fascist Protection Wall. By the time the Wall was completed in 1975.
i. Cuban Missile Crisis
In 1962, Khrushchev played a dangerous game been of chicken when he instigated the Cuban Missile Crisis by
installing nuclear missiles in Fidel Castro‘s Cuba, the Soviet satellite state just 90 miles from the United States.
Khrushchev removed the missiles only after President John F. Kennedy stood his ground and blockaded Cuba. For a
few weeks in 1962, the world was eerily close to nuclear disaster. Khrushchev‘s foreign policy greatly concerned the
party.
Shakoor Kakar
25
4. Meanwhile Reconciliatory efforts
i. Even at the height of the Cold War, there were efforts to prevent an outbreak of all out conflict as that could have
brought an end to human civilization as a whole. Khrushchev and Eisenhower yet at Camp David and commenced
the trend towards disarmament.
ii. A Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) was signed in 1962, a hotline was established between the heads of states in
1963 and the Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was signed in 1968.
iii. From 1969 to 1978, a period of détente remained, where both sides accepted the status quo in view of the
mutually assured destruction (MAD) capacity of the superpowers and as the realization concerning costs of nuclear
arsenals was becoming apparent.
iv. Nixon visited USSR and signed a Limitation on Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Systems and Limitation of
Strategic Offensive Arms, indicating adoption of a defensive rather than offensive posture by both superpowers.
v. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks continued from 1969 to 1979. The US proposed ban on using mobile land sites
and the superpowers also reached an agreement on a Seabed Treaty, banning use of sea -beds as nuclear launch sites.
5. DÉTENTE 1970
Détente is the easing of strained relations, especially in a political situation. The term is often used in reference to
the general easing of relations between the Soviet Union and the United States in the 1970s. The period was
characterized by the signing of treaties such as the SALT I, SALT II, and the Helsinki Agreement. There is some
debate amongst historians as to how successful the détente period was in achieving peace. It did, however, mark the
first time in the Cold War period that the US and the USSR worked together to lessen international tensions, caused
primarily by Mutual Assured Destruction.
Background: After the Cuban Missile Crisis, Party leaders deposed Khrushchev in 1964 and Leonid Brezhnev
(1906–1982) replaced him. The hard-line Communists saw De-Stalinization as a threat to the authoritarian control
Communists had always enjoyed.
1. Causes of Detente
i. The NATO powers and the Warsaw Pact both had strong reasons to seek relaxation in tensions. Leonid Brezhnev
and the rest of the Soviet leadership felt that the economic burden of the nuclear arms race was unsustainable. The
American economy was also in financial trouble as the Vietnam War drained government finances at the same time
as Lyndon Johnson (and to a lesser extent, Richard Nixon) sought to expand the welfare state.
ii. Worsening relations with the People's Republic of China, leading to the Sino -Soviet Split, had caused great
concern in the Soviet Union. Despite the conflict in Vietnam, the Chinese relationship with the United States began
to improve by 1971. The leadership feared the potential of a Sino -American alliance against them and believed it
was necessary to improve relations with the United States. Improved relations with China had already thawed the
general American view of communism.
iii. Several anti-nuclear movements supported détente. The Cuban Missile Crisis showed how dangerous t he
relations between the USSR and the USA were becoming. John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev wished to
reduce the risk of a nuclear war, as they were aware that the nuclear arsenals on each side granted mutually assured
destruction.
2. Negotiations, Summit and Treaties
Shakoor Kakar
26
Brezhnev began a series of negotiations with the United States, and at the beginning of the 1970s, the Cold War
truly entered into the period known as détente. However the most obvious manifestation of détente was the series of
summits held between the leaders of the two superpowers and the treaties that resulted from these meetings. Earlier
in the 1960s, before détente, the Partial Test Ban Treaty had been signed in 1963. Later in the decade, the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty and Outer Space Treaty were two of the first building blocks of détente. However, these
early treaties did little to curb the superpowers' abilities, and served primarily to limit the nuclear ambitions of third
parties that could endanger both superpowers.
i. SALT I: 1972
The most important treaties were developed in the Nixon Administration. The first Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
(SALT) treaty, agreed for both countries to halt the production of nuclear weapons and missiles. It was the first step
towards solving one of the most important issues that was disabling any kind of relationship between the USSR and
the US. The two superpowers also agreed to install a direct hotline between Washington DC and Moscow, the so
called red telephone, enabling both countries to quickly interact with each other in a time of urgency.
The SALT II pact of the late 70s continued the work of the SALT I talks, ensuring further reduction in arms by the
Soviets and by the US.
ii. The Helsinki Accords; 1975
In 1975, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe met and produced the Helsinki Accords, a wide
ranging series of agreements on economic, political, and human rights issues. The CSCE was initiated by the USSR,
involving 35 states throughout Europe. Among other issues, one of the most prevalent and discussed after the
conference was that of human rights violations in the Soviet Union.
In the Helsinki Accords, the Soviets promised to grant free elections in Europe, has been seen as a major concession
to ensure peace by the Soviets.
iii. Trade relations
Trade relations between the two blocs increased substantially during the era of détente. Most significant were the
vast shipments of grain that were sent from the West to the Soviet Union each year, which helped make up for the
failure of kolkhoz, Soviet collectivized agriculture.
3. The End of Detente
Détente ended after the Soviet's invasion of Afghanistan, which led to America's boycott of the 1980 Olympics in
Moscow. Jimmy Carter boosted the U.S. defense budget and began financially aiding the President of Pakistan,
General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, who would in turn subsidize the anti-Soviet Mujahideen fighters in the region.
Ronald Reagan's election as president in 1980, based on an anti-détente campaign, marked the close of Détente and
a return to Cold War hostilities. The 1980 American presidential election saw Ronald Reagan elected on a platform
opposed to the concessions of détente. Negotiations on SALT II were abandoned
6. REVIVAL OF COLD WAR
The invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 fanned the embers of the Cold War again. The USSR‟s interference in Angola
was also another irritant and the new US administration was also less tolerant and it wanted to begin building
bridges with China, which Soviets were now opposed to, these moves simultaneously ended the period of détente.
Shakoor Kakar
27
Jimmy Carter used the human rights agenda to criticize Soviet backed regimes, the US discovered a Soviet brigade
in Cuba and withdrew from SALT II, it boycotted the Olympic games in Moscow in 1980 and imposed a gra in
embargo on the USSR.
The Soviets in turn banned the LA Olympics in 1984 and shot down a South Korean air liner and by 1983 they
pulled out completely from bilateral arms talks with the US after the Cruise and Pershing 2 missiles were found
deployed by three west European countries.
The overthrow of the Shah of Iran in 1979 also impelled the US to secure bases in Oman, Kenya and Somalia to
obtain a strategic stronghold and protects its interests around the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean.
On the other hand, the Soviets, Cubans, Nicaraguans and even the Ethiopians were accused by the US of supplying
arms to insurgents El Salvador in Central America.
The London Summit
While the Cold War ended practically with dismantling of the 35 km Berlin Wall in 1989, it wasn‘t until the London
Summit a few years later that the Cold War was formally announced to be over London Summit. The London
Summit emphasized the need for the US to reduce the number of nuclear weapons it had deployed in Europe. It
obtained a pledge to withdraw the 1470 nuclear tipped artillery shells from West Germany and for the Soviets to
withdraw troops from Central and Eastern Europe. It redefined NATO‟s new role from strength seeking alliance to a
peace keeping mission.
7. End of the Cold War
The process that brought the Cold War to an end began in the second half of the 1980s. It led to the Malta Summit
between President Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev in 1989. The Washington Summit in 1990 between the same
leaders resulted in signing of number of nuclear, chemical and conventional arms reduction agreements.
8. Demise of USSR
In 1989, the first free elections since 1917 were held for the Soviet Co ngress. Boris Yeltsin was elected and became
the leader of the opposition in the U.S.S.R. In 1990, other parties became officially tolerated, and in June 1991
Yeltsin was elected President of Russia. On August 19 and August 20, 1991, a coup of communist ha rd-liners
occurred while Gorbachev was in the Crimea. Yeltsin faced down the coup on top of a tank in front of the Russian
Parliament. On August 24, 1991, the Communist Party was banned in Russia and the KGB dissolved. Lenin statutes
were torn down, and the new Russian flag went up. December 31, 1991 marked the end of the Soviet Union.
Shakoor Kakar
28
Chapter 3: Post-Cold War Period

1. unipolarity
2. New world Order
3.. Principle of US Policy
4. Terrorism,
5. End of History,
Clash of Civilization,
Globalization,
If the cold war period was marked by a clear and sharp divide between opposing socioeconomic systems operating
by radically different standards, then the post-cold war order could readily be characterized as one where states were
compelled to play by a single set of rules within an increasingly competitive world economy. The term most
frequently used to describe this new order was globalization, a notion that had barely been used before 1989, but
now came be to employed ever more regularly to define an apparently new sys tem of international relations.
Globalization in Cold War period
Thus for one school it was assumed to be undermining borders and states—quite literally abolishing the Westphalian
system. But it would be absurd to conclude that it was doing away with the state or destroying the underlying logic
of anarchy. Capitalism after all had always been a global system. Since the sixteenth century interdependence had
been one of its more obvious features.
Though globalization is a much disputed term, analysts agree that it describes a one -world system where all actors
have to play by the same economic rules. It is best understood as a multi-prong process characterized by an
extension of social, political, and economic activities all over the world, irresp ective of Political boundaries.
1. Unipolarity
If a one-world economy operating under the same set of highly competitive rules was at least o ne consequence of
the end of the cold war, another was a major resurgence of American self-confidence in a new international system
where it seemed to have no serious rival. The United States after the cold war is best described as a superpower
without a mission.
Most realists in fact believed that after the cold war the world would become genuinely multipolar. It was also the
situation that many feared on the grounds that an America with no obvious peer competitor would act more
assertively and with less restraint. That aside, all of the most obvious indicators by the late 1990s —military,
economic, and cultural—seemed to point to only one conclusion: that as a result of the Soviet collapse, followed in
short order by the economic crisis in Japan and Europe‘s the United States by the turn of the century had been
transformed from a mere superpower (its designation hitherto) to what the French foreign minister Hubert Vedrine
in 1998 termed a ‗hyperpower‘
This new global conjuncture raised a series of important questions for both scholars of International Relations and
US foreign policy-makers alike. E.g
i. Most realists, unsurprisingly, believed that other great powers would in time emerge to balance the United States.
ii. Liberals in general tended to advise restraint and the embedding of US power into international institutions as the
most effective and acceptable way of it exercising global hegemony.
Shakoor Kakar
29
iii. Liberals also believed that the spread of democracy in an increasingly interdependent world economy wou ld
make the international system a safer place.
iv. Others of a more nationalist persuasion argued against such optimism and such constraint. The USA, they
insisted, had the power. It had always used it wisely in the past. And there was no reason to suspe ct it would not use
it wisely again in the future.
v. The greater danger in fact was not an America that acted alone, but an America that did not lead.
Not surprisingly, this extraordinary imbalance has triggered global debate. Governments, including that of the
United States, are struggling to respond to this peculiar international environment.
Balance of Power Question
Classic questions of international relations theory are at stake in the debate over unipolarity. The most obvious
question concerns balance of power theory, which predicts that states will respond to concentrated power by
counterbalancing. Some are puzzled by what they see as the absence of a balancing response to American unipolar
power, whereas others argue, to the contrary, that incipien t or specific types of balancing behavior are in fact
occurring.
In their initial efforts to make sense of an American-dominated international system, scholars and observers have
invoked a wide array of grand terms such as empire, hegemony, unipolarity, imperium, and ―uni-multipolarity.
Unipolarity refers narrowly to the underlying material distribution of capabilities and not to the political patterns or
relationships depicted by terms such as empire, imperium, and hegemony. What makes the global system u nipolar is
the distinctive distribution of material resources.
American primacy in the global distribution of capabilities is one of the most salient features of the contemporary
international system. The end of the cold war did not return the world to mu ltipolarity.
Instead the United States —already materially preeminent—became more so. We currently live in a one superpower
world, a circumstance unprecedented in the modern era. No other great power has enjoyed such advantages in
material capabilities—military, economic, technological, and geographical as USA.
The arguments advanced here is not that unipolarity will last indefinitely but rather that as long as it does last, it will
constitute a critical factor in understanding patterns of foreign policy and world politics.
2. New world order
A new world order emerged In the wake of wholesale change that the International political system was under-gone
at the end of the Cold War. Bush of USA coined the phrase New World Order to outline the guideline for US
foreign policy in a changed world. Hence The end of the Cold War called for a new focus in IR which could better
analyze and anticipate the realities of a new world order.
If for the United States the biggest post-cold war problem was how to develop a coherent global policy in a world
where there was no single major threat to its interests, then for Europeans the main issue was how to manage the
new enlarged space that had been created as a result of the events in 1989. Indeed, while more triumphant
Americans would continue to proclaim that it was they who had actually won the cold war in Europe, it was
Europeans who were the real beneficiaries of what had taken place in the late 1980s.
Shakoor Kakar
30
3. The Principle of policy formulation of US
Peace in the world will be top priority on US agenda. (Peace define in American Politikostrategic lexicon) President
Bush emphasized the need of UN to become a forum for achieving the consensus and influence for achieving
International Peace. This led to the interference that US sees UN to be vehicle for promotion of her interest.
ii. Non-proliferation of Arms and Nuclear weapons is the other most important objective of US foreign policy in
New world order. The destruction of Iraqi Nuclear facilities, Pressure on N Korean and Pakistan t o sign NPT and
Sanctions of Pak and China are ample testification of this trend.
iii. Promotion of economic reforms along liberal pattern and activation of regional trade is also a goal of US policy.
The international trade regime WTO seems to be a tool fo r regulating International trade in accordance with the
objectives of USA. US also established NAFTA.
UK, Japan and Germany are expected to work in collaboration with USA. United Europe under Germany will also
tend to cooperate.
The challenge to the New world order policy cannot either come from other quarters: third world or the revivalists in
the Islamic or other traditions because they are still at a rudimentary stage of development.
The Capitalist Ideology
Capitalism is based on the notion of individual liberty and the right to own private property. At the political level,
capitalism emphasized the need for democratic government, multiparty politics, independence of the judiciary, and
freedom of press. In practice capitalism has caused problems for minorities, growing inequalities and arguments
concerning the role of the state in managing the economy.
4. Terrorism
Terrorism is characterized, first and foremost, by the use of violence. This tactic of violence takes many forms and
often indiscriminately targets non-combatants. The purpose for which violence is used, and its root causes, is where
most of the disagreements about terrorism begin. Historically, the term ‗terrorism‘ described state violence against
citizens during the French Revolution. Over the past half-century, however, terrorism has come to mean the use of
violence by small groups to achieve political change.
Terrorism differs from criminal violence in its degree of political legitimacy. Rephrasing: Terrorism, or acts of
violence by sub-state groups, has been separated from criminal acts on the basis of the purpose for which violence is
applied, namely political change.
Those sympathetic to terrorist causes suggest that violence is the only remaining option that can draw attention to
the plight of the aggrieved. Such causes have included ideological, ethnic, and religious exclusion or persecution.
As with other forms of irregular warfare, terrorism is designed to achieve political change for the purposes of
obtaining power in order to right a perceived wrong. Terrorism, however, is the weakest form of irregular warfare
with which to alter the political landscape.
The legitimacy of terrorist means and methods is the foremost reason for disagreement. Some view terrorist acts as
legitimate only if they meet the criteria associated with the ‘just war’ tradition. These criteria, which apply to all
applications of force, have been expanded to include a just cause, proportional use of violence, and the use of force
as a last resort. Realists suggest that the political violence used by terrorist groups is illegitimate on the basis that
states alone have a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence and physical force.
Shakoor Kakar
31
1. Types of Terrorism
Audrey Kurth Cronin has outlined different types of terrorist groups, currently operating around the world, and their
historical importance in the following way. All four types have enjoyed periods of relative prominence in the
modern era.
i. Left-wing terrorists: left-wing terrorism intertwined with the Communist movement
ii. Right-wing terrorists, right-wing terrorism drawing its inspiration from Fascism
iii. Ethnonationalist/separatist terrorists: The bulk of ethnonationalist/separatist terrorism accompanying the wave of
decolonization especially in the immediate post-World War II years
iv. Religious or ‗sacred‘ terrorists: Currently, ‗sacred‘ terrorism is becoming more significant Of course, these
categories are not perfect, as many groups have a mix of motivating ideologies some ethnonationalist groups, for
example, have religious characteristics or agendas —but usually one ideology or motivation dominates.
2. Terrorism and globalization
As with definitions of terrorism, there is general agreement on at least one aspect of globalization. The relationship
between terrorism and globalization is difficult to describe accurately. Globalization has contributed to the growth of
terrorism from a regional phenomenon into a global one. Global terrorism has been explained in cultural, economic,
and religious terms linked to globalization. Such terms are necessary, but ultimately are not sufficient to explain the
relationship between Terrorism and globalization.
Technology: It is inaccurate to suggest that globalization is responsible for terrorism, but technologies associated
with globalization have been exploited by terrorists. In particular, technologies have improved the ability of terrorist
groups to work together, share information Technology associated with globalization has enabled terrorist groups to
conduct operations that are deadlier, more distributed, and more difficult to combat than they were in the past.
Technological advantage, however, is not one-sided, and states can use technology to diminish the global impact of
terrorism.
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Terrorists and acts of terrorism was a local phenomenon rarely had
an impact beyond national borders. Three factors led to the birth of transnational terrorism in 1968:
i. The expansion of commercial air travel gave terrorists unprecedented mobility.
ii. Televised news coverage also played a role in expanding the audience who could witness the theatre of terrorism
in their own homes. Individuals who had never heard of ‘the plight of the Palestinians ’ became notionally aware
of the issue
iii. The broad political and ideological interests among extremists that intersected around a common cause, As a
result, terrorism grew from a local to a transnational threat.
4. Al Qaeda
Al Qaeda received global recognition as a result of its attacks conducted in New York and Washington on 11
September 2001. Immediately after 9/11, Al Qaeda was depicted as the centre of a global nexus of terrorism
connected to almost all terrorist groups.
Shakoor Kakar
32
Regardless of how one views Al Qaeda, one cannot dispute the influence and appea l of its message across national
boundaries. Efforts to explain the vitality of global terrorism in general—and Al Qaeda in particular—focus on three
areas linked to aspects of globalization: culture, economics, and religion.
Cultural, economic, and religious aspects provide necessary, but insufficient explanations for globalized terrorist
violence individually. The current wave of terrorist violence uses religion as a motivator and to provide the
justification to kill non-combatants.
The ultimate purpose for modern militant Islamic violence is applied is obtaining political power in order to conduct
political, social, economic, and religious reform according to Sharia law.
Conclusion
Terrorism remains a complex phenomenon in which violence is used to obtain political power to redress grievances
that may have become more acute through the process of globalization. Globalization has improved the technical
capabilities of terrorists and given them global reach, but has not altered the fundamental fact that ter rorism
represents the extreme views of a minority of the global population. In other words, globalization has changed the
scope of terrorism but not its nature. The benefits that globalization provides terrorists is neither one -sided nor
absolute. The same technologies and processes also enable more effective means of states to combat them.
5. The End of History

One hypothesis that won support in some quarters was that the decline of communism signaled that the industrial
capitalist democracies of the West had triumphed in the war of ideas and would now proceed to remake the rest of
the world in their own image. In a widely discussed book, The End of History and the Last Man, the American
scholar Francis Fukuyama argued that the ultimate victory of liberal democracy will constitute the end point of
mankind‘s ideological evolutions and the final form of human govt and as such constitute the end of history.
Liberalism is the best available ideology to be applied universally throughout the globe.
Whether or not Fukuyama‘s proposition is true, it is much too early to assume (as he would no doubt admit) that the
liberal democratic model has in fact triumphed in the clash of ideas that dominated the twentieth century.
It is no doubt true that much of the world is now linked together in the economic marketplace created by the
Western industrial nations and Western Democratic Model.
i. Theoretical framework
This is not an original concept this concept was firstly use bu Hegel. According to him history history is a
dialectical process, with a beginning, middle and an end. On the other hand Marx believe that the direction of
historical development was a purposeful one and would come to an end with achievement of Communist Utopia.
According to Hegel history came to an end in 1806 when Napoleon defeat of Persian monarchy at the battle of Jena
was symbolized the victory of the ideals of French revolutions.
Fukuyama explains the evolution process of human history as follows: human history is based on contradictions, but
when all the prior contradictions are resolved and all human needs are satisfied so the human evolutionary process
reaches its climax and the history come to an end.
ii. Main Arguments
Shakoor Kakar
33
He says that there have been two major challenges to Liberalism, communism and fascism but both collapsed under
it might.
Fukuyama thinks that class issues has been resolved in the West, US represents the achievement of the classless
society.
He gives example of China and Japan which have been affected by liberalism. He also examine Gorb achev period of
transformation in USSR.
He argues that after collapse of two major challenges there are two possibilities religion and nationalism that may
cause a new challenge. In contemporary world only Islam has offered a theocratic state as an altern ative to
liberalism. But the societies are satisfied in sphere of personal life and liberty. On the other hand the vast majority of
the nationalist movements do not have a political program.
6. The Clash of Civilizations

Introduction
When the cold War suddenly ended in 1990, two critical questions preoccupied the international affairs experts;
what will be the nature of world politics? And what will be the source of conflict in this now world? The most
notable analysis was conceived by Harvard Professor Samu el P. Huntington which caused intellectual explosion by
publishing his article ―Clash of Civilizations‖ in the American journal ‗Foreign Affairs‘ in1993, Later a book The
Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order,. This theory argued that the biggest threat to the west
at present comes from China and Islamic civilization. A central focus of conflict for the immediate future will
between the West and several Islamic-Confucian states.
1. BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE THEORY “CLASH OF CIVILIZATION”
In his theory Huntington argues that ideological economic and national factors would no longer be the source of
conflict, instead the great division among the people would be cultural/civilizational. He argues that now the cold
war had ended, future conflicts in the world politics would be less between states and more between civilizations or
coalitions of culture. There is now a danger of hot war of religion (which according to him is the determining force
of any civilization) to succeed the cold war of ideologies, the new trend between America and its allies, on the one
hand, and Muslim countries such as Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Libya, Sudan, and
Somalia, with probable support of China, on the other hand. Both American capitalism and Russian Communism
were born out of European culture. The main features of the theory are as followed.
i. Fault lines
He located the imaginary boundaries known as fault-lines among the civilizations which replaced the political and
ideological boundaries of the cold war and argued that the bloody clash would took place along these fault -lines.
ii. Kin country Syndrome
He argued and tries to prove with the help of examples that due to the factor of Kin Country Syndrome, groups or
states belonging to one civilization, involved in war with the people of a different civilization, try to rally support
from the member of their own civilization.
iii. The west versus the rest
After the cold war the West is now on an extraordinary peak of power. The West would try to ma intain its power by
dominating other civilizations. The difference in power and struggle for military, economic and international power
are the source of conflict between the West and the rest.
Shakoor Kakar
34
iv. The Confucian Islamic connections
Those countries that for reason of culture and power do not wish to, or cannot join the West, compete with the West
by developing their own economic, military and political powers. They cooperate with non -western countries. The
most prominent form of this cooperation is the Confucian -Islamic connections. That has emerged to challenge the
Western interest, value and power. The conflict between the West and Confucian -Islamic counties focused largely
though not exclusively on nuclear, biological and chemical weapons.
2. PRESENT SCENARIO
The 9/11 attack was termed as beginning of clash of civilization, when Tony Blair exclaimed as, ―They have
attacked on our civilization.‖ President Bush declared war against Afghanistan as Crusades. The question arises
whether the significance of September 11, 2001, the attacks on the US, the devastation of Afghanistan, the Israeli
onslaught on the Palestinians homeland and Lebanon, the plans to divide Iraq and invade Iran Somalia, and Sudan,
all add up to an unfolding conflict between the United States an d its closest allies(Israel and UK) on the one hand,
and more and more Muslim countries, on the other hand. The tumult caused by the publication of the caricature of
the Holy Prophet in the Norwegian Newspaper. The growing phenomenon of linking fundamentalism to extremism
and extremism to Islam and Islam to terrorism sent a shocking weave to Enlightened Muslims.
7. CRITIQUES
i. Benazir in her book ―Reconciliation‖ says that I disagree with the thesis in ―Clash of Civilizations‖ and I fear that
this thesis has actually helped provoke the confrontation it predicts. Benazir dubbed them as clasher and herself as
reconciliationists. She added that ― if the confrontation cannot be avoided the world must prepare for it, but if the
confrontation can be reconciled, we must exhaust all remedies to resolve it.‖
She added that there will be not clash of civilization between Islam and the West if democracy is institutionalized in
Islamic world.
ii. This theory shamelessly prescribes methods for the West to hold Islamic n ations in check by denying them the
tools of modernity and technology. It fuels xenophobia and paranoia both in the West and in the Islamic countries.
iii. Stephan Walt argues that the current condition of international relation is not a clash of civiliza tion but a
continuation of the pattern of Nation-state conflict. The state interest overshadows their civilizational identities thus
the state interest is the primary source of conflict.
iv. Similarly Fawad Ajami argues that state do and will act in their self-interest. He believes civilizations do not
control states, states control civilizations.
v. Robert Bertley‘s main argument is that the economic development, the spread of liberal democracy and the
expansion of communication will bring the world clos er rather than farther apart.
Shakoor Kakar
35
Chapter 4: REGIONAL ECONOMIC Organizations

1. SAARC
2. ECO
3. SCO
4. ASEAN
5. NAFTA
1. (SAARC) South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
Headquarters Kathmandu, Nepal

Membership 8 Members, 9 Observers
Establishment December 8, 1985
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an organization of South Asian nations,
founded in December 1985 and dedicated to economic, technological, social, and cultural development emphasizing
collective self-reliance. Its seven founding members are Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan,
and Sri Lanka. Afghanistan joined the organization in 2005. The 11 stated areas of cooperation are agriculture;
education, culture, and sports; health, population, and child welfare; the environment and meteorology; rural
development; tourism; transport; science and technology; communications.
i. History
The concept of SAARC was first adopted by Bangladesh during 1977, under the administration of President
ZiaurRahman. In the late 1970s, SAARC nations agreed upon the creation of a trade bloc consisting of South Asian
countries. The idea of regional cooperation in South Asia was again mooted in May 1980. The foreign secretaries of
the seven countries met for the first time in Colombo in April 1981. The Committee of the Whole, which met in
Colombo in August 1985, identified five broad areas for regional cooperation. New areas of cooperation were added
in the following years.
ii. Objectives
 to promote the welfare of the people of South Asia and to improve their quality of life;
 to accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and to provide all
individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and to realize their full potential;
 to promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia;
 to contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another's problems;
 to promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, and other fields;
iii. Expansion
Afghanistan was added to the regional grouping in 2005, With the addition of Afghanistan, the total number of
member states were raised to eight .In 2006, SAARC also agreed in principle to grant observer status to the US,
South Korea and the European Union. In 2008, Iran requested observer status, allowed shortly by the entrance of
Mauritius.
iv. The Agreement on South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA)
It is an agreement reached in 2004 at the 12th SAARC summit in Islamabad, Pakistan. It created a free trade area of
1.6 billion people in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The seven foreign
Shakoor Kakar
36
ministers of the region signed a framework agreement on SAFTA to reduce customs duties of all traded goods to
zero by the year 2016.
The SAFTA agreement came into force on January 1, 2006 and is operational following the ratification of the
agreement by the seven governments. SAFTA requires the developing countries in South Asia (India, Pakistan and
Sri Lanka) to bring their duties down to 20 percent in the first phase of the two year period ending in 2007. In the
final five year phase ending 2012, the 20 percent duty will be reduced to zero in a series of annual cuts. The least
developed nations in South Asia (Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Maldives) have an additional three years to reduce
tariffs to zero. India and Pakistan have signed but not ratified the treaty.
So far, four rounds of trade negotiations have been concluded under SAPTA covering over 5000 commodities.
1. WHAT'S WRONG WITH SAARC
28 years have passed since SAARC was established in Dhaka, Bangladesh. But unfortunately nothing much has
been achieved during that period. We remain a poor region in the world and we are categorised by the west as
developing countries, meaning, of course, that we are undeveloped. South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation was established with good intentions. However, the kind of cooperation expected, could not be
achieved from this entity due to various reasons.
i. Identity problem
SAARC has been labeled as a failure. Unlike the countries that belong to other such associations, like the European
Economic Community, for example, SAARC countries do not belong to one civilization. So we do not have the
feeling of belonging to one region,
ii. Political issues/ bilateral conflicts
Saarc has not been able to realize its ambitious objectives during the last 25 years. It could not implement its charter
due to the political climate prevailing in the region. The member countries have laid more stress on "core issues‖/
political issues like the Kashmir dispute and the water issues etc over the economic issues. They failed to follow EU
which gave preference to the economic issues over the political ones.
Next, the severe inner weakness in SAARC‘s policy is its Article-10 (General Provision), which prohibits discussion
of ‗bilateral‘ and contentious issues. And this weakness has not allowed SA ARC to really take off in real sense of
the term. This clause was set primarily with a view to avoiding its direct involvement in any bilateral conflicts in this
forum. While India thought that SAARC has developed into an anti-Indian forum, the other countries, on the other
hand, suspected that India would use SAARC as a bloc under its leadership.
iii. Uncertain relations between India and Pakistan
The legacy of mistrust between India and Pakistan is the prime impediment to peace and cooperation in Sout h Asia.
For instance, by imposing the decision of postponement of the 11th Summit, scheduled to be held in 1999, at the
insistence of India, without regard to the feelings of other members, was a gross violation of democratic values of
consensus. The argument advanced by India that as ‗democracy‘ was toppled in Pakistan, and the Chief Executive,
Mr. Musharraf, happened to be a serving General, the situation was not conducive to holding of the Summit, was
illogical on several counts. In the first place, it is a semantic issue, whether the ousted government was really
‗democratic‘. In the very first session of the SAARC, Pakistan‘s participation was through President General Zia -ul-
Haq, who was a military ruler, and so was the host — General H. M. Ershad from Bangladesh.
Shakoor Kakar
37
iv. Fear of Indian domination
India by virtue of its natural endowments and wider economic base and capability occupies a predominant role in
South Asia. It is important to note that India accounts for at least three-fifths of SAARC‘s area, population, GDP (on
a purchasing-power parity basis), foreign exchange and gold reserves, and armed forces. The enormous resource and
power differentials naturally translate into an acute sense of insecurity in the neighborhood. India‘s small
neighbours realised that India wants to convert its natural preponderance into political preponderance because of
such a perception of Indian domination. These small neighbors seek to balance the "big brother" by developing close
ties with other giants (USA, China, Japan etc.) external to the region; and this perception hinders regional
cooperation
v. Economic Impedi ments:-
In the absence of coordinated approach, the SAARC countries compete for the same foreign markets, offering the
same products. For example; Bangladesh, India and Nepal compete for export of jute goods to UK, E.E.C. and US
markets. Likewise India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh vie with each other for export of tea to EEC, UK, Japan and
Australian markets. Every nation, except Nepal, Maldives and Bhutan, compete for apparel, sea food etc. The
SAARC countries differed widely at North-South dialogues and GATT negotiations, South -South negotiations,
GATT and NAM (Non-aligned movement) because of diverse economic and geopolitical interest. Western
European co-operation is reinforced, internally by alliances among powerful industrial, agricultural, humanitarian
and labor interest across borders. But the SAARC is not in such an environment in practice.
vi) Major Problem is Maintenance of Peace:
Peace remains a crucial issue, in most of the eight countries and especially in the Pak-Afghan part of the region. The
Indo-Pak deadlock over Kashmir remains a hurdle in improving relations between the two countries in particular
and in the region, in general.
On the other hand, recent violence in Myanmar and the exodus of Rohingya Muslims towards Bangladesh and India
had shown that heads of the states, over the years, have failed to find a workable solution to the problem.
While Sri Lanka has put its 26-year civil war, between the government and the Tamil fighters, there remain shrouds
of instability in the island nation.
Afghanistan, which became a part of SAARC in 2007, is still reeling from decades of conflict and has a long way to
go before it achieves stability.
Meanwhile, visa exemption – in a bid to promote people-to-people contact – is only applicable in certain countries
and is limited to dignitaries and other high-ranking officials, as opposed to the common man
2. Is there a way out?
There are two alternatives. First, like-minded SAARC countries could form a sub-group and move along. But
cooperation within any sub-group that includes India will be limited by the very factors that limited cooperation
within SAARC, whereas any sub-group that does not include India will suffer from a lack of contiguity and capacity
constraints.
Second, one or more members can take initiatives to reduce the trust deficit and to rejuvenate SAARC. India is the
only SAARC country that can viably afford unilateral measures. This is true not only because of its large economy,
but also because of the multiple levels on which it operates. If, for example, Bangladesh unilaterally reduces tariffs
on imports its domestic industries will suffer in the short run. However, if India took such a step, its industries would
Shakoor Kakar
38
not be affected. If such a step helped to reduce regional tensions, India would get an additional bonus from being
able to concentrate on its global agenda, which in turn would reduce the cost of its unilateral measures. Such
additional payoffs are not available to other SAARC countries, even if they could afford unilateralism.
In short, India can, and therefore should, bear the cost of rejuvenating SAARC. Otherwise India will remain tethered
to South Asia by regional conflicts.
Conclusion
To retain its credibility and relevance Saarc should be effectively used as a medium to discuss issue s of peace,
security and development with international organizations and agencies to promote interests of the member
countries.
The fundamental weakness that Saarc suffers from is trust deficit among the member‘s states. The political
differences had deep negative impact on the political will to realize the economic cooperation and integration.
Besides political differences and conflict, economic factors have also played an unhelpful role. The member states
have still not reached the take-off stage to be able to pursue the programme of economic integration and
collaboration.
The establishment of Saarc Development Fund, Food Bank, The Arbitration Council, and the Regional Standards
Organizations are the right moves. Saarc should also seek free and preferential trading arrangements with other
regional bodies notably EU and the Asean.
It should also remain fully focused on Saarc social charter to spread out its reach to the common man. The people of
South Asia desire to have a peaceful, prosperous and secu re future. The security can be obtained through sincere and
sustained efforts to narrow the political differences. Saarc is the appropriate tool not only to build trust but also to
solve disputes and create conducive climate for realisation of Saarc charter.
Shakoor Kakar
39
2. ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization)

ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization) is the new name of the RCD which was formed established in 1964 at
Istanbul between three Muslim brother countries Iran, Turkey and Pakistan. The RCD, however, could not achieve
its objectives due to certain political events befalling the member countries. In 1979 RCD suspended due to Islamic
Revolution in Iran. In 1985 Iran requested Pakistan and Turkey to the re-active the RCD finally RCD replaced by
ECO and member countries of the ECO also became ten.
Objectives of RCD
The formation of RCD was an agreement aimed at promoting regional development in various aspects of social life
of the three member states. RCD was set up on 21st July, 1964, when the Heads of State of Pa kistan, Turkey and
Iran assembled in Istanbul to sign the agreement known as Istanbul Accord.
The main objectives of the RCD were as follows:

1. To promote trade between the member countries and free movement of goods by all practical means of
transportation.
2. Closer coordination shall be established amongst the Chambers of Commerce of the three countries and to finally
establish a joint Chamber of Commerce.
3. Postal rates, between the three countries, shall be reduced to the extent to bring them on the level of internal rates.
4. Air transport services within the region shall be improved and a joint air company shall be established.
5. Close cooperation in shipping shall be established by setting up a joint maritime line.
6. Efforts shall be made to improve and construct rail and road links between the three countries.
7. Cooperation in educational, scientific and cultural aspects shall be promoted by the exchange of delegations.
8. Visa formalities shall be abolished for travel purposes between the three countries.
9. The member countries shall provide technical assistance to each other by the exchange of experts and by
extending training facilities.
Members Countries of the ECO

When ECO was established in 1985, it had three members Pakistan, Iran and Turkey but now the member countries
of the ECO are ten which are as follows:
1. Pakistan 2. Iran 3. Turkey 4. Afghanistan
5. Tajikistan 6. Kazakhstan 7. Uzbekistan
8. Turkmenistan 9. Kyrgyzstan 10. Azerbaijan
Objectives of the ECO

This organization has the following objectives:
1. Promotion of Mutual Trade and Freely Transportation between the Member Countries.
2. To Develop Close relations with the Aiwane-e- Commerce & Industries
3. Promotion of Industries
4. To better the mail systems between the member countries
5. To plan for National Interests of the member countries.
6. Establishment of Common Air & Shipping Services
7. Promotion of Minerals & Establishment of Oil Refineries
8. Promotion of Tourism
9. Promotion of Land Transport between the Member Countries
10. To Develop better programs for the technical training of the people of the member countries
11. To raise the interaction in the history culture & civilization
12. To raise the educational opportunities among the member countries.
Potential and Performance of the ECO

The ECO is a big challenge to our analysts and economists. With Iran, Turkey and Pakistan as original members, the
expanded ECO has the potential to become a politically and economically powerful bloc. Spanning over South,
Shakoor Kakar
40
Central and West Asia, ECO members have the advantage of territorial contiguity, cultural homogeneity rich
resources, shared faith and absence of any major territorial conflict. ECO is a vast market for our traders and a
wonder-land for travelers.
1. A new Asian trade block is in the offing which holds great economic and trade possibilities for the region.
2. The Central Asian states are bestowed with tremendous natural resources like cotton and oil, together with
minerals, such as gold and iron.
3. Cotton is grown in abundance in Uzbekistan which used to produce 73 percent of the former Soviet Union‟s
cotton crop.
4. The ECO states have immense potential for development and are destined to regain their historical importance
and glory.
5. To promote economic inter-linkages, the vital requirement is that of communication infrastructure like roads, rail,
shipping, airlines and telecommunications.
6. With regional economic integration being the objective, the ECO can move forward by promoting trad e on a
preferential basis in the region.
7. The member countries have agreed to set up a Trade and Development Bank (TDB) which would help in the
exchange of commodities in order to encourage economic Cooperation at the non -governmental level.
The establishment of ECO is a highly significant event, not in the history of Pakistan alone, but also for the whole
region covering the entire Central Asia. The governments in the region deserve to be applauded for their swift
endeavors regional and collective Cooperation. However, such a collective measure as ECO must not cover one
aspect of the human activity, but must he encompassing all dimensions of human development. It must cover the
requirements of polity, economy, defense and society at large.
Shakoor Kakar
41
3. (SCO) The Shanghai Cooperation Organization

SCO is an intergovernmental mutual-security organization which was founded in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders
of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Except for Uzbekistan, the other countries
had been members of the Shanghai Five, founded in 1996; after the inclusion of Uzbekistan in 2001, the members
renamed the organization.
1. The SCO Charter

 strengthening mutual trust and good-neighborliness and friendship among member states;
 developing effective cooperation in political affairs, eco nomy, trade, science and technology, culture,
education, energy, transportation, environmental protection and other fields;
 working together to maintain regional peace, security and stability; and
 Promoting the creation of a new international political an d economic order featuring democracy, justice and
rationality.
2. Objectives& Activities
 strengthen mutual trust and good neighborly relations among member states
 ; promote their effective cooperation in political affairs, economy and trade, scientific -technical, cultural,
and educational spheres as well as in the energy, transportation, tourism, and environment protection fields;
 jointly safeguard and preserve regional peace, security and stability; and
 strive towards the creation of a democratic, just, reasonable new international political and economic order.
 By 2007 the SCO had initiated over twenty large-scale projects related to transportation, energy and
telecommunications and held regular meetings of security, military, defense, foreign affairs, ec onomic,
cultural, banking and other officials from its member states. No multinational organization with such far-
ranging and comprehensive mutual interests and activities has ever existed on this scale before. The SCO
has now established relations with the United Nations, where it is an observer in the General Assembly, the
European Union, ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), the Commonwealth of Independ ent
States and the Organization of Islamic Conference.Striving for further enhancement of comprehensive
cooperation;Desiring to jointly contribute to the strengthening of peace and ensuring of security and
stability in the region in the environment of developing political multi-polarity and economic and
information globalization;
3. Cooperation on security
 The SCO is primarily centered on its member nations' Central Asian security-related concerns, often
describing the main threats it confronts as being terrorism, separatism and extremism. However evidence is
growing that its activities in the area of social development of its member states is increasing fast. In 2004
SCO summit, held in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, the Regional Antiterrorism Structure (RATS) was establis hed.
In 2006, the SCO announced plans to fight cross -border drug crimes under the counter-terrorism rubric.
SCO has claimed that it has no plans to become a military bloc; In 2007, the SCO signed an agreement
with the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), in the Tajik capital Dushanbe, to broaden
cooperation on issues such as security, crime, and drug trafficking
4. Military activities.
 Over the past few years, the organization's activities have expanded to include increased military
cooperation, intelligence sharing, and counterterrorism. There have been a number of SCO joint military
exercises. The first of these was held in 2003, with the first phase taking place in Kazakhstan and the
second in China. Since then China and Russia have teamed up for large-scale war games in 2005 (Peace
Mission 2005), 2007 and 2009, under the auspices of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. At the joint
military exercises in 2007 (known as "Peace Mission 2007") which took place in Russia more than 4,000
Chinese soldiers participated. Air forces and precision-guided weapons were also likely to be used
Shakoor Kakar
42
 The SCO has served as a platform for larger military announcements by members. During the 2007 war
games in Russia, with leaders of SCO member states in attendance including Chinese President Hu Jintao,
Russia's Prime Minister Vladimir Putin used the occasion to take advantage of a "captive" audience:
Russian strategic bombers, he said, would resume regular long -range patrols for the first time since
the Cold War. "Starting today, such tours of duty will be conducted regularly and on the strategic scale,"
Putin said. "Our pilots have been grounded for too long. They are happy to start a new life."
5. Economic cooperation.
All SCO members but China are also members of the Eurasian Economic Community. A Framework Agreement to
enhance economic cooperation was signed by the SCO member states in2003. At the same meeting the China's
Premier, Wen Jiabao, proposed a long-term objective to establish a free trade area in the SCO, while other more
immediate measures would be taken to improve the flow of goods in the region.] A follow up plan with 100 specific
actions was signed one year late.]
6. Cultural cooperation
Cultural cooperation also occurs in the SCO framework. Culture ministers of the SCO met for the first time
in Beijing inl 2002, signing a joint statement for continued cooperation. The third meeting of the Culture Ministers
took place in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, in 2006.An SCO Arts Festival and Exhibition was held for the first time during
the Astana Summit in 2005. Kazakhstan has also suggested an SCO folk dance festival to take place in 2008,
inAstana
Latest SCO summit, June 2012-Beijing (China)

 The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) concluded its Beijing summit with member states agreeing
to further cooperation in a variety of fields.
 The summit is pivotal for the future development of the SCO, as it is being held at a time when the
organization is entering its next decade of existence, said President Hu Jintao when delivering a keynote
speech at the summit.
 The SCO has achieved remarkable accomplishments in its first 10 years. In that time, member states of the
SCO have adhered to the "Shanghai Spirit" and signed the Treaty on Long -term Good-neighborliness,
Friendship and Cooperation.
 They have promoted the ideal of lasting peace and friendship, which has been widely accepted and
supported by people of all member states. The organization's international prestige and influence has also
grown significantly.
 The Chinese president said the international and regional situation has been complex and volatile, thus
bringing many uncertainties to the regional situation. Only when SCO member states enhance cooperation
and remain united can they effectively cope with emerging challenges, safeguard regional peace and
achieve common development.
 The president made a four-point proposal for the future development of the organization. He called on the
member states to make joint efforts to build the SCO into a harmonious community, a fortress of regional
security and stability and a driving force to boost regional economic development, as well as an effective
platform for increasing international exchanges and influence.
 He said China is ready to work with all member states to comprehensively carry out the agreements
reached at the summit, push forward cooperation within the SCO and jointly contribute to the future
development of the organization.
 Russian President Vladimir Putin said the SCO should enhance security cooperation, deepen economic
cooperation, encourage people-to-people exchanges and open itself up to outside parties and international
organization.
 SCO Secretary-General Muratbek Imanaliev and officials from the Regional Anti-Terrorism Structure of
the SCO (RATS), the United Nations, Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Euroasian Economic
Community and Collective Security Treaty Organization also attended the summit.
 At the meeting, all participants exchanged views on the Afghanistan conflict and the Iranian nuclear issue.
The SCO decided to grant Afghanistan observer status and accept Turkey as a dialogue partner.
 The member states of the SCO adopted 10 agreements, including the Declaration on Building a Region
with Lasting Peace and Common Prosperity, the Strategic Plan for the Medium-Term Development of the
Shakoor Kakar
43
SCO, and the SCO Regulations on Political and Diplomatic Measures and Mechanism of Response to
Events Jeopardizing Regional Peace, Security and Stability.
The 2013 SCO summit will be held in Kyrgyzstan.
9. Conclusion:
The organization seems to have emerged as a powerful anti-U.S. block in Central Asia. It has been able to reduce
frictions between its two largest members, Russia and China & also overcome the various political disputes amo ng
most of its members. The common interests have been promoted with genuine cooperation & trust. Also tremendous
economic activities have been launched by the organization. It also has the potential to convert the region from the
backwardness to the developed & secure area. It can be labeled as ―the European union of the east‖.
Shakoor Kakar
44
4. (ASEAN) The Association of Southeast Asian Nations -

Introduction
ASEAN is a geo-political and economic organization of 10 countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed
in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Since then, membership has expanded to
include Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.
Objectives:
i. Acceleration of economic growth.
ii. Social progress.
iii. Cultural development among its members,
iv. Peace and stability of the region, to avoid global interference
v. To provide opportunities for member countries to discuss differences peacefully.
ASEAN spans over an area of 4.46 million km2 with a population of approximately 580 million people, 8.7% of the
world population. In 2009, its combined GDP had grown to more than USD $1.5 trillion. If ASEAN was a single
country, it would rank as the 9th largest economy in the world)
i. Peace& Stability
Aside from improving each member state's economies , the bloc also focused on peace and stability in the region.
On 15 December 1995, the Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty was signed with the intention of
turning Southeast Asia into a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone. The treaty took effect on 28 March 1997 after all but one
of the member states have ratified it. It became fully effective in 2001, after the Philippines ratified it, effectively
banning all nuclear weapons in the region.
Through the Bali Concord II in 2003, ASEAN has subscribed to the notion of democratic peace, which means all
member countries believe democratic processes will promote regional peace and stability. Also, the non -democratic
members all agreed that it was something all member states should aspire to.
ii. Environment
At the turn of the 21st century, issues shifted to involve a more environmental perspective. The organization started
to discuss environmental agreements. These included the signing of t he ASEAN Agreement on Trans boundary
Haze Pollution in 2002 as an attempt to control haze pollution in Southeast Asia. Other environmental treaties
introduced by the organization include the Cebu Declaration on East Asian Energy Security, the ASEAN Wildlife
Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN) in 2005, and the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and
Climate, both of which are responses to the potential effects of climate change.
iii. Further developments

In 2006, ASEAN was given observer status at the United Nations General Assembly . As a response, the
organization awarded the status of "dialogue partner" to the United Nations. In 2007, ASEAN stated that it aims to
complete all its free trade agreements with China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia and New Zealand by 2013, in
line with the establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community by 2015. In November 2007 the ASEAN members
signed the ASEAN Charter, a constitution governing relations among the ASEAN members and establishing
ASEAN itself as an international legal entity.
iv. The ASEAN Plus Three

It is a meeting between ASEAN, China, Japan, and South Korea, and is primarily held during each ASEAN
Summit.On February 27, 2009 a Free Trade Agreement with the ASEAN regional block of 10 countries and New
Zealand and its close partner Australia was signed, it is estimated that this FTA would boost aggregate GDP across
the 12 countries by more than US$48 billion over the period 2000-2020.
v. The unique feature of Asean- “The ASEAN way”

In the 1960s, the push for decolonization promoted the sovereignty of Indonesia and Malaysia among others. Since
nation building is often messy and vulnerable to foreign intervention, the governing elite wanted to be free to
implement independent policies with the knowledge that neighbors would refrain from interfering in their domestic
Shakoor Kakar
45
affairs. Territorially small members such as Singapore and Brunei were consciously fearful of force and coercive
measures from much bigger neighbors like Indonesia and Malaysia. "Through political dialogue and confidence
building, no tension has escalated into armed confrontation among ASEAN member countries since its
establishment more than three decades ago".
All of these features, namely non-interference, informality, minimal institutionalization, consultation and consensus,
non-use of force and non-confrontation have constituted what is called the ASEAN Way.
vi. Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement or RCEP.

Asean and its six dialogue partners have decided on the guiding principles and objectives for negotiating the RCEP.
The negotiations are expected to cover trade in goods; trade in services; investments; economic and technical
cooperation; intellectual property rights; competition policy; dispute settlement; and, new and emerging issues.
In short, RCEP brings together the leading economies in Asia. It is one of the most ambitious regional economic
integration initiatives. Upon realisation, it could see an alliance of a region populated by more than three billion
people, with a combined GDP (gross domestic product) of more than US$17 trillion, and over 40 per centof world
trade.
vii. Asean Political Security Community

Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, 2012 has been signed to govern inter-state relations which will
contribute to peace, security and stability in the region.
Conclusion
ASEAN is successfully following on the path shown by European Union. It has proved to be another worthy
organization which has shown confidence, mutual trust among the members. It has also transformed the region from
poverty to a energetic community. It has extensively engaged in enhancing the cooperative environment with the
nations outside the region. Its own way of dealing with the conflicts eg, consultation, dialogue, building consensus
& non-interference are commendable.
5. NAFTA 1994
North American Free Trade Agreement is a trilateral trade agreement among three US Canada and Mexico. It is
considered as one of the most powerful trade bloc in the world because Canada and US are one of the strongest
economies of the globe.
Nafta partner now account for more than 80% of Canadian and Mexican trade and a third of US trade.
Objective:
Eliminate bariers of Trade
Facilitate cross border movement of goods and services
Increase investment opportunities
Promote conditions of fair competitions in the free trade areas
 Some argue that the deal did not prove beneficial for Mexico. Economic growth of Mexico is 3.5 %.
Unemployment rate is higher than what it was when the treaty was sign.
 It is a unique trilateral bloc where two of the world most powerful economies joined hand with the third
world economy (Mexico)
 It achieved the most important goal of removing all the tariff barriers by 2008.
Shakoor Kakar
46
INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

League of Nation
United Nations
EU
OIC
WTO
What are International organizations?
International organizations include Inter-governmental Organizations (IGOs) and Non-Governmental Organizations

(NGOs). IGOs have official delegates appointed by member nations. NGOs, on the other hand, are comprised of
private individuals or institutions.
IGOs provide a less binding sense of regulation in comparison to national governments, yet their presence is
significant in an increasingly integrated world. While some contend that international organizations ensure
compliance to wishes of powerful nations, others view them as deterrents to hegemonic designs.
International organizations in global politics
In diplomacy, international law, journalism, and academic analysis, it is widely assumed that international relations
consist of the relations between coherent units called states. This chapter will argue that better understanding of
political change is obtained by analyzing the relations between governments and many other actors from each
country. Global politics also includes companies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Thus the five main
categories of political actors in the global system are:
• nearly 200 governments in the global system, including 192 members of the UN;
• 77,200 transnational companies (TNCs), such as Vodaphone, Ford, Shell, Microsoft, or Nestle, with these
parent companies having just over 773,000 foreign affiliates;
• more than 10,000 single-country non-governmental organizations, such as Population Concern (UK), or the
Sierra Club (USA), which have significant transnational activities;
• 246 intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), such as the UN, NATO, the European Union, or the
International Coffee Organization; and
• 7,300 international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), such as Amnesty International, the Baptist
World Alliance or the International Chamber of Shipping, plus a similar number of less well-established
international caucuses and networks of NGOs.
All these actors play a regular part in global politics and each government interacts with a diverse range of non -state
actors. Sometimes guerrilla groups challenge the authority of particular governments. In addition, even though they
are considered not to be legitimate participants in the system, terrorists and other criminal gangs have an impact,
often minor, but sometimes in a major way. Very many more companies and NGOs only operate in a single country,
but have the potential to expand into other countries.
What is Transnational actor?
It is possible to define international relations as covering the relations between states. This is known as the state -
centric approach, or Realism. Then it is only a tautology (true by definition) to say that non -state actors are of
secondary importance. A more open-ended approach, known as Pluralism, is based on the assumption that all types
of actor can affect political outcomes. The very words, non-state actors, imply that states are dominant and other
actors are secondary. An alternative phras e, transnational actors, has been coined by academics in order to assert
forcefully that international relations are not limited to governments and other actors operate across country
boundaries.
The great advantage of the state-centric approach is that the bewildering complexity of world politics is reduced to
the relative simplicity of the interactions of less than 200 supposedly similar units. However, there are four major
problems with state-centric approach.
Shakoor Kakar
47
There is ambiguity between different meanings of a state. The concept of the state has three very different meanings:
a legal person, a political community, and a government.
The second problem is the lack of similarity between countries. Giving all states the same legal status implies they
are all essentially the same type of unit, when in fact they are not remotely similar.
The countries and governments around the world may be equal in law, but have few political similarities. Many
governments control fewer resources than many transnational actors.
It cannot be assumed that all country-based political systems are more coherent than global systems, particularly as
national loyalties do not match country boundaries.
By abandoning the language of states and ‗non -state‘ actors, we can admit the possibility of theorizing about many
types of actors in global politics. By distinguishing government from society and nation from country, we can ask
whether private groups, companies, and national minorities in each country engage in transnational relations.
1. The League of Nations

Introduction
The League of Nations (LON) was formed in 1919, It was the predecessor to the United Nations. It represented a
major attempt by the great powers after the First World War (1914–18) to institutionalise a system of collective
security, settling disputes through negotiations and diplomacy; and to improve global welfare. Its founding
Covenant was formulated as part of the Treaty of Versailles (1919). Despite these bold aims, it could not prevent
aggression by the fascist powers in late 1930s.
The first meeting was held in Geneva in 1920, with 42 states represented. Over the next 26 years, a total of 63 states
were represented at one time or another. The last meeting was held in 1946, at the end of which the League was
formally replaced by the United Nations which promptly moved its headquarters to New York, reflecting not only
the status of the United States but also disillusionment with the performance of the League.
1. Background
The Allied victors of First World War assembled in Paris in the winter of 1919 to draw up peace treaties dealing
with each of the defeated states. The preeminent figure in these negotiations was US President Wilson, who had
arrived in Europe to a hero‘s welcome. Near the end of the war, Wilson had laid o ut his ideas for a postwar peace in
his Fourteen Points, which trumpeted principles of democracy, liberalism, and nationalism and echoed the ideals of
the Enlightenment. Wilson called for national self-determination for the peoples of Europe and the redrawing of
European borders along national lines. He also appealed for ―a general association of nations,‖ an international
political organization to settle disputes among states and prevent war. Both of these ideas became central to the
discussions at the peace negotiations.
2. The Treaty of Versailles
Despite Wilson‘s lofty and idealistic goals, the peace treaty for Germany, the Versailles Treaty, was heavy -handed
and punitive. Even though the origins of the war could hardly be laid at the feet of only one stat e, Germany was
assigned blame for the war and was compelled to accept explicit responsibility for Allied losses in the war. German
territory was much reduced in size, with Alsace-Lorraine returned to France and parts of the prewar state assigned to
the newly established state of Poland. East Prussia was separated from the rest of Germany by a sliver of land, the
Polish corridor, allowing Poland access to the Baltic Sea. The coal- and steel-producing areas of the Saar region
(along the border with France) were placed under French control for fifteen years. Germany was stripped of her
Shakoor Kakar
48
colonies in Africa and elsewhere, and they were assigned by the League of Nations to other states to administer as
mandates.
Out of the defunct empires were carved seven new independent states: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. Austria and Hungary were now small, separate states. With the breakup of the
Ottoman Empire, Turkey emerged as an independent republic, and Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Iraq were given as
League of Nations mandates to France or Britain. Theoretically, these new states and border changes were all based
on nationality, in accordance with Wilson‘s Fourteen Points.
The other great brainchild of Woodrow Wilson was the ―general association of nations,‖ which emerged from the
Paris meetings at the new League of Nations. The League was based on the principle of collective security, which
held that all countries collectively would be responsible for protecting the sovereign ty and independence of every
other country. Member states pledged not to resort to war and to utilize the institutions of the League, headquartered
in Geneva, Switzerland, to discuss and settle international disputes peacefully. As a universal organization with all
nations represented, the League would replace the old system of alliances, balance of power, and war as an
instrument of policy. The League of Nations never lived up to this potential, however. The biggest problem was that
the United States itself did not join the organization.
3. Structure
Like the United Nations, the League consisted of an Assembly, a Council, and a Secretariat. The Assembly,
consisting of every member state, convened annually in Geneva. The Council was composed of several permanen t
members (France, Britain, Italy, Japan, and later Germany and the Soviet Union) and some nonpermanent members
elected by the Assembly. It met more often than the Assembly to consider political disputes and to focus on the
reduction of armaments. Its decisions had to be unanimous. The Secretariat, the administrative branch of the League,
consisted of a Secretary-General and a staff of 500 people. Several other organisations were associated with the
League such as the World Court and the International Labou r Organisation.
To some extent, the League was an extension of liberal, parliamentary practice to international relations. It was
based on the idea that political compromise arrived at by open discussion was the best means to promote political
stability, an idea deeply held by one of the main architects of the League, US President Woodrow Wilson.
Like so many international organisations, the League was also designed in light of the alleged lessons of the First
World War, of which three were particularly important. First, in 1914 Germany had crossed the border into France
and Belgium. It was believed that in future wars it would be easy to decide who was the aggressor, a decision that
was meant to trigger a range of collective countermeasures, ranging from d iplomatic boycotts to the imposition of
sanctions and ultimately war. Second, the system for the prevention of conflicts rested on the assumption that war
could be prevented by the application of reason based on legal principles. The idea that power could be subordinated
to law was a common assumption among many idealists of the interwar period. Third, the speed of political
developments in 1914 led to the implementation of several mechanisms of delay to slow down unilateral decision -
making in a crisis. It was assumed that such time limits would be respected. The failure of the League to deter or
punish aggression by Italy, Japan, and ultimately Germany in the 1930s reflected some fundamental flaws in the
design of the League.
4. Heavily Dominated by England and France
It should be noted that the League was never fully representative of the international community. The United States
Senate did not ratify the treaties and did not become a member of the League. South Africa and Liberia were the
only African states. The Soviet Union was not invited to Versailles, and did not join the League until 1934. Few
South American states were represented, and only China, Japan, and Thailand represented Asia. Germany was
Shakoor Kakar
49
missing from the start in light of its alleged responsibility for the First World War. Because the League was
primarily a European body, the number of states that were able to carry out any police action against an aggressor
was effectively limited to France and Britain. Without their consent, of course, no de cision was likely to be carried
out, and France in particular was determined to use the League to contain Germany in Europe.
5. Limited Membership
The ultimate failure of the League to maintain international peace and security was a product of its limited
membership, its preservation of a territorial settlement that humiliated Germany, and its faith in the willingness of
great powers to subordinate their short-term national interests to the preservation of international peace. Confronted
with the rise of fascism in Italy, Germany, and Japan in the 1930s – a powerful bloc of states that glorified war and
embarked on a sustained rearmament programme to achieve their aim to reconfigure the global balance of power in
their favour – the League was impotent. Indeed, it was established during a period in which powerful states
continued to rely on war as a means of resolving conflict, and when new forms of nationalism not only undermined
some European empires (Austria- Hungary, Turkey) but also justified new patterns of imperial domination. In light
of the rapid shifts in power that were taking place in the first half of the twentieth century, combined with the
diplomatic isolation of the United States and the Soviet Union, it is hardly surprising that the League participated in
rather than prevented the decline of Europe.
6. Conclusion
Despite its sorry record, the League did achieve some successes in disputes among small states (for example,
between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925 and between Poland and Lithuania in 1927). During its brief history, it
considered more than 60 cases ranging from technical legal disputes to major cases of armed conflict. It was
successful in bringing half of them to a peaceful conclusion,
2. European Union
EU is an international organization of European countries formed after World War II seeking economic & political
cooperation & integration. One of its major objectives was to establish single market by reducing trade barriers and
melting of the borders among the countries.
The European Union (EU) is an economic and political union of 27 member states ]The process of integration
started in 1952 & ultimately Economic union was established by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1993. With over
500 million citizens, the EU combined generated an estimated 28% s hare (US$ 16.5 trillion in 2009).
The EU has developed a single market through a standardized system of laws which apply in all member states, and
ensures the capital including the abolition of passport controls by the Schengen Agreement between 22 EU states. It
enacts legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintains common policies on trade. Agriculture, fisheries and
regional development . Sixteen member states have adopted a common currency, the euro, constituting the Euro zone.
Having a legal personality, the EU is able to conclude treaties with countries. It has devised the Common Foreign
and Security Policy, thus developing a limited role in European defense and foreign policy. Permanent diplomatic
missions of the EU are established around the world and representation at the United Nations , WTO, G8 and G-20 is
maintained.
Shakoor Kakar
50
1. Achievements
i. Foreign relations.
Steps for a more wide ranging coordination in foreign relations began in 1970.Common Foreign and Security
Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty. The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those
of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co -operation, respect for
human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the
appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue.
Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt
through enlargement this influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as " soft power",
as opposed to military "hard power".
In the UN, as an observer and working together, the EU has gained influence in areas such as aid due to its large
contributions in that field. In the G8, the EU has rights of membership besides chairing/hosting summit meetings
and is represented at meetings by the presidents of the Commission and the Council. In the World Trade
Organization (WTO), where all 27 member states are represented
The European Union does not have one unified military. The predecessors of the European Union were not devised
as a strong military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defense purposes.
Twenty-one EU members are members of NATO] while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality.
EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from Africa to the former Yugoslavia and the Middle East.
In an EU consisting of 27 members, substantial security and defense cooperation is increasingly relying on great
power cooperation.
ii. Humanitarian aid
Collectively, the EU is the largest contributor of foreign aid in the world.
The EU provides humanitarian aid to developing countries. Counting the EU's own contributions and those of its
member states together, the EU is the largest aid donor in
Over the years the EU has established a strong relationship with the UN. Co -operation takes place on a broad range
of areas: development, addressing climate change, peace building in conflict ridden co untries, humanitarian
assistance in crises, fighting corruption and crime, global health concerns such as AIDS/HIV, labor issues and
culture. The EU and its Member States also play a crucial role as the major contributor to the UN system. Co -
operation is based not only in the form of the policy dialogue, but also goes further by generating financial support
of the UN programs and projects.
iii. Economy
The EU and the next seven largest economies in the

world by nominal GDP. (IMF, 2009)
Since its origin, the EU has established a single economic market across the territory of all its members. Currently, a
single currency is in use between the 16 members of the eurozone If considered as a single economy, the EU
generated an estimated nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of US$16.45 in 2009, amounting to over 21% of the
world's total economic output which makes it the largest economy in the world and the second largest trade bloc . It
Shakoor Kakar
51
is also the largest exporter, and largest importer of goods and services, and the biggest trading partner to several
large countries such as China and India.
161 of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500 in 2010) have their headquarters
in the EU.
There is a great deal of variance for annual per capita income within individual EU states, this range from US$7,000
to US$69,000.
iv. Single market (Free/ common market)
The signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 established the EU single market. It ensures the free movement of
goods, capital, people and services .
Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common
market, subsequently renamed the single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market
involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people and services within the EU, and the customs union involves
the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into
the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel. The free
movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.
The free movement of person‘s means citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire
in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional
qualifications of other states.
The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states
in order to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis
v. Monetary union (Common currency)
The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the EU. Member states were legally
bound to start the monetary union no later than 1 January 1999.
16 EU countries have introduced the euro as their sole currency.
It is also intended as a political symbol of integration and stimulus for more. Since its launch the euro has become
the second reserve currency in the world with a quarter of foreign exchanges reserves being in euro.
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the oldest policies of the European Community, and was one of
its core aims. The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food
supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilizing markets, and ensuring reasonable prices for
consumers.
vi . Environment.
The EU is the most ambitious player and self-proclaimed leader in international climate policy. At the 2007 United
Nations Climate Change Conference, dealing with the successor to the Kyoto Protocol, the EU has proposed at 50%
cut in greenhouse gases by 2050.
vii. Nobel Peace Prize,2012
It was awarded to EU for maintaining peace and harmony amongst all countries in such unfavorable conditions.
Shakoor Kakar
52
5. Challenges:
a) Identity crisis.
b) 27 countries- Mega Europe, consensus becomes difficult.
c) Economic recession & debt crises in various countries.
d) Economic imbalance between Western & Eastern Europe. Problem of immigration & cheap labor
threatening remaining Europeans.
e) Conflict over international issues & US interference.
f) Rivalry between France & UK.
g) Turkey‘s membership
h) Economic crisis of Greece.
6. Conclusion
EU has changed the destiny of post-war Europe from a devastated place to the richest & most prosperous region
in the world. Today it has become a genuine global entity that reaches out to its southern and eastern neighbors,
meets its responsibilities in the world and leads the way on the environment and human rights. Because of its chain
of successes EU has become a role model for all the other regional organizations of the world.
3. (OIC) Organization for Islamic Conferences

Background
In August, 1969 establishment of OIC was unavoidable when the Jews attempted to burn Masjid -e-Aqsa and
demolished some of its parts. This was not the problem of only Arabs. The Arabs Foreign Ministers suggested to
call an Islamic submit conference for looking into crucial matter. So first meeting of the heads of Islamic countries
was held in Rabat, a city of Morocco in September, 1969. Then the o rganization of Muslim Conference was
founded.
Organization
The OIC is an inter-governmental organization with a Permanent Delegation to the UN. OIC groups 57 mostly
Islamic nations in Middle East, North and West Africa, Central Asia, Southeast and South As ia. The OIC is
dedicated to serving the interests of the world's 1.3 billion Muslims. OIC is an International Organization. Its head -
office is in Jeddah. The first Chairman was Shah Hussain of Morocco and the first Secretary General was Sharif-
uddin Perzada, the then Foreign Minister of Pakistan.
1. IMPORTANT INSTITUTIONS
i. Islamic Summit:
The most important institution of OIC is Islamic Summit. All the heads of Islamic Countries are its members.
According to the decision of 1981, Islamic Summit Conference is held after three years.
ii. Conference of Foreign Minister
The Second Institution of OIC is the Conference of Foreign Minister. Its meeting is held at least once annually.
iii. General Secretariat
General Secretariat is another important Institution of OIC. This is presided over by the Secretary General who
prepared agenda per every conference in a meeting of high level officers. He also looks after the holding and
proceeding of conferences.
2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF OIC
Shakoor Kakar
53
Following are the aims and objectives of the OIC:-

1. Steps for defending Muslims States from Nuclear Dangers.
2. Peaceful solution of conflicts of the Muslim Countries
3. Protection of the Muslims territories from Jewish aggression and protection of holy places in Jerusalem.
4. Establishment of Islamic Development Bank and Islamic Stability Fund for the sake of economic development of
Muslim Countries.
5. In the case of Foreign Aggression, Defense of Muslim Countries.
6. The restoration of occupied Muslim Territories and especially struggle for the liberty of Palestine.
7. Protection of Muslim Minorities in Non-Muslim Countries.
8. Establishment of Islamic Commission for cultural & social activities to promote Islamic Culture.
9. Establishment of Muslim Universities for the Promulgation Islamic Ideology.
10. Establishment of impartial policies.
11. To save the Muslim Countries from being toadies to the Super Powers.
12. To consolidate cooperation among member states in economic, social, cultural, scientific, and other fields o f
activity;
13. To support all Muslim people in their struggle to safeguard their dignity, independence and national rights.
3. IMPORTANT MEETINGS OF OIC

1. First Summit of OIC (Rabat Morocco 1969)
First Summit of OIC was held in the city of Rabat (Morocco ) in September, 1969. This Summit was inaugurated by
Shah Hussain. In this meeting General Muhammad Agha Yaya Khan represented Pakistan. Twenty -five heads of
the Muslim Countries and eleven joint this session of OIC, so total number of Muslims Countries who joint this
session was 36. Following decisions were made in this summit.
i. End of the poverty and illiteracy from the Muslim Countries

ii. To work for the economic prosperity of the Muslim Countries
iii. To eliminate the mutual difference of the Muslims
iv. Solution of the Palestine‟s Problem
2. Second Summit of OIC (Lahore-Pakistan 1974)

Second Summit of OIC was held in Lahore-Pakistan in 1974 in which 36 Muslim Countries were participated
important Islamic Leader like Shah Faisal, Col. Qazafi President Anwar Sadaat also joined this session. In this
meeting the following decision were made.
i. Suggestions were presented for the solution of the Palestine‟s problem.
ii. End of the poverty and illiteracy from the Muslim Countries
iii. To work for the economic prosperity of the Muslim Countries
iv. Establishment of Islamic Universities
v. Establishment of Islamic News Agency
vi. In this conference Pakistan recognized Bangladesh
3. Third Summit Conference of the OIC (Taif-Saudi Arabia 1981)

Third Summit of the OIC was held in Taif Saudi Arabia in 1981. In which 38 Muslims Countries were participated
and the following decisions were made in this meeting.
i. Put back the Russian forces from Afghanistan
ii. To stop the war of Iraq and Iran
iii. Establishment of common shipping organization among the member countries
iv. Establishment of Islamic Welfare Associations
v. To solve the mutual problems by negotiations of the Muslims
4. Fourth Summit Conference of the OIC (Casablanca, Morocco 1984 )

Fourth Summit of the OIC was held in Casablanca, Morocco in 1984. In which 43 Muslims Countries were
participated and the following decisions were made in this meeting.
i. Solution of the problem of the Palestine‟s Problem
ii. To provide the rights to the people of the Bosnia, Herzegovina
iii. Solution of the problem of the Kashmir
Shakoor Kakar
54
iv. To stop the Iran, Iraq war

v. To favour the Afghan Mujahddin against the Russian Fo rces
5. Fifth Summit Conference of the OIC (Kuwait 1987 )

Fifth Summit of the OIC was held in Kuwait in 1987. In which 43 Muslims Countries were participated and the
following decisions were made in this meeting.
i. Unity of the Muslims World
ii. Solution of the problem of the Palestine‟s Problem
iii. Solution of the problem of the Kashmir
iv. To stop the Iran, Iraq war
v. To favour the Afghan Mujahddin against the Russian Forces
6. Sixth Summit Conference of the OIC (Dakar Senegal 1991 )

Sixth Summit of the OIC was held in Dakar Senegal in 1991. In which 24 Muslims Countries were participated and
Iraq boycotted this meeting. The following decisions were made in this meeting.
i. End of the poverty and illiteracy from the Muslim Countries
ii. To work for the economic prosperity of the Muslim Countries
iii. To eliminate the mutual difference of the Muslims
iv. Solution of the Palestine‟s Problem
vi. Solution of the Problem of Kashmir
7. Seventh Summit Conference of the OIC (Casablanca, Morocco 1994 )

Seventh Summit of the OIC was held in Casablanca in 1994. In which 51 Muslims Countries were participated . The
i. To end the terrorism from the world
ii. Solution of the problem of the Kashmir
iii. Establishment of Islamic News Agency
iv. Suggestions were presented for the solution of the Palestine‟s problem.
8. Eighth Summit Conference of the OIC (Tehran, Iran 1997 )

Eighth Summit of the OIC was held in Tehran, Iran in 1997. In which 53 Muslims Countries were participated. The
i. To work for the Muslim Unity
ii. To maximize the trade among the member countries
iii. Cultural economic and political relations among the member countries
iv. To resolve the problems of the Muslims countries
9. Ninth Summit Conference of the OIC (Doha, Qatar 2000)

Ninth Summit of the OIC was held in Doha, Qatar in 2000. In which 56 Muslims Countries were participated. The
i. To favour the Afghanistan Government to over come the civil war in Afghanistan
ii. To raise the funds for the Afghan Refugees
iii. To work for the establishment of peace in Bosnia
iv. To favour the Right of Self Determination of the Kashmiri‟s
v. Solution of the Problem of the Cyprus
10. Tenth Summit Conference of the OIC (Patrajiya, Malaysia 2003 )

Tenth Summit of the OIC was held in Patrajiya, Malaysia in 2003. In which 57 Muslims Countries were
participated. The following decisions were made in this meeting.
i. To work for the Unity of the Muslim World
ii. To end the terrorism in the world after the incident of 9/11
iii. Solution of the problem of the Afghanistan
iv. Solution of the problem of the Kashmir
11. Eleventh Summit Conference of the OIC (Dakar, Senegal 2008 )
Shakoor Kakar
55
Eleventh Summit of the OIC was held in Dakar, Senegal in 2008. In which 39 Muslims Countries were participated.
The following decisions were made in this meeting.
i. To raise the funds for the Afghan Refugees
ii. To work for the establishment of peace in Bosnia
iii. To favour the Right of Self Determination of the Kashmiri‟s
iv. Solution of the problem of the Palestine
No-doubt organization of Islamic Countries is a largest organization of the Muslim Countries which tries to resolve
the problems of the Muslims Countries but impact this conference is totally failed to achieve its objectives.
4. WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)

The WTO came into existence on 1 January 1995, as one result of the agreement reached in the seven -year-long
Uruguay round of multilateral trade negotiations that was completed the previous year. Its history, ho wever, extends
much further back, at least to the proposed International Trade Organisation (ITO) that was designed in the mid -
1940s alongside the other Bretton Woods Institutions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
ITO was never approved.
The institutional structure of the WTO contains the following components:

i. A revised GATT, the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS),
ii. The Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Issues (TRIPS).
These components collectively enable the WTO to fulfill four important functions in international trade.
1. Functions
i. First, it constitutes a forum for the exchange of information, consultation, and negotiation among its 135 member
states. At the highest level, the trade ministers from the member countries meet every two years to discuss trade
policies. Members also communicate through ongoing working groups on particular issue -areas such as the
environment or competition policy.
ii. Second, the WTO constrains the trade policy actions of member states. Underlying the entire WTO and its GATT
predecessor is the single principle of nondiscrimination.
iii. Third, the WTO specifies and permits a list of exceptions from the constraints for prescribed reasons and with
prescribed means. international trade agreements typically include some sort of escape clause that allows the parties
to back partially out of the agreement in the event that it proves to be more injurious than expected. The WTO
specifies in great detail the criteria that states must follow in order to avoid the constraints without penalty.
iv. Finally, the WTO offers a mechanism for the settlement of disputes among member states. When one country
believes that another country is violating any aspect of a trade agreement, the complaining country first requests
consultation with the alleged offender, and the two seek to resolve the dispute on their own.
2. Analyses
In short, the WTO represents a major attempt to provide a more institutionalized and regulatory system for the
conduct of international trade.
On the one hand, its membership has increased dramatically over the last decade, and many observers have
welcomed the formal entry of China after years of negotiation. On the other hand, the organization also faces some
difficult challenges in the years ahead. This became clear in 1999 when member states met in Seattle to kick start a
new round of trade talks designed to increase free trade and reduce barriers to international trade. Preliminary talks
Shakoor Kakar
56
in Geneva revealed such a sharp division among the participants that it proved impossible to create an agenda for the
meetings. In other words, the members were so divided that they could not even agree on what ought to be
discussed. For example, the United States wants Europe to cut it s subsidies of farm products so that it can sell more
products to Europe. The Europeans are refusing, since free trade between US and European agriculture would
devastate Europe‘s farmers.
Shakoor Kakar
57
Chapter Five: Foreign Policy

1. US - Pakistan relations
Introduction
US - Pakistan relations in the last six decades have been unstable and moved in a cyclical pattern with recurrent ups
and downs, with frequent alternating episodes of close partnership and sharp friction. Pakistan came into existence
just as the cold war had started between America& Soviet Union (USSR). The world was split into two camps
soviet and US. Infant Pakistan and India had to pick their camps.
History
1950: Liaqat Ali khan (1st PM) was invited by Soviets and Americans. He chose to visitUS, thus starting PAK-US
relations. India chose Soviets.
1954: Pakistan grew closer to US, joining in defense agreement SEATO (alliance against, communism).
1955: an alliance, the Baghdad Pact, was formed between Britain, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Pakistan (its name
changed to CENTO)
Late 50s and early 60s:US aid starts flowing to Pak. with the military government of Gen Ayub Khan, Pakistan
grew even more close to US. First US base opened at Badaber near Peshawar. U2 flights originating from Badaber
gained lot of information about Soviet activities across the border.
In May 1960, the USSR shot U2 reconnaissance plane of US down over Russian soil, it had taken off from Badaber.
The incidence brought lot of embarrassment both for Pak & US. USSR also warned Pak.
1965: Indo-Pak war...Pak US relations suffer a setback when US places arms embargo on both nations, knowing
well that Pakistan was totally dependent on US arms and India did not use any US arms. Soviets speeded up arms
supplies to India. Pakistan gained air superiority by using US supplied F-86 Sabers and F-104 Star fighters.
Pakistan‘s old enemy King Zahir of Afghanistan ensured safety of Pakistan‘s Western borders, allowing Pakistan to
remove it troops from that border. Iran opened her airfields to Pakistan Air force. China moved her troops close to
Indian border but US stopped supplies forcing Pakistan to sue for peace offered under Soviets. It was the first
betrayal by US.
1971: Civil war in Pakistan. India invaded Pakistan. Massive blood shed supervised by India. Pakistan asks her old
time ally US for help. US tell Pakistan 7th Fleet is on its way. Now after 25 years declassified documents revealed
that US deliberately wanted to break Pakistan to appease India. It was the second betrayal by US.
1970s: Pakistan feeling betrayed by the US decided to move away from US block. Venturing first into NAM (non
aligned movement) then in OIC and finally started making friends with soviets. Soviets started setting up steel mills
in Pakistan and supplied some military aid (Mi-8 etc). Pakistan moved on the road to socialism under Bhutto. US
believed that Pakistan was slipping to the other side. US grew hostile to Pakistan. Bhutto openly challenged US in
his speeches....
1977: CIA organized "Tehrik-i-Nizam-i-Mustafa" spearheaded by Jamaat-i-Islami a hard core Religious party. BTW
no religious party has ever won any significant votes in any elections. They have always come to power using back
doors. The movement gains momentum and army topples Bhutto, who is finally hanged in 1979. This is what
happens to those who oppose USA. US also pass Symington law thereby stopping aid to countries pursuing nuclear
technology (Pak suffers).
1979: Iranian revolution...US lose a staunch ally in the region (i.e. Iran). Same year soviets invade Afghanistan. It‘s
a check mate for US as communism expands in Afghanistan. 1980s: Pak-US friendship starts again as US badly
Shakoor Kakar
58
needs an ally in the region. Pakistan becomes a front line state in war against communism........US takes lenient view
of Pak nuclear program & restores its aid. Pak receives 3.2 billion.
1989-92: Soviets are finally defeated triggering a massive reaction all over the world which finally results in fall of
communism....US is the sole super power...either u r with the US or u r dead...
India quickly jumps ship and prostates before US.... Pakistan is ignored by US.... relations suddenly become cold...
Zia-ul-Haq is killed in a plane crash which many in Pakistan believe was a work of CIA...
1990s: US closes its eyes on Pakistan again now that it is no longer needed. India becomes the blue eyed baby.
Nuclear sanctions again imposed on Pak. Pak aid stopped.
1998: India exploded nuclear device and threatens to attack Pakistan. World keeps mum. Pakistan responds by its
own nuke tests. India shuts up but US imposes s anctions on Pakistan... Its third betrayal by US;
1999-2000: Gen Pervaiz Musharraf topples Nawaz Sharif‘ govt. West condemns Pak. Pak feels isolated & in serious
financial crisis.
2001: 9/11 again pushes US to seek its old ally. Pak, in its was against t errorism. Pakistan as always agrees......now
people in Pakistan see a 4th betrayal in the making as US assures India that it will help India fight "terrorism" in
Kashmir a veiled threat that Pakistan will suffer same fate as Afghanistan... No one realizes that the terrorism in
Kashmir is by Indian army....Look at the statistics.... tens of thousands of Kashmir is slaughtered by Indian
occupation forces....yet when Kashmir is fight the Indian army they are labeled terrorists...by that token George
Washington was a terrorist, Charles DE Gaulle was a terrorist, Nelson Mandela was even declared a te rrorist by
racist South Africa. Pakistan is always there when US needed her...but US did not reciprocate.... we are a very
emotional nation.... we love our friends but nobody likes to be betrayed.
Post–September 11
 After the September 11 attacks in 2001 in the United States, Pakistan once again became a key ally in the
war on terror with the United States. In 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush strongly encouraged Pa kistan
government to join the U.S. war on terror. Prior to the September 11 attacks in 2001, Pakistan was key
supporter of the Taliban in Afghanistan, as part of their "strategic depth" objective vies -a-vies India.
 After 9/11, Pakistan, led by General Pervez Musharraf, reversed course under pressure from the United
States and joined the "War on Terror" as a U.S. ally. Having failed to convince the Taliban to hand over bin
Laden and other members of Al Qaeda, Pakistan provided the U.S. a number of military airports and bases
for its attack on Afghanistan, along with other logistical support. Since 2001, Pakistan has arrested over six
hundred Al-Qaeda members and handed them over to the United States; senior U.S. officers have been
lavish in their praise of Pakistani efforts in public while expressing their concern that not enough was being
done in private. However, General Musharraf was strongly supported by the Bush administration – a
common theme throughout Pakistan's relations with the U.S. has been U.S. s upport of military dictators to
the detriment of democracy in Pakistan.
In return for their support, Pakistan had sanctions lifted and has received about $20 billion in U.S. aid since 2001,
primarily military. In 2004, President George W. Bush designated Pakistan as a major non-NATO ally, making it
eligible, among other things, to purchase advanced American military technology.
2002-2003: Pak deploys 80000 troops in tribal area (FATA) to crush the militants. The result has been a mix.
2005: US dis-satisfied over Pak performance in war on terror due to increased insurgency along Pak- Afghan
border. It starts drone attacks in Pak territory violating its sovereignty. Drones lead to huge collateral damage &
Shakoor Kakar
59
death of innocent civilians leading to more resentment among the tribal people. Militancy spreads. US pressurize
Pak to ―Do more‖.
2006- 2007: The former President Bush signed off an internal security memo authorizing important operational
changes to the US forces in Afghanistan. Not only could the drone att acks be increased on the Pakistan side of the
border, they could be conducted without prior intimation to the Pakistanis And, if and when any of the ‗big guns‘
(the top three) of al Qaeda and the Taliban were located, the US forces were authorized to att ack them without
being inhibited by the Pak-Afghan boundary.
Obama
2008: When Obama took over in January 2008, one of his first orders of business was a brief on the Afghan
situation. He was briefed on President Bush‘s authorization of enhanced operations . Reportedly, he expressed
surprise at why such facilitation was not being fully exploited. He ordered an immediate increase in the frequency of
drone attacks.
2009: In October 2009, the U.S. Congress approved $7.5 billion of non -military aid (Kerry Lugar bill) to Pakistan
over the next five years. But the disbursement of aid was made conditional to Pak performance. Various other
humiliating terms were also included in the bill.
2010: US demands Pak to launch an operation against Haqqani group (in North Wa ziristan) responsible for
dangerous attacks on American forces. Pak shows reluctance. No of drone attacks cross over 85 (highest) in this
year producing no result.
2011-2012: Important Events;

a. Jan- Feb, 2011, Raymond Davis case: He was an American contractor who killed 2 citizens in Lahore & was
arrested. Under tremendous public demand he was tried according to our law. US wanted Pak to release him
immediately. Pak ultimately succumbed to American pressure & released him. US proving its might over Pak.
b. Haqqani group: American pressure increases on Pak to ‗Do more‖ against the militants. US continuously asking
for operation against Haqqani network.
c. May 02, 2011, Abbottabad operation: The ―unilateral and unauthorized‖ Operation was carried out by US forces
in Abbottabad, ultimately killing Osama Bin Ladin, the most wanted fugitive of the century. The operation turned
out to be a watershed in the context of US-Pakistan relationship. Despite the fact that there is a compulsion for
Pakistan - as well as US, to keep the partnership in war on terror on an even keel, the brash American action,
regardless of Pakistani priorities and sensitivities, has driven the mounting tension between the two nations ever
close to the limits of a breaking point. Pakistan‘s credibility also torn apart.
d. July, 11: Congress discusses at cutting aid to Pak. $800 million aid blocked for Pak.
e. July- Aug, 11: Halfhearted efforts are under way by Americans to minimize the damage to the relations as
Pakistan army takes a tough stance & refuses to cooperate with US.
f. July, 12: Ending a bitter stand-off, Pakistan agreed to reopen key NATO supply routes into Afghanistan. The
action was taken in lieu of the US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton‘s statement, commenting that she was s orry for
the loss of life in the botched air raid on Silala check post.
g. December, 12: The United States assures Pakistan of an early release of $600 million in Coalition Support Fund
(CSF) arrears, increasing OPIC support for projects in Pakistan from $100 million to $1 billion, launching an $80
million Pakistan Investment Fund for SMEs in January 2013. It also reaffirms a $200 million commitment for the
Diamer-Basha Dam.
Analyses
In order to keep Pakistan bridled, the US coined ‗do more mantra‘, kept leveling unsubstantiated allegations,
resorted to coercive diplomacy and subjected it to drone strikes. It made Pakistan a convenient scapegoat to hide its
failures. Pak-US relations, which remained lukewarm because of bossy and mistrustful attitude of Ame rican
officials and their outright leaning toward India and Afghanistan, nosedived after the incidents of Raymond Davis in
Shakoor Kakar
60
January 2011, stealth attack in Abbottabad on 2 May, Admiral Mullen‘s diatribe in September describing Haqqani
network as the ‗veritable arm‘ of ISI, and brutal Salala attack on 26 November. In utter frustration, Pakistan was
forced to close Shamsi airbase, block NATO supply routes for over seven months and cease military cooperation.
These steps meant to impress upon the US to respect Pakistan‘s sovereignty and to treat Pakistan as an ally rather
than a target further widened the trust gap and brought Pak-US relations to a near-breaking point.
Future
 Five main factors will determine the substance and direction of Pakistan -US relations in the coming years.
They are the issues of terrorism, Afghanistan, nuclear proliferation, US-China relations and US-India
relations.
 From the perspective of Pakistan, Pakistan has been seeking a civil nuclear deal like the one US concluded
with India and considers it imperative for restoring balance in the region. It wants this agreement to
overcome the energy crisis it is facing. Pakistan wants to have a balanced relationship with the US and not
a discriminatory one.
Conclusion
American demands have no end& Pak has its own limitations & scarce resources. US must treat Pak on equal
footings; realize our sacrifices & huge financial losses. We have also rendered thousands of lives in this regard &are
ourselves in a mess. There is a need to cooperate with each other on long term basis, understand each other‘s
sensitivities & show mutual trust & respect. Terrorism is dual enemy ofboth & can‘t be eliminated wit out the
support of other partner.
Shakoor Kakar
61
2. Pakistan Foreign Policy

1. PRINCIPLES OF FOREIGN POLICY
2. OBJECTIVES OF FOREIGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN
3. DETERMINA NTS OF FOREIGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN
4. Pak-China Relation
4. Relations between Pakistan and India
Introduction
The foreign policy is to establish and develop relations with other countries to watch the national interests by taking
appropriate steps at international level. Pakistan inherited the foreign policy from British India. After independence,
Pakistan made some changes in British policy according to the ideology and the objectives of Pakistan Movement.
1. PRINCIPLES OF FOREIGN POLICY
Every country established its foreign policy according to own ideological, historical, political and geographical
circumstances. Foreign Policy of Pakistan was established by Quaid -e-Azam itself. Foreign policy of Pakistan is
based on the following basic principles:
1. Peaceful Co-existence Pakistan believes in peaceful co-existence and respects the liberty, freedom and
sovereignty of other countries, and expects the same from others. Pakistan is always disinterested in the internal
affairs of others, and opposes imperialism and aggression of every type.
2. Unity of Islamic World Pakistan is the supporter of the unity of Islamic world, and is following the policy to
establish good relations with Muslim countries. Pakistan has always tried to solve the conflicts of Islamic world and
played very important role in Iran – Iraq war, Palestine‟s and Afghanistan‟s liberation. Pakistan is an active member
of the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC). Pakistan has provided a platform for Muslim coun tries of Central
Asia to solve their economic problems by establishing Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO).
3. International and Regional Cooperation Pakistan is an active member of international and regional
organization i.e. United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC),
Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) and SAARC. Pakistan always cooperates with all these organizations
for the security of world peace.
2. OBJECTIVES OF FOREIGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN
“In the International Relations, There is no any permanent friend and enemy but the preference is given only to the
national interest any state form its foreign policy on the base of National Security & Interest.” The main objectives
of the foreign policy of Pakistan are as under:-
1. National Security: The main objective of foreign policy of Pakistan is its national security or independence.
Pakistan was a new born state, and there was a need to make arrangements for its security. So Pakistan formulated
its foreign policy on the basis of national security. It gave due importance to the national security, while establishing
external relationships with other countries. Pakistan respects the national integrity and the political independence of
other countries, and expect from others the same.
2. Economic Development Pakistan is a developing country and inspires for its economic development. It needs to
establish and maintain cordial relations with those states with whom it can maximize its trade relations or from
whom it can obtain maximum economic benefits. Pakistan has made changes in its foreign policy keeping in view
the new economic trends. It has adopted particularly free trade, free economic policy, and policy of privatization.
Shakoor Kakar
62
3. Protection of Ideology of Pakistan Pakistan is an ideological state and its foreign policy is based upon the
ideology of Pakistan or Islam. The foreign policy is meant to protect the ideology. The stability of Pakistan is also
dependent upon ideology.
4. Better Relations with Islamic Countries Pakistan can protect its ideology by developing good relationship with
Muslim countries. All the constitutions of Pakistan emphasized on establishing good relations with Muslim
countries.
5. Support to Right of Self-Determination Pakistan supports the right of self-determination of all the suppressed
nations. Pakistan believes that every nation must have the right of self-determination. Therefore, Pakistan has
supported the demand of abolishing the colonialism and every movement for the exercise of the rig ht of self-
determination in Europe, Africa and Asia. Pakistan has played very important role in the struggle of independence of
Kashmir, Palestine, Bosnia, Namibia and Vietnam. It has also opposed the occupation of Afghanistan by Russia, and
helped the Afghanis to get the liberation from foreign rule.
3. DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN
The following are the determinants of the foreign policy of Pakistan:-
1. Administrative Troika Administrative Troika comprises the President of Pakistan, the Prime M inister and Chief
of Army Staff. It plays very important role in formulating foreign policy. It can approve or disapprove the foreign
policy of Pakistan or can make any change in it. However, it is very difficult to deviate from the previous foreign
commitments made by Troika.
2. Ministry of Foreign Affairs The ministry can play very important role in formulating the foreign policy. It
comprises the specialists and experts of foreign policy and the bureaucrats of high level. They prepare foreign
policy, keeping in view the basic objectives and principles of the policy. They formulate the policy, plans and
programmes regarding the priorities of foreign policy, and fully cooperate with Troika for its preparation. In
accordance with new constitutional amendment, the Troika has been replaced by the National Security Council.
3. Intelligence Agencies Pakistan‟s intelligence agencies also play very effective role in the formulation of foreign
policy by providing full information about the objectives of other countries foreign policies. Keeping in view these
information‘s, Pakistan formulates its foreign policy.
4. Political Parties and Pressure Groups The political parties and pressure groups have deep impacts on
formulation of foreign policy. The political parties include the priorities of foreign policy in their manifestoes, and
after their success in the election, they force the government to change the priorities of foreign policy according to
the changing scenario in the light of their view points. Likewise the pressure groups can also influence the foreign
policy.
5. Parliament The Ministry of Foreign Affairs usually prepares the foreign policy according to the directions of
executive and puts it before the Parliament for approval. After discussion and debate the parliament gives approval
to it or suggests some change in it.
Shakoor Kakar
63
1. Pak-China Relation
Pakistan and China are neighbouring countries. They have common boundary of about 600 km long. Their bilateral
relations depend upon the glorious traditions and close friendship. Pakistan recognized China on its birth in October
1949 and developed good relations hip with it. The Prime Minister of the both countries met in Bandung Conference
in 1955, and after that the series of visits continued up till now.
Settlement of Boundaries In 1961, the efforts to resolve the boundary issue were started and it was complete d in
1963. Which strengthened the good relationship, and trade pact was signed by them. Pakistan Air Line started its
flights to Beijing in early sixties.
Support at Indo-Pak Wars The President of Pakistan visited China in February 1964, and China supporte d the
claim of Pakistan to solve Kashmir issue peacefully. In the Indo -Pak war of 1965 China supported Pakistan and
provided arms.
Economic & Technical Aid China gave economic and technical aid to Pakistan is establishing industries, which
included Texila Industrial Complex and its affiliated plans, setting up the heavy tools factory at Landhi and Sports
Complex at Islamabad.
Construction of Silk Route The Silk-route of Karakaram was completed in 1969 that connected Pakistan with
China by road. It helped in frequent exchange of delegations and establishment of close relationship. The air contact
was also established between both the countries.
Defense Pacts Many defense pacts were concluded between Pakistan and China in 1985, according to which China
provided economic and technical assistance in building the Kamra Complex and Ordinance Factory at Wah.
Likewise China provided the assistance of Rs. 273 million for setting up Heavy Electric Complex in NWFP.
Support to China Pakistan also sided, China and supported it for its permanent membership of Security Council of
United Nations. Pakistan played an important role in establishing the close relations of United States with China.
Pakistan supported China on the issue of the presence of foreign troops in Kampochia, and China supported Pakistan
on the issue of the Russian intervention in Afghanistan.
Bilateral Relation between Two Countries The bilateral relations between Pakistan and China were established
and Chinese Prime Minister, Defense Minister and Chairman People‘s Congress visited Pakistan in 1987, February
1999 and April 1999 respectively. Again the Chinese Prime Minister visited Pakistan in 2001 and President of
Pakistan visited China in 2001 and 2002. The mutual strong relationship of both countries has helped them to come
closer.
Relations between Pakistan and India
India is a neighbouring country of Pakistan. Its 84% population is consisted of Hindus and 10% of Muslims and 6%
are other minorities. Its total area is twelve lac twenty nine thousand seven hundred and thirty seven sq. mile.
Common border between Pakistan and India is 1600km and cease fire line on Kashmir is not included in it. The
relation between Pakistan and India could not be developed on better lines from the inception of Pakistan.
1. Kashmir Dispute Kashmir is a dispute between both the countries and three wars i.e. 1948, 1965 and 1971 have
been fought on the dispute of Kashmir. From the emergence of Pakistan India created many problems for Pakistan.
2. Indus Water Treaty Pakistan and India signed Indus-Water-Treaty in 1960 to solve the water dispute between
them. The Indus Basin Water Treaty (IBWT) was signed between India and Pakistan, under the auspices of the
World Bank. The agreement gave three eastern rivers, i.e., Bias, Sutlaj, an d Ravi to India and three western rivers,
Shakoor Kakar
64
i.e., Chanab, Jehlam and Indus to Pakistan. The project was completed with the help of World Bank and other
countries. Unfortunately, no Sindhi was made a member of the negotiating team or the advisory board that w as
established with respect to IBWT. After this treaty, Punjab diverted Indus waters for Punjab in violation of the 1945
Sindh- Punjab agreement. It is in the aftermath of this treaty that the water shortage in Sindh has become worse.
3. Separation of East Pakistan and India India helped the separatist elements in East Pakistan in 1971 and created
Bangladesh. After it Simla Agreement was signed between Pakistan and India, by which both the countries agreed
differences through negotiations.
SAARC AND INDIA
By signing the Simla Agreement, the relationship between Pakistan and India improved to some extent and trade
and travel of passengers started on limited scale. Moreover, both the countries began to increase cooperation within
the jurisdiction of South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) from the year 1980, which gave
positive result. Pakistan has invited India for talks to resolve all the issues but India remained reluctant to give
positive response. The Prime Ministers of Pakistan and India met on the occasion of SAARC Conference in 1988
and signed a pact. Both the countries agreed not to attack the nuclear centers of each other.
FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN KASHMIR
In 1989, the Kashmiri‟s freedom fighters started struggle against India in the decade o f 1990. Mutual trade and
travel of passengers increased but it remained limited because India was reluctant to solve the Kashmir dispute
peacefully. Pakistan is determined to solve the Kashmir issue in accordance with the UN resolutions through the
right of self-determination of Kashmiri‟s. Now there is hope for the improvement of relations between both the
countries.
AGRA CONFRENCE AND INDIA
The Agra Conference from July 14 – 17, 2001 between the President of Pakistan, General Pervaiz Musharaf and
India Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpai was the first important meeting of its type between the two leaders, and the
world felt a sigh of relief. The President of Pakistan presented his view-point boldly and nicely, and it was
appreciated by the whole world but the meeting ended fruitless after three days.
MEETINGS OF OFFICERS OF BOTH COUNTRIES
During the SAARC Conference of January 2004 (Islamabad) the President of Pakistan and the Prime Minister of
India held meetings and agreed upon many pacts, and resolved upon the continuation of dialogue. On the occasion
of session of UN, General Assembly, held in September 2004, the President of Pakistan and New Prime Minister of
India met, and resolved upon the continuation of negotiation, which resulted in the series of mee tings of foreign
ministers and secretaries of both the countries.
Shakoor Kakar
65
Chapter 6: South Asia
1. ‘Asian’ approach to peace building

At a regional level the engagement of three regional powers, i.e. China, India and Japan- will foster
apprehension among their smaller neighbours.
All three countries have a history of interference in the internal affairs of their weaker neighbours, sometimes
extending to military occupation and the deployment of peacekeepers. they all need regional stability as a
means to achieve global power status.
1. MAIN ACTORS OF ASIAN

i. ASEAN
ii. China
iii. India
iv. India and Afghanistan
v. India China Quest
vi. Japan
vii. Pakistan
viii. Analyses
i. ASEAN
The main objective of its members is to maintain peaceful co-existence internally – which can, in addition,
provide a counterbalance to external threats from the broader Asian region.
Thus, ASEAN members are not only seeking economic cooperation and integration; they are also aiming to
build a political and security community through functional institutional building.
ASEAN’s success is based on the principle of unity in diversity: the independence and sovereignty of its
member states is respected when the organization takes collective decisions.
The regional organisation has, so far, been successful in preventing any outbreak of war between its
members. National sovereignty and the principle of non-interference have prevailed.
ASEAN has had additional positive side-effects in Asia by bringing Southeast and East Asia (Japan, China and
South Korea) together – ASEAN + 3 (APT) – via economic linkages.
Recently, a more official Troika formula was established as part of ‘rapid diplomatic response’ to address
situations of conflicts between its members: the foreign ministers of present, past and future chairs of the
ASEAN Standing Committee will form an ad hoc committee to tackle issues of regional peace and stability.
This aims to replicate the European Union (EU) ‘Troika’ which represents the EU in external relations.
ii. China
China potentially surpassing the US in the decades ahead
the rise of the Asian giant
its ‘peaceful rise’
 The predominant view in China is that any form of military conflict would adversely affect its
economic development.
China has also conducted a ‘good neighbour policy’ since the 1950s which has led to a shift in its relationship
with its Southeast Asian neighbours, particularly ASEAN members.
Shakoor Kakar
66
Beijing has ensured that it became ASEAN’s largest trading partner – beyond the US
ASEAN members have become increasingly weary of subscribing to US-led regional security efforts as a result
of China’s proactive engagement in the region.
Simultaneously, Chinese policymakers have realised that thinking locally demands acting globally:
In fact, Taiwan is China’s Achilles heel: China has exerted its UN veto power most prevalently in matters
related to Taiwan, Tibet and human rights.
Chinese economic and military support for the regimes in Islamabad and Colombo, which has tilted the
regional power balance against India, raising eyebrows in Delhi.
Similarly, Chinese support for rogue regimes such as those of Burma/Myanmar and North Korea leads to
suspicions in the ‘political club’ of the Western elite, despite Beijing’s quest to become a ‘legitimate world
power’.
iii. India
Very much like China, India too has since the 1950s highlighted the Principles of Peaceful Co-existence as a
key cornerstone of its foreign policy.
In recent times, Delhi has become even more aware of the importance of maintaining regional stability in
order to achieve its global political aspirations.
However, the leading regional organisation in South Asia – the South Asian Association for Regional Co-
operation (SAARC) established in 1985 – has progressed very slowly. This can be explained by the Indo-
Pakistani tensions, as well as the widespread fear among India’s smaller neighbours of its hegemonic role in
the region.
Historically, much like other Asian countries, India has traditionally emphasised bilateral relationships over
multilateral ones at the regional level.
Much like Taiwan for China, Kashmir is India’s ‘elephant in the room’ in its quest for regional and global
stability. Delhi is apprehensive about internationalising the Kashmir issue.
India also sees foreign economic assistance to other countries as a means to achieve certain political and
economic goals. In Delhi’s view, the wrong kind of aid, such as conditional or tied aid, can have counter-
productive effects.
India has also sought to counterbalance China’s sense of superiority as Asia’s sole superpower which has
traditionally played the Pakistani card to curb India’s hegemony in South Asia.
iv. India and Afghanistan
India’s unprecedented reconstruction role in Afghanistan cannot be understood without taking into account
the nature of Indo-Pakistani relations combined with the high degree of global military engagement in the
country.
India currently enjoys good relations with both the Afghan government and the opposition. It recently
established the Afghanistan-India Partnership Council.
Afghanistan has ranked as the second largest individual recipient of Indian aid after Bhutan, an amount which
supersedes India’s aid to its other neighbours combined (excluding Bhutan).
v. India China Quest
Shakoor Kakar
67
In the quest for global status China and India are keen to project themselves as ‘responsible world powers’, as
well as leaders of the global South.
 China and India have historically favoured dealing with their neighbours at a bilateral l evel, as
opposed to using multilateral arrangements.
vi. Japan
Unlike China and India which have favoured a bilateral approach, Japan has agreed to be part of Western-led
multilateral peace initiatives within the region as was the case in Aceh, East Timor and Sri Lanka.
Japan has a much longer tradition of involvement in the conflict resolution component of peacebuilding, as opposed
to peacekeeping operations. Japan has been actively involved in the peace processes in Aceh, Afghanistan, East
Timor, Mindanao and Sri Lanka.
This is partly the result of the Fukuda Doctrine from 2002, as a result of which Tokyo has sought a higher political
profile in Southeast Asia through its increased involvement in domestic peace processes in the region.
Japan was actively engaged in the 2002 peace process in Sri Lank.
Japan‘s traditional alignment with the Sri Lankan government and its Asian identity made its stance unique among
the Co-Chairs.
vii. Pakistan
Pakistan’s role in regional politic and its diplomacy have perplexed the analysts. Pakistan’s approach toward
the development in region after USSR invasion has become an object of criticism on international level and as
well as domestic level.
Pakistan proved to be the best choice for USA to counter the USSR onslaught and Pakistan played a key role in
the last battle of cold war. Keeping in view the rivalry with neighboring India, It was a good opportunity for
Pakistan to strain its muscles and become an influential force in the region, in its race with comparatively
stronger India.
After the withdrawal of USSR, Afghanistan experienced the bloody civil war. The interference of Pakistan was
at its height. Ultimately the vacuum was filled by Pakistan’s product “Taliban”
The origin of Pakistan military Machine:
The Kashmir has been a running sour in the body of Pakistan. The mighty military power of Pakistan is the outcome
of enmity with india on the issue of Kashmir. The acquisition of nuclear weapon is the outcome of the same reality.
Pak Army exploited the threat of India and developed immensely. Resultantly they have established fo ur military
rule in Pakistan.
War Against terror:
Pakistan had to adopt the realist approach, decided to side with USA led forces against Taliban govt. at the
same time Pakistan could not completely break links with Taliban leadership. This scenario proved to be a
blessing in disguise for Pakistan Army to enjoy it pivotal position in state’s affairs.
Pakistan at crucial juncture as Pakistan hesitated to eliminate Taliban. Pakistan was conscious abo ut the
ultimate withdrawel of NATO forces and consequent vacuum in Afghanistan. Still Pakistan had to face the
wrath of Taliban and Al-Qaida.
Operation of Abbottabad
Pakistan was criticize for its double game. Due to immense pressure on Pakistan, Pakistan had to please USA.
Under preplanned strategy Pak allowed US forces to conduct operation. Pak avoided herself, why? Because
Shakoor Kakar
68
Usama’s terrorist label was the outcome of 9/11, infact Usama was a person which was loved by billion of
Muslim and secretly by many Muslim states. probably Pak could not afford to be a killer of USAMA. That is
why Pak had to issue a statement that they were unaware of the operation of US forces at Abbottabad.
viii. Analyses
 Pakistan position in international relation suits best in realist theory of IR. Pak proved herself, if not
the tiger of Asia, as wolf of Asia Which is not after all a bad choice. It can challenge and turn the scale
of any game in the region.
One point must be noted that there are many powers that hate the imperialist Policies of USA. The world is
not the only USA. Apart from China and Russia Almost every Muslim country has serious concern about the
US policies. But they could not afford to oppose the mighty USA. It must be agreed that USA is serving its own
self-interest. So are we.
Pakistan Must be credited that it is the only Muslim country who managed to acquire the nuclear weapons. It
is an agreed fact that the top leadership of Al-Qaida and Taliban senior leadership shura (religious council)
had found sanctuary in Pakistan’s federally administered tribal area (FATA) , as well as in parts of the
Pakistani province of Baluchistan and kpk. and even carried their operation from Pakistan but NATO forces
cannot afford to enter Pakistan directly, in pursuance of global war against terror.
Shakoor Kakar
69
Overview Of Pak-India Agreement and Disputes
Outline
1. 1947: First Kashmir War
2. 1960: Indus Water Treaty
3. 1972 Simla Agreement
4. 1973, Delhi Agreement
5. Kargill- Battle in Kashmir
6. 2001 Agra summit
7. 2001: Terrorist Attack on Indian parliament at Delhi
8. Composite Dialogue
9. Sir Creek Dispute
10. Siachan Dispute
1. 1947: First Kashmir War

India intervened in Kashmir in 1947 on the pretext that as a regional great power, it had an interest in maintaining
order in this strategically sensitive region near China and the Soviet Union. Pakistan had inherited a very small army
that was almost completely reliant on British officers. The British Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan‘s Army initially
refused to send Pakistani troops to bolster the rebellions against Hari Singh, the ruler of Kashmir. As a result,
Pakistan‘s political leadership felt the urgent need to acquire military readiness.
The competition for control over Jammu and Kashmir led to the first war between India and Pakis tan in 1947. The
continuation of the conflict and tension between the two countries led them to begin an arms race and helped
consolidate the influence of their national security institutions.
2. 1960: Indus Water Treaty

1960, India and Pakistan concluded The Indus Water Treaty, under the auspices of the World Bank.
As the Indus-basin irrigation system comprises river indus and its five tributaries was central to survival of the
ecology that sustains life in the northern region of South Asia. The division cut across the system.
The western river Indus, Jehlum and Chenab are available to pak. Sutlege, ravi, Beas to India.
 Unfortunately, no Sindhi was made a member of the negotiating team or the advisory board that was
established with respect to IBWT. After this treaty, Punjab diverted Indus waters for Punjab in violation of
the 1945 Sindh- Punjab agreement. It is in the aftermath of this treaty that the water shortage in Sindh has
become worse.
The international community took an interest in the problem and made World Bank funds and technical knowhow
available
.Even when India and Pakistan have been at war, they have meticulously observed their obligations under this treaty.
Although the construction of huge dams and the displacement of people have had very destructive consequences, the
fact is that the two governments did devise and run a system that maintained peace. This illustrates the ability of
India and Pakistan to successfully resolve a serious problem.
3. 1972 Simla Agreement
After fall of Dacca India was in much Stronger position more then 90000 pakistani Prisoner.
Bhuto was determined to bring normalization of relations
 Basic issues will be resolved by peaceful means

 They will refrain from the threat to use force
 Both force would withdraw to their sides of International borders
 In Jammu and Kashmir Ceasefire lien was admitted as actual line of Control
Shakoor Kakar
70
4. 1973, Delhi Agreement

In Simla agreement Both country could not agree on the question of repatriation of the prisoners of War.
India attached the condition of recognition of Bengladesh
Immediately pak released Indian prisoners of War as a good will gesture.
Bengaldesh Govt wanted trial of 194 PW
Upon pressure from USA and Muslim countries India agreed to hold talks
5. Kargill- Battle in Kashmir

In 1999, Vajpayee and Pakistan‘s Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif declared their intent to discuss Kashmir. (Lahore
Declaration) This did not stop the fighting in Kashmir. Later that year, it was discovered that Pakistan‘s army had
captured strategic heights in Kashmir‘s Kargil region. India responded with massive force to evict Pakistan troops,
and Pakistan was isolated diplomatically and agreed to leave Kargil. Differences arising from the handling of this
episode led to the overthrow of Sharif by Pakistan‘s army. General Pervez Musharraf became the country‘s new
ruler.
In July 2000, the Hizb-ul-Muja-hideen (HM), the leading Kashmiri group resisting India‘s armed forces, unilaterally
offered a truce. Vajpayee accepted the offer and agreed to negotiat e outside the framework of the Indian
constitution. The truce broke down when India rejected the HM‘s insistence on including Pakistan in the
negotiations.
6. 2001 Agra summit

In July 2001, Vajpayee invited Musharraf for talks in India (Agra summit). The ir meetings ended without a
communiqué‚ as Vajpayee couldn‘t convince Home Minister L. K. Advani to endorse the Pakistani demand for talks
on Kashmir. During Musharraf‘s visit to India he made a persuasive case for talks on Kashmir that was appreciated
by many Indian opinion makers.
7. 2001: Terrorist Attack on Indian parliament at Delhi
The U.S. response to the September 11 attacks confronted the political leaderships of both Pakistan and India with
unique challenges and opportunities. Pakistan had to q uickly choose whether it would become an adversary of the
U.S. and risk the expected consequences, or side with it. It chose to side with the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan.
India wanted the U.S. to categorize all Islamist resistance to Indian armed forces in Kashmir as terrorism, and it
wanted endorsement for its efforts to crush them. The U.S. did declare two such Islamist groups to be terrorist
organizations, but the Indian expectation that all Islamist resistance in Kashmir be categorized as "cross borde r
terrorism" was not realized.
India watched with concern as Pakistan again emerged as a frontline state in the latest U.S. assault on Afghanistan as
Pakistan now had the chance to improve its economy and rehabilitate itself in the Western world. Sanction s imposed
on Pakistan and India after the nuclear explosions of 1998, and Pakistan‘s military coup of 1999, was rescinded.
 On December 13, 2001, five people were killed in a terrorist attack on the Indian parliament which India
said was orchestrated by Pakistani agents. India deployed its armed forces along the border and moved
missiles to where they could be launched against Pakistan. Pakistan responded in similar fashion.
8. Composite Dialogue
Islamabad meeting b/w Wajpai and Musharaf in 2004 resulted in an agreement to start composite dialogue,
Pak assured not to permit pak territory be used to support terrorism in any manner against India.
CDP Deals with following Eight issues
i. Siachan
ii. Sir Creek
iii. Tulbul Navigation Project
Shakoor Kakar
71
iv. Terrorism and Drug trafficking

v Economic and commercial cooperation
vi. Promote friendly exchange
vii. Peace and security, including Confidence Buiding
viii. Jammu and Kashmir
Halted in 2008, after Mubai attacks

Resumed in 2011
Again halted in 2013 Loc Skirmishes
Still remain frozen
Nov 2008 -Mumbai Terrorist Attacks
When in November 2008, a group of terrorists, traced to Pakistan, attacked the important Indian city, Mumbai,
killing at least 173 people and wounding at least 308 others. It seemed that a war could break out between these two
nuclear weapons upstarts. Thanks to the restraint exercised by their governments as well as hectic diplomacy by the
United States, the United Kingdom and other major players, a major disaster was averted between pak & India.
Its major casualty was the peace process.
The Mumbai attacks had serious impact on the peace process between the countries as it caused break in composite
dialogue, envisaging all the outstanding issues including Kashmir, started in 2004 and continued till 2008.
India wanted Pak to completely destroy all terrorist camps on its soil, stop sponsoring terrorism & punish the
Mumbai attackers.
2009. Although a meeting between Manmohan Singh and Gilani was held at Sharm-el-Sheikh (Egypt) in 2009 but
Singh was in no mood to resume dialogue till Pak punished the Mumbai terrorists & complied with other Indian
demands.
India put conditions for dialogue that Pak should destroy all the 150 camps established for the purpose of Terrorism.
Pak strictly denied all the Indian allegations & stated them as base-less & lacked any concrete evidence.
Composite dialogue in Feb 2010-2012 The ice breaks, finally……
Almost after two years of break, India agreed to resume composite dialogue in Feb 2010 under intense international
pressure. The foreign ministers, Shah Mahmood Qureshi & S.M Krishna broke the ice in July 2010 in Islamabad.
The meeting did not produce any positive outcome.
Our prime minister, Gilani met Mr Manmohan Singh while attending the World Cup Semi Final in India (Sports
diplomacy)
After a long interval of about three years, the first meeting between Hina Khar & S.K Krishna, the foreign ministers
of the two countries finally took place in Delhi (July 2011). In September 2012, Pakistan and India agree to ease the
existing restrictive visa regime between them, launch a Karachi-Mumbai ferry service and start daily flights
connecting Islamabad and Delhi, as the foreign ministers of both countries wrap up the latest round of peace talks by
promising to continue their dialogue.
It would be unfair, not to appreciate the positive mark made by our first lady foreign minister with her confident
appearance and gestures, despite being so young and not very experienced. She promoted a liberal and moderate
image of Pakistan.
9. Sir Creek Dispute
Shakoor Kakar
72
A stream or tributary of a river is called Creek

The Sir Creek is a long strip of water (Creek) that runs b/w marshes of Ran of Kutch (Gujrat, India) and Sindh
opening to Arabian Sea.
There are 17 creeks of Sindh coast. Sir creek is seventeen.
In 1914 British settled the dispute b/w the rulers of Sindh and Kutch, by setting the boundary at eastern edge (green
line). Included the creek as part of Sindh. Thus Pak demand all the Creek
The indian-pak boundary along this creek has not been demarcated yet. It emerged as disputed area in 1960
Pak claim that all the seventeen creeks of the Sindh coast belong to it while indai claims that almost half of Creek
(Seventeenth creek) belong to it.
Background:
The dispute came alive in 1960‘s when a report said that Sir Creek area is rich in oil and gas reserves. So both the
state claimed on Sir Creek. But the report later prove fake.
It was also one of the reason of 1965 war.
1999; It became centre of International attention when Indian Aircraft shot down a Pakistani aircraft over the Sir
Creek.
Currently one side of Creek is under control of Pak and Other is under India.
India‟s Stance:
Green line is only indicative
India‘s stance of International law ―Thalweq Doctrine‖ The river boundaries b/w two states should be divided by
mid Channel.
Importance:
Sir creek itself has little value it is a marshy wasteland.
But the boundary line runs through will determine economic Zone in the sea. Indai will lose Hundred squire mile of
Continental shelf.
There is a prospect of oil in the contenetal shelf that make the two side inflexible
 The Sir Creek dispute does not concern the division between the States rather the focal point of the Sir
Creek issue is the boundary of the sea including all the natural resources attached to it.
10. Siachan Dispute
Siachen is a glacier which is situated towards the North of Pakistan some 50-55 Kilometers away from K-2. The
armed conflict between India and Pakistan in 1948 resulted in the demarcat ion of a ceasefire line under the Karachi
Agreement 1949.
Both countries interpreted the Agreement differently. India took the literal meaning that the line should go up
towards the north whereas Pakistan was of the view that the line should northwards bu t it should follow its natural
course.
Pakistan‘s stance is that the LOC should follow its natural and existing course, a principle derived from the law of
sea and various precedents stating that while demarcating sea lines, the line should follow its original course and not
deviate totally differently from its original path.
 Another fact going in favour of Pakistan is that the mountain climbing expeditions always started from the
Pakistan. Therefore it is clearly established that Pakistan has superior control over the area and has better
access to it.
 Even the world famous and recognised ―Britannica Atlas‖ of 1984 depicts the LOC to be exactly where
Pakistan has argued it to be making Pakistan‘s stance much more tenable than the stance forwarded by
India.
11. Trade
12. People to people Contact
Shakoor Kakar
73
Afghanistan since 1979

Outline
1. Historical account of Afghan war and Role of Pakistan

2. Geneva Accord 1988
3. The Rise of Taliban
4. Al-Qaida and 9/11
5. Operation enduring Freedom
6. The Bonn Process
Sardar Daud came into power in 1973After abolishing monarchy of Zahir Shah; His reign was toppled in a bloody
coup in 1978. PDP fprmed a new Government under Noor Muhd Tarakai. The new leaders pleaded that they would
try to work for Islam and had no connections with communists. USSR recognized the new regime immediately
Serious differences b/w Khaq and Parcham groups of PDP roused. Parcham group leaders were arrested including
abrak Karmal.
On septmber 1979 Tarakai suddenly resigned, and was replaced by His PM Hafizulamin. Meanwhile the
Mujahideen continued to wage Jehad against Govt Forces. In December 1979 his govt was also overthrown by
Babrak Karmal with the help of Russian troops. The reason was his refusal to allow the Soviet Union to send her
troops in Afghanistan to strengthen the hands of communist regime.
USSR Infiltrations
With installation of Babrak Karmal USSR troops started pouring into Kabul. It was vehemently denounced by
international community. The Mujahideen enjoyed the support of Pakistan and Many Muslim countries inflicted
heavy casualties on communist regime Forces. Refugees. Pakistan had to bear the burden of More than 200000.
2. Geneva Accord 1988
A UN sponsored agreement under which the USSR started to pulling out its 115000 troops from Afghanistan; The
Geneva accord was signed on 14 April 1988 by four parties USSR USA Pakistan and Afghanistan. Under this
agreement the withdrawal of USSR forces will be completed in nine months. In another document the two regimes
Pakistan and Afghanistan agreed to conduct their relations on a strict basis of non-interference in each other affairs.
Pakistan made it clear that its support for the accord was conditional on the supper-power maintaining equal level of
military aid to their respective allies.
According to Zia the main objective the accord from Pakistan‘s point of view was the withdrawal of USSR troops
and return of Afghan refugees.
Afghan Mujahideen did not accept the Geneva accord because they were not the party of agreement. So the
agrrement was not binding on Mujahideen. Therefore th e element of strife was implicit. The USSr was very vocal in
accusing Pakistan for violating the term of accord to continues to assist the Afgahn Mujahideen against communist
govt. The Kabul government led by Najibullah and the mujahedin groups, led by sev eral conflicting groups.
The withdrawal of USSR forces commenced accordingly. This historic achievement could not have been possible
without the determination and clairvoyance of President Zia Ul Haq. Soon thereafter the USSR witnessed dramatic
events when the communist. Yelstin managed to seize power from Gorbachev with popular support. As a reaction to
Shakoor Kakar
74
the revolt of communist hard-liner, Yalstine decided to put an end to the entire Soviet state structure. One of the
world two super power thus disintegrated without a shot being fired.
The Peshawar Accord
After the ouster of Najeebulah, the Peshawar accord put together the Mujahideen groups in 1992 Sibghatula
Mujadadi became the interm-president for two months PM was to be nominated by Hikmatyar Hazb -i-Islami. Later
on Islamabad accord put Rabbani as president and Hikmatyar as PM. Later on in 1994 Rabbani opted to hold office
in the face of strict opposition of Hikmatyar to hold election.
3. The Rise of Taliban
The Soviets finally withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 after the signing of the Geneva accords but continued
to support a communist regime led by President Najibullah. 1 But the Afghan society remained divided into
two main factions. The Kabul government led by Najibullah and the mujahedin groups, led by several
conflicting groups.
The seven Mujahedeen Parties of Afghanistan who has fought the soviet backed regime, got involved in an
internecine struggle for power. Pakistan tried to play a role of broker between the warring factions (1992-96) But the
situation aggravated by outside involvement in the power struggle, this time from Iran, Tajakistan and Uzbekistan as
well as by Russia.
The following two years from 1992-94 witnessed the bloody civil war. This chaotic social and Political
environment gave rise to a big vacuum of leadership and this vacuum began to fill by the appearance of a political
force that promised to stop infighting and further destruction of the country. The sudden rise of Taliban gave a new
dimension to Afghanistan tangle. Led by Mullah Muhammad Omar, the initial Taliban group emerged in Kandahar
province in 1994 as a local response to the brutality, banditry, rape of women and young boys.
Taliban have no history behind them. In September 1994 they gave shocking surprise to many by smashing the force
of laocal Afghan lords.
Through their association and friendship with JTI headed by Mawlana Fazlur Rhaman the coalition partner of
Benazir Bhutto Government in 1994, Taliban leaders were brought to the attention of the Pakistani government,
which put Ministry of interior General Nasirullah Babar in charge of logistical support for the Taliban. 2
By December 1994, some 12,000 Afghan and Pakistani students had joined the Taliban in Kandahar. The Taliban
immediately implemented the strictest interpretation of Sharia law ever seen in the Muslim world. In the next three
months the Taliban were to take control of 12 of Afghanistan's 31 provinces, As the Taliban marched north to
Kabul, local warlords either fled or, waving white flags, surrendered to them. They captured Kabul in 1996. In 2000,
Taliban occupied more than 90 percent of Afghanistan.
The biggest achievement of 1995 was the capture of Herat.
The incredible epic of Taliban‘s triumph was their conquest of Kabul in September 1996
The most catastrophic , almost terminal phase of Afghan ordeal was the capture of Mazar-e-Sharif in 1997.
1
Daniel P. Sullivan, The Mysterious Rise of the Tal iban, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 44, No. 1 (Jan., 2007), pp.
93-108.
2
Neamutollah Najumi, The rise and fall of Taliban.
Shakoor Kakar
75
It was apprehended more so by Iran as they were backed by Pakistan and Saudi. They were primarily a Sunni
reactionary force had tacit approval of US.
Saudi was interested to spread Wahabism to Muslim Central Asia.
Pakistan was believed to be expanding its trade links with Central Asia.
3. Al-Qaida Factor and 9/11
Osama Bin Laden as honoured guest continued to enjoy their protection and hospitality in the best Pathan tradition.
After 9/11 incident Bush lost no time in poiting figure toward the prime suspect Osama and demande Taliban to
hand over him. As expected the Talban refused ot oblige US. Bush without losing any time moved anti-terrorism
world coalition backed by UNSC resolution. Afghanistan was heavily bombarde for three months Otc to Dec 2001.
The Ultimate result was the collapse of Taliban regimes and failure to net Osama.
4. Operation enduring Freedom
5. The Bonn Process
Rival Afgahan factions on December 5 2001 signed power-sharing agreement to form post Taliban govt. It paved
the way for six month interm govtto be headed y Karzai. The deal gave the Northern alliance control of three key
porfolios and Symbolic role to the farmer king.
The interim govt would run the state for six month before a loya Jirga appoints an 18 month govt. Zahir shah was to
preside over the Jirga.
5. Withdrawal of NATO
During 2012 in Chicago Summit NATO agrred to withdraw by the end of 2014.
Historic Account of Pakistan Role in Afghanistan
Afghanistan–Pakistan relations have never been easy & they have always been estranged. Afghanistan and Pakistan
are usually described as inseparable states due to their historical, religious, cultural, linguistic, and ethnic ties, a s
well as their multiple trade and economic ties. Both neighbouring states are Islamic republics and part of the OIC
&South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. However, the relationship between the two has been affected
by the Durand Line, the issues of Pashtunistan and Balochistan, the 1980s Soviet war, the rise of the Taliban in
1990s, the 2001-present war in Afghanistan, and Afghanistan's relations with India.
Background
Pakistan‘ interest in Afghanistan changed many times in domestic and international environment.
1. In the starting relation of Afghanistan and Pakistan, Afghanistan always a hostile attitude towards Pakistan,
on the other hand Pakistan always defensive policy towards Afghanistan because Pakistan wanted to secure Western
Border. In the first phase Pakistan aims was, to solve the Durand line issue and the issue of Pashtunistan. She also
secure the western border. This was the factor of Pakistan policy in the starting relation with Afghanistan. Pakistan
always played a diplomatic role to achieve its goals in Afghanistan. In the regime of Daud Pakistan achieved its goal
peacefully.
Shakoor Kakar
76
2. Following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, the Pakistani government played a vital role in supporting
the Mujahideen and assisting Afghan refugees. Pakistan absorbed an estimated 3.5 million refugees and provided
shelter, education, and places to work. After the Soviet withdrawal in February 1989, Pakistan, with cooperation
from the world community, continued to provide extensive support for displaced Afghans. In 1999, the United
States provided approximately $70 million in humanitarian assistance to Afghanistan and Afghan refugees in
Pakistan, mainly through multilateral organizations and Non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
Pakistani strategists view Afghanistan as providing "strategic depth" in the event of a war with neighboring India. In
the event that the Indian Army crosses into Pakistan, the Pakistan Army would temporary locate supplies in
Afghanistan and prepare for a counter-offensive. Furthermore, many Pakistanis see in Afghanistan and Afghans a
common bond based on religion, history, culture, language and ethnic ties. At various times, Pakistan backed the
mujahideen against the Soviets, mujahideen against each other and the Taliban a gainst the Iranian-backed Northern
Alliance.
In 1980‘s the situation is changed and Pakistan changed its policy according to the situation. The policy of Pakistan
towards Afghanistan changed when Soviet Union enter in the Afghanistan. The policy of Pakista n and their aims in
that situation are; to solve the issue of Pashtunistan and also curtail the Baloch nationalist. Pakistan also achieved the
strategic depth in Afghanistan. To destabilize the Soviet government that was the threat for Pakistan. And Pakis tan
wanted to install Islamist and pro-Pakistan government in Afghanistan. To achieve these aims, Pakistan adopted an
aggressive attitude towards Afghanistan. Because the Soviet invasions become the cause of the expansion of
communism and it was not good for Pakistan as well as the Western powers. These situation which was prevailed in
Afghanistan, made Pakistan more aggressive towards Afghanistan. After the fall of Soviet Union the Global
scenario changed into regional scenario. The demise of Soviet Union changed the situation in Afghanistan. They
were no more restriction on Russia. The newly emerging states increased the interest of Pakistan. On the other hand,
the other actors also wanted to fulfill their needs. India and China are the top of the list.
3. After the fall of Soviet Union the main objectives of Pakistan were: to get access in the hydrocarbon rich Central
Asian States. The Afghan people always attack on the sovereignty of Afghanistan. The strategic depth is a military
concept which ―refers to the distance between actual or potential frontlines and key centers of population, logistics
and industrial and military production‖.
4. After the event of 9/11 Pakistan adopted two track policy towards Afghanistan. But at the official level Pakistan
made friendly relations with Afghanistan. It is clear that Pakistan much interested in the economic interest in
Afghanistan. The friendly relation with Afghanistan gave access to Pakistan towards the Central Asian states and on
the other hand the return refugees will half the burden on Pakistan economy. This objectives only fulfill when
Afghanistan become a developed country. It is also clear the relation of Pakistan did not end permanently. The
interest of the whole world and America forced Pakistan to suppo rt and help in the war of terror. America not
satisfied with the performance of Pakistan in the war on terror. Pakistan also influenced to control the involvement
of India in Afghanistan. It is also not deny that without Pakistan presence in Afghanistan th e peace did not achieved
in the region.
5. The overthrow of the Taliban regime in November 2001 has seen somewhat strained relations between
Afghanistan and Pakistan. The present Karzai administration in Kabul feels that the remnants of the former Taliban
government are being supported by factions within Pakistan for the same above reasons. However, Pakistan has said
the government cannot control all elements of its intelligence agency, the ISI, which several countries accuse of
contributing to instability in Afghanistan. In 2006 Afghan PresidentHamid Karzai warned that "Iran and Pakistan
and others are not fooling anyone" when it comes to interfering in his country.
"If they don‘t stop, the consequences will be … that the region will suffer with us equally . In the past we have
suffered alone; this time everybody will suffer with us.… Any effort to divide Afghanistan ethnically or weaken it
Shakoor Kakar
77
will create the same thing in the neighboring countries. All the countries in the neighborhood have the same ethnic
groups that we have, so they should know that it is a different ball game this time.(Hamid Karzai)
May 2011: Osama bin Laden's death (Abbottabad operation, May 2011) is likely to put more stress on Pak Afghan
relations, Karzai was very vocal & harsh on Osama‘s presence in Abbottabad He blamed again that Pak has always
been protecting the militants & Osama‘ was also hidden in Pak with Army‘s collaboration.
Latest developments
February 2012: Pakistan should have a key role in Afghanistan: J Kerry
March 2012: Hina Rabbani Khar said: She hopes for a relationship with Afghanistan based on trust and called for
leaving behind the past associated with interference in that country and support for Taliban. Further added, if we are
looking for any strategic depth it cannot be achieved militarily or can come through a proxy war. The only way to do
is through building trust with the Afghan state.
June 2012: Karzai calls on Pakistan to help end Afghan war during the latest round of talks on future of Afghanistan.
Jul 2012: Afghanistan and Pakistan agreed to extend APTTA to Tajikistan which will be the first step for the
establishment of North-South Trade Corridor. The proposed agreement will provide facilities to Tajikistan to use
Pakistan‘s Gawadar and Karachi ports for its imports and exports while Pakistan will trade with Tajikistan under
terms similar to transit agreement with Afghanistan.
November 2012: After D8 Summit in November 2012, Foreign Secretary Jalil Abbas said that D8 countries agreed
that peace & stability in Afghanistan is important for development in the region.
November 2012: Four people were killed in the Narai Area of South Waziristan when mortar shells were fired by
Afghan National Army.
To conclude the interest of Pakistan: to support the peaceful Afghanistan, to get access to Central Asian states, to
control the influence of India in the region, to make ensure the arrival of refugees, to support the Pashtuns in
Afghanistan. Pakistan keen interest in Afghanistan forced to made dual policy towards Afgh anistan.
Strategically, we assumed that Afghanistan would provide us strategic depth. This assumption took a new color with
the rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in 1996. The rise of Taliban was celebrated with such fervor in Pakistan as if
Afghanistan had become its fifth province. The wrongheaded assumption came screaming at us when none of the
Pakistani leader including Musharraf found Taliban-run-Afghanistan safe enough to visit it.
Final Analyses
The main reason behind the uneasy relationship between the two countries is mainly because Karzai govt. is
concerned that Pakistan is supporting militants in the region. Karzai also lamented on Pakistan when Osama was
killed by Americans in May 2011 alleging that Pakistan had been protecting him & was playing double game.
While on the other side, Pakistan is also concerned that Indian economic and political involvement in Afghanistan
could lead to unfriendly governments on both its eastern and western borders or in simple words Pakistan fears its
encirclement by India.
Unfortunately the war in Afghanistan and Pakistan is a proxy war that takes its roots from the deficiencies in
political, national and establishment fields plus the uneasy relations with neighbor countries.
Both the countries possess great possibilities and reserves that can be used for peace, stability and progress in the
region, the very first step in this connection should be giving confidence and trust to the concerned groups with the
Shakoor Kakar
78
support and backing of international community and both sid es government that peace and stability can prove more
beneficial for boosting economic relations and development instead of negative political competitions.
First of all bringing political trust between the two countries is necessary for which the followin g steps must be
taken.
 Afghanistan should ensure Pakistan that in the presence of other countries especially India their assistance
and aid won‘t prove counterproductive to the national interest and security of Pakistan.
 Both countries should prioritize transit and economic affairs than political competitions because economic
relations can rapidly fill the cold gap in political relations.
 Both countries should conduct their relation on state to state level that is the best legitimate way of
relationship. Trust and confidence can be build with avoiding and cutting off any kind of tacit relationship
with parties, personalities, warlords or militants
 A broad based regional approach can prove useful that should comprehend and recognize that concomitant
resolution of the border areas is the basic and fundamental step.
Unity among Afghans is a recipe for peace in their country. Intervention by foreign elements will always ignite fires,
instead of helping to end internecine wars in that country. A durable peace bet ween Islamabad and Kabul can only
be ensured through direct bilateral talks by pushing out India, the United States and Iran from the equation. In this
hour of crisis, Pakistan should dispel the impression that it is a troublemaker in Afghanistan. Pakistan should throw
the past behind it and look at the present with a new strategy. Pakistan should also be aware of the fact that any
miscalculated meddling in the affair in Afghanistan may destabilize Pakistan.
Shakoor Kakar
79
Chapter 7: Weapons of Mass Destruction

Outline
1. THE STRATEGY OF NUCLEAR DETERRENCE
i. Missing Order
ii. Security dilemma
2. NUCLEAR WEAPONS TO CREATE A BALANCE OF POWER
3. NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION REGIME
4. EFFORTS AT NON-PROLIFERATION
i. the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 1957
iii. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 1968:
iv. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) - 1996
v. The Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty (FMCT)
5. Mr. Obama‟s Nuclear Policy
Introduction
Nuclear weapons are the explosive devices. Their use and control has been a major focus of international relations
policy since their debut. The issue of nuclear proliferation represents one of the more marked illustrations of world
politics.
Research into the development of nuclear weapons was undertaken during World War II by the United States, the
United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, and the USSR. The United States was the first and is the only country to have
used a nuclear weapon in war, when it used two bombs against Japan in August 1945. With their loss during the
war, Germany and Japan ceased to be involved in any nuclear weapon research. In August 1949, the USSR tested a
nuclear weapon. The United Kingdom tested a nuclear weapon in October 1952. France developed a nuclear weapon
in 1960. The People's Republic of China detonated a nuclear weapon in 1964. India exploded a nuclear device in
1974, and Pakistan tested a weapon in 1998. In 2006, North Korea conducted a nuclear test
Since the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions
for testing purposes and demonstration purposes. A few states have possessed such weapons or are suspected of
seeking them.
1. THE STRATEGY OF NUCLEAR DETERRENCE
Nuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with preventing or fighting a nuclear war. The policy of trying
to prevent an attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the
strategy of nuclear deterrence. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike capability (the ability of
a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for first strike status (the ability
to completely destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). . This view argues that, unlike
conventional
Some very prominent scholars advocate some forms of nuclear proliferation, arguing that it will decrease the
likelihood of war. One of such scholars argued that the logic of mutually assured destruction (MAD) is a key
strategy that avoids the nuclear war among states. He sees the Cold War as the ultimate proof of MAD logic – the
only occasion when enmity between two Great Powers did not result in military conflict.
Shakoor Kakar
80
2. NUCLEAR WEAPONS TO CREATE A BALANCE OF POWER
The comparative analyses of liberalist and realist paradigms shows that the root cause of the conflicting international
relations is the lack of central order, which constitute the self-help system of anarchy.
So if the central order is discovered and established the possibility of war and military conflict can be diminished to
zero.
i. Missing Order
So here the question is raised that what is missing order of international relation. It is argued that ‗nuclear
proliferation is the ―missing order‖ of international power structure. This has potential to overcome anarchy and act
as a central unifying force in international relations.
Kenneth N Watz in his thesis “More may be better” argue that the units or states in international system have no
option but to seek measures to preserve their own security, because war is a structural necessity therefore all the
state should seek nuclear weapons to enhance their own security.
The acquisition of nuclear weapons without spending huge conventional war fu nd, convey a sharp message of threat
to all small and big states. Thus it makes war between nuclear states rationally impossible.
ii. Security dilemma
In anarchic self-help system states built up military to survive which has led to security dilemma. Realists believe
that the security dilemma can be mitigated through a mechanism known as “balance of power” and nuclear
weapons are the greatest equalizers among big and small states .
E.g. The cold war experience is a glaring example. Despite all the reason of conflict, the nuclear warhead and
balance of power played a key role to avoid the direct military confrontation between the two nuclear states.The
acquisition of nuclear weapon by India and consequently by Pakistan, compels both the countries to be more
cautious in their decision-making and created a kind of strategic stability between these two neighbour states.
There have been vigorous criticism on nuclear proliferation but it must be clear that nuclear weapons are significant
in the sense that they bring conventionally weak states in a strategic position to maintain the balance of power along
with big powers. Thus the nuclear weapons are the greatest equalizers in international system.
3. NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION REGIME
The responses to nuclear proliferation encompass unilateral, bilateral, regional, and global measures that collectively
have been termed the nuclear non-proliferation regime. Advocates of this regime argue it is these measures
(including treaties like the NPT, export controls, internation al safeguards, nuclear supplier agreements, and other
standard setting arrangements) that have constrained nuclear acquisition
4. EFFORTS AT NON-PROLIFERATION
In the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust was preventing the United States and the Soviet Union fro m making ground
towards international arms control agreements, but by the 1960s steps were being taken to limit both the
proliferation of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of nuclear testing. Many
disarmament and arms control efforts were undertaken through bilateral means between the two superpowers, the
biggest proliferations of armaments in the post-WWII period (NTBT, NPT, SALT I and II)
i. the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 1957
Shakoor Kakar
81
In 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established under the mandate of the United Nations
in order to encourage the development of the peaceful applications of nuclear technology, provide international
safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of s afety measures in its use.
ii. The Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) restricted all nuclear testing to underground nuclear testing
iii. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 1968:
It was a mojor step to limit the spread (proliferation) of nuclear weapons. The treaty came into force in 1970, and
currently there are 189 states party to the treaty.
Five states are recognized by the Non-Proliferation Treaty as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed
1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union , the United Kingdom , and the United States (The United States, UK, and
the Soviet Union were the only states openly possessing such weapons among the original ratifies of the treaty,
which entered into force in 1970). These five nations are also the five permanent members of the United Nations
Security Council. These five NWS agree not to transfer "nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices" and
"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce" a non -nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons.
NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to "receive," "manufacture" or "acquire" nuclear weapons or to "seek or receive
any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons" . NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful
uses to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were
therefore committed to the goal of total nuclear disarmament
Notable non-signatories to the NPT are Israel, Pakistan, and India (the latter two have since tested nuclear weapons,
while Israel is considered by most to be an unacknowledged nuclear weapons state). North Korea was once a
signatory but withdrew in January 2003. The legality of North Korea's withdrawal is debatable but as of 9 October
2006, North Korea clearly possesses the capability to make a nuclear explosive device.
In 1995, NPT parties reaffirmed their commitment to a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty to prohibit the production of
any further fissile material for weapons. This aims to complement the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty of 1996 and
to codify commitments made by the United States, the UK, France and Russia to cease production of weapons
material, as well as putting a similar ban on China. This treaty will also put more pressure on Israel, India and
Pakistan to agree to international verification.
iv. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) - 1996
It bans all nuclear explosions in all environments for military or civilian purposes. It was adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly in 1996. It was signed by 71 States, including five of the eight then nuclear-capable
states. As of May 2010, 153 states have ratified the CTBT and another 29 states have signed but not yet ratified.
The treaty will enter into force 180 days after the 44 states listed in Annex 2 (State s having nuclear reactors) of the
treaty have ratified it. These "Annex 2 states" are states that participated in the CTBT‘s negotiations between 1994
and 1996 and possessed nuclear power reactors or research reactors at that time. As of August, 2011, nine states
have not ratified the treaty: China, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Israel and the United States have already signed the
Treaty, whereas India, North Korea and Pakistan have not yet signed it.
v. The Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty (FMCT)
The Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty (FMCT) is a proposed international treaty to prohibit the further production of
fissile material for nuclear weapons or other explosive devices. The treaty has not been negotiated and its terms
remain to be defined. According to a proposal by the United States, fissile material includes high -enriched uranium
Shakoor Kakar
82
andplutonium (except plutonium that is over 80% Pu-238). According to a proposal by Russia, fissile material
would be limited to weapons -grade uranium (with more than 90% U-235) and plutonium (with more than 90% Pu-
239). Neither proposal would prohibit the production of fissile material for non -weapons purposes, including use in
civil or naval nuclear reactors.
In a 27 September 1993 speech before the UN, President Clinton called for a multilateral convention banning the
production of fissile materials for nuclear explosives or outside international safe guards. In December 1993 the UN
General Assembly adopted resolution 48/75L calling for the negotiation of a "non -discriminatory, multilateral and
international effectively verifiable treaty banning the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons or other
nuclear explosive devices." The Geneva based Conference on Disarmament (CD) on 23 March 1995 agreed to
establish a committee to negotiate "a non-discriminatory, multilateral and internationally and effectively verifiable
treaty banning the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices.". However,
substantive negotiations have not taken place.
In 2004, the United States announced that it opposed the inclusion of a verification mechanism in the treaty on the
grounds that the treaty could not be effectively verified. On November 4, 2004, the United States cast the sole vote
in the First Committee of the United Nations General Assembly against a resolution (A/C.1/59/L.34) calling for
negotiation of an effectively verifiable treaty. The Bush Administration supported a treaty but advocated an ad hoc
system of verification wherein states would monitor the compliance of other states through their own national
intelligence mechanisms.
On April 5, 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama reversed the U.S. position on verification and proposed to negotiate
"a new treaty that verifiably ends the production of fissile materials intended for use in state nuclear weapons." On
May 29, 2009, the CD agreed to establish an FMCT negotiating committee,
However, Pakistan has repeatedly blocked the CD from implementing its agreed program of work, despite severe
pressure from the major nuclear powers to end its defiance of 64 other countries in blocking international ban on the
production of new nuclear bomb-making material, as well as discussions on full nuclear disarmament, the arms race
in outer space, and security assurances for non-nuclear states.[5] Pakistan justified its actions when Chairman joint
chiefs General Tariq Majid argued that "a proposed fissile material cutoff treaty would target Pakistan specifically.
5. Mr. Obama‟s Nuclear Policy
(Nuclear posture review- APR 2010)
President Obama has spoken about his vision of a world without nuclear weapons. It is a lofty goal that will not be
achieved during his presidency — or for years after that. But in a very dangerous time, he has taken important steps
to make the world safer and bolster this country‘s credibility as it tries to constrain the nuclear ambitions of Iran,
North Korea and others.
Obama has revived arms control negotiations between United States and Russia who still have a combined total of
more than 20,000 nuclear weapons. He and President Medvedev of Russia will sign a new agreement (the first since
2002) this year (New SALT) that will reduce the number of strategic warheads each side has deployed from 2,200 to
1,550.
The new policy says, the ―fundamental role‖ of nuclear weapons is to deter nuclear attack on the United States and
its allies, and it rules out the use of nuclear weapons against nonnuclear countries, even if they attack the United
States with unconventional weapons. He has made the prevention of nuclear terrorism and proliferation a central
strategic priority. And the administration has rightly decided to lead by example. We were especially encouraged to
see the review‘s statement that the country ―will not develop new nuclear warheads.‖
Shakoor Kakar
83
―The greatest threat to U.S. and global security is no longer a nuclear exchange between nations, but nuclear
terrorism by violent extremists and nuclear proliferation to an increasing number of states,‖ Obama said in a
statement. ―For the first time, preventing nuclear proliferation and nuclear terrorism is now at the top of America‘s
nuclear agenda.‖
Shakoor Kakar
84
The Missile Defence Systems and their impact

During the 1950s nuclear weapons required large aircraft designed to carry these weapons to their target. Thereafter,
as the technology developed for manufacturing ballistic missiles and for nuclear ordnance that was compact enough
to be carried by these missiles, so the possibility increased that more states would seek to deliver nuclear weapons
by this means.
Ballistic missiles consequently represent the most sophisticated method of nuclear delivery and were once restricted
to a few states.
The debate entered a new phase when the US Congress passed the National Missile Defense (NMD) Act in 1999.
This Act proposed that the United States should develop the technical means to counter a possible small-scale
ballistic missile attack on the US mainland. International reaction to US missile defence proposals met with
concerns in Russia and China about the impact on stability if the ABM Treaty was eroded, while in Europe similar
reservations were expressed.
The United States eventually moved forward with a testing programme for missile interceptors, withdrew from the
ABM Treaty, negotiated a new agreement with Russia known as the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty
(SORT), and began initial BMD deployments. Japan and Israel have also decid ed to deploy missile defences while a
debate has emerged in Europe over the proposed stationing of US BMD in Poland, the Czech Republic, and possibly
elsewhere. Russia has responded negatively to the latter proposal because of concerns about the effects on stability
in the region and its implications for arms control agreements. One consideration in this context is that START 1
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties expires in 2009 and SORT in 2012, and thus the existing rules governing US-
Russian strategic arms will no longer apply unless a new agreement can be forged.
The decision of Obama to abandon the missile defence plans of the Bush Administration involving ten missile
interceptors in Poland and a radar sites in the Czech Republic and replace them with a n ew missile defence
arrangement has generated considerable controversy. Obama administration denied that Russia was a factor in its
decision. Putin pocketed the missile defense victory. Both Medvedev and Putin praised Obama decision, with putin
calling it a ―very right and brave decision‖
Russia had linked the possible deployment of missile defense sites in Poland and Czech Republic to conclusion of a
post-strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START)
Shakoor Kakar
85
Nuclearization of South Asia

1. India
Canada and the United States supplied India with the technology necessary to create a nuclear weapons program,
dubbed CIRUS (Canada-India Reactor, United States). Canada sold India the reactor on the condition that the
reactor and any by-products would be "employed for peaceful purposes only.". Similarly, the United States sold
India heavy water for use in the reactor "only... in connection with research into and the use of atomic energy for
peaceful purposes".
India, in violation of these agreements, used the Canadian -supplied reactor and American-supplied heavy water to
produce plutonium for their first nuclear explosion. The India exploded a nuclear device in 1974, which it has
consistently claimed was for peaceful purposes. Others saw it as a response to China's nuclear weapo ns capability.
In 1999 it deployed its own medium and has developed an intermediate-range missile capable of reaching targets in
China's industrial heartland. In 1998 India conducted its 2nd nuclear explosion. Indian security policies are driven
by:
• Its determination to be recognized as a dominant power in the region.

• Its increasing concern with China's expanding nuclear weapons and missile delivery programmes.
• Its concern with Pakistan's capability to deliver nuclear weapons deep into India.
• And to be the permanent member of Security Council.
It perceives nuclear weapons as a cost-effective political counter to China's nuclear and conventional weaponry.
India has had an unhappy relationship with China since 1962 war, in which it was defeated by China.
India„s nuclear doctrine

The basic elements of India‗s nuclear defense doctrine as they subsequently emerged in public statements can be
summarized as follows:
 In the absence of Global nuclear disarmament, Concept of a credible minimum nuclear deterrence.
 Triad of forces—mobile land based missiles, aircraft and sea-based assets.
 The fundamental purpose of the Indian nuclear weapons is to deter the use and any threat of use of nuclear
weapons against India and its forces by any state or entity. India will use nuclear weapons even if its
territory been attacked with chemical and/or biological weapons.
 The political leadership will decide about any retaliatory attack.

 India will not use nuclear weapons first (no-first-use policy).
 India will not use nuclear weapons against a non-nuclear state.
 India will pursue the policy of strict control over the export of sensitive technologies and material.
The basic requirements for credible minimum deterrence are defined as:
1. Sufficient, survivable and operationally deployable forces
2. A reliable intact command and control system
3. Effective intelligence and early warning system
4. Credibility, which means the will to employ nuclear forces and weapons.
5. Comprehensive training and planning for the operations in line with the strategy.
In 2003 there was a further expansion in the Indian nuclear defense doctrine.
2. Pakistan.
Pakistan's nuclear weapons development program (1976) was in response to neighboring India's development of
nuclear weapons (1974). Bhutto rallied Pakistan's scientists to build the atomic bomb for national survival (Security
issue).
Shakoor Kakar
86
Pakistan is believed to have produced the material for its weapons using Chinese help. In 1990 the U.S.
Administration cut off aid because it was unable to certify that Pakistan was not pursuing a policy of ma nufacturing
nuclear weapons.
Pakistan has made it clear since early 1996 that it had become, ―nuclear capable‖ and that if India staged a nuclear
test, Pakistan would immediately respond with its own nuclear explosive device. It is assumed to now have enou gh
highly-enriched uranium for up to forty nuclear warheads.
In May 1998 Pakistan conducted six underground tests in response to India‘s nuclear tests. Pakistan has addressed
issues of survivability in a possible nuclear conflict through first strike capab ility as well as second strike capability.
Pakistan has been dealing with efforts to develop new weapons and at the same time, have a strategy for surviving a
nuclear war. Pakistan has built hard and deeply buried storage and launch facilities to retain a second strike
capability in a nuclear war.
It was confirmed that Pakistan has built Soviet-style road-mobile missiles, state-of-the-art air defences around
strategic sites, and other concealment measures. In 1998, Pakistan had 'at least six secret location s' and since then it
is believed Pakistan may have many more such secret sites. In 2008, the United States admitted that it did not know
where all of Pakistan‘s nuclear sites are located. Pakistani defence officials have continued to deflect American
requests for more details about the location and security of the country‘s nuclear sites.
In the 1970s, Pakistan first focused on the plutonium route. They expected to obtain the fissile material from a
reprocessing plant provided by France. This plan failed du e to U.S. intervention. Pakistan, not wanting to give up,
redoubled its efforts to obtain uranium enrichment technology. The main efforts towards this direction were done
under Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan. Dr. Khan returned to Pakistan in 1976 and initiated the Uranium enrichment
program.
i. Nuclear black market Issue
In 2003, IAEA unearthed a nuclear black market with close ties to Pakistan. It was widely believed to have direct
involvement of the government of Pakistan. This claim could not be verified due to the refusal of the government of
Pakistan to allow IAEA to interview the alleged head of the nuclear black market, who happened to be no other than
Dr. Khan. Dr. Khan later confessed to his crimes on national television, bailing out the government by takin g full
responsibility. He confessed to nuclear proliferation from Pakistan to Iran and North Korea. He was immediately
given presidential immunity. Exact nature of the involvement at the governmental level is still unclear, but the
manner in which the government acted cast doubt on the sincerity of Pakistan.
ii. Pak nuclear Doctrine (Policy)
Pakistan's motive, as stated by its former President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in 1985, for pursuing a nuclear weapons
development program is to counter the threat posed by its principal rival, India. Pakistan‘s strategy is simply
defensive vis-a-viz India. Following are the pillars of Pak nuclear doctrine;
1. Building and maintaining a credible minimum deterrent. (Deterrence) (Against India.

2. A posture of no-first-use: nuclear weapons will only be used in retaliation against a nuclear attack on Pak
territory).
3. Nuclear retaliation to a first strike.
4. Continuance of strict control on export of nuclear and missile related materials and technology, participation in
the fissile material cut off treaty negotiations.
5. Continued commitment to the goal of a nuclear-free world through global verifiable and no discriminatory nuclear
disarmament.
Shakoor Kakar
87
Pakistan's generals have sought to make it impossible for India to achieve their goals. They have articulated a set of
conditions under which they will use their nuclear weapons. Pakistani nuclear weapons will be used, according to
General Kidwai of Pakistan's Strategic Planning Division/ NCA, only "if the very existence of Pakistan as a state is
at stake" and this, he specified, meant:
• India attacks Pakistan and takes a large part of its territory.
• India destroys a large part of Pakistan armed forces.
• India imposes an economic blockade on Pakistan.
• India creates political destabilization or large scale internal subversion in Pakistan.
iii. Pakistan NPT, CTBT
Pakistan has not signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) or the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
"Pakistan remains steadfast in its refusal to sign the NPT, stating that it would do so only after India joined the
Treaty. Consequently, not all of Pakistan's nuclear facilities are under IAEA safeguards. Pakistani officials have
stated that signature of the CTBT is in Pakistan's best interest, but that Pakistan will do so o nly after developing a
domestic consensus on the issue, and have disavowed any connection with India's decision.
US have regularly shown its concerns that Pakistan is not a responsible state & its nuclear stockpile is not in safe
hands. There is a greater threat from Islamic extremists/ terrorists, who could assume the control of these weapons
& pose a serious threat to the world peace (Nuclear terrorism). Pakistan has taken following safeguards to dilute the
international community‘s apprehensions;
Musharraf established ―National Command Authority ―in this regard in 2000.This organization has been authorized
to make decisions about Pakistan's nuclear posturing. The NCA safeguards Pakistan‘s all nuclear assets. It controls
development and deployment of nuclear weapons; it is also responsible for war-time command and control. It will
take the crucial decision to use nuclear weapons or not in case of a potentially dangerous war situation vis -à-vis
India. NCA is also believed to have developed and implemented its own version of permissive action link
technology and has well secured its nuclear assets through codal system. Similarly the weapons have also been kept
in dis-assembled position and spread at various locations in order to avoid any mishap.
A 2010 study by the Congressional Research Service titled 'Pakistan‘s Nuclear Weapons: Proliferation and Security
Issues' noted that even though Pakistan had taken several steps to enhance Nuclear security in recent years
'Instability in Pakistan has called the extent and durability of these reforms into question. According to another
source, in July 2011, US is seriously considering to get a resolution passed in security council regarding dismantling
of Pakistan‘s nuclear assets.
Shakoor Kakar
88
Nuclear Arms Control in South Asia
Pakistan has initiated a series of regional security proposals. It has repeatedly proposed a nuclear free zone in South
Asia and has proclaimed its willingness to engage in nuclear disarmament and to sign the Non -Proliferation Treaty if
India would do so. It has endorsed a United States proposal for a regional five power conference to consider non -
proliferation in South Asia.
India has taken the view that solutions to regional security issues should be found at the international rather than the
regional level, since its chief concern is with China. It therefore rejects Pakistan's proposals.
The United States for some years, especially under the Clinton administration (in 1990s), pursued a variety of
initiatives to persuade India and Pakistan to abandon their nuclear weapons programs and to accept comprehensive
international safeguards on all their nuclear activities. To this end, the Clinton administration proposed a conference
of the five nuclear-weapon states, Japan, Germany, India and Pakistan.
India refused this and similar previous proposals, and countered with demands that other potential weapons states,
such as Iran and North Korea, should be invited, and that regional limitations would only be acceptable if they were
accepted equally by China. As United States did not accept the participation of Iran and North Korea so these
initiatives lapsed.
Barack Obama also announced its new nuclear policy in 2010.He has particularly focused on nuclear terrorism by
violent extremists and nuclear proliferation to an increasing number of states. ―For the first time, preventing nuclear
proliferation and nuclear terrorism is now at the top of America‘s nuclear agenda.‖(Obama).
But such measures/ policies cannot be applied as long as world is divided into ―haves & Have n ots‖. There has to be
international justice first, & fair rules for all the states in the world.
Shakoor Kakar
89
Chapter 8: Contemporary Issues

1. Indian Ocean
With all its tributary water bodies such as Persian gulf. The red sea, 35 coastal states, along 13 landlocked dependent
states this region Indian Ocean region representing the 20% of globe surface and 39 % of world Population.
―Whosoever controls the Indian Ocean dominates India, This ocean is the key to seven sea. In 21th century the
destiny of the world will be decided by its water‖ Alfer D Mahan
1. Importance
i. as Physical environment, it provides many sources, 80 % of world oil reserves, 17 %of gas, 40 % of global
commerce is conducted through this area.
ii. As a transportation medium, it provides a unique and shortest maritime route to t he world.
iii. From military perspective great opportunity intelligence operation, naval blockade ship inspection and
escort, naval surveillance, naval warfare and projection of power
iv. Strategic point of view it provide a number of 8 choke points;
2. COLD WAR ERA
British lost her control in 1945 and withdrew, US and USSR Navies appeared in the Indian Ocean.
The theater of confrontation shifted from Europe and South east Asia to Wast Asia and Indian Ocean.
Super Power want to establish their supremecy here due to…
i. Protect the rout of their trade
ii. Oil supply
iii. Deter the rival powers to use sea based weapons (Submarine launched ballistic Missiles)
iv. To conduct surveillance
USA
1964 US Aircraft Carrier force reached Indian Ocean justify to fill the vacuum and Replace Britain military
withdrawal.
US interest
i. From nowhere else the USSR heartland in direct range of SLBM
ii. Her peaceful trade to and from Persian gulf.
iii. To keep an eye on the movement of the ships to and from the Persian gulf which is one of the major oil supplier
of the world.
iv. Her presence is also directed toward pressurizing the oil producing Arab States.
USSR
Indian Sea was contiguous to its land Mass
It could provide launching basses for missiles attack on USSR
It could also provide warm water link b/w here Eastern and Western parts In 1981 USSR has 21 Ships in the region.
3. Recent positions
i. INDIA
 Indain Naval strategy began shape over the last decades.
 Indian response is directed toward China
 Paid attention to develop relations at a key Choke points Malaca straight, Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal
 19% share of defense to Navy.
 Naval Budget is greater than all other Indian Ocean states put together
 India has employed a range of Naval exercises
Shakoor Kakar
90
 Strait of Malacca is a key choke point b/w Indian and Pacific Ocean- India has developed relationship with
Singapore
 Indian naval diplomacy:

 Close military relations with Oman, Strait of Hormuz
 Security agreement with Qatar, inside the Guif
 Military collaboration with South Africa, in the Cape of Good Hope
ii. CHINA
 During last decades China also has taken up an active naval strategy.
 However China seems to continue with soft power diplomacy
 China‘s naval capabilities now exceeded India enormously both in qualitative a nd quantitative terms
 However China has no historical tradition of project of Power in Indian Ocean
 Energy security of China:

 It is supreme concern animating Chinese interest in Indian Ocean
 China is the world second largest consumer of Oil
 Strings of Pearl Strategy of China

 However China ability to project power is limited by the distance of Ports and logistical support
 Chinas perceived diplomatic attempt to overcome these strategic limitation in the Indain Ocean has been
called its ―Strings of Pearl‖ Strategy.
 China has been developing political relationship in Indian Ocean with Myanma, Bengladesh, Sri Lanka,
Pakistan.
iii. USA
 The US navy and its Ally has bases in the strait of Malacca area, the Persian gulf and strait of Hormuz, the
Gulf of Aden to the Suez Canal areas.
 Securing vital routes against different threats
 US presence in Diego Gracia and western Australia is another power that can challenge the superiority of
Both India and China.
 However in view of tangible Chinese presence in IOR the US h as been tolerant of Indian rising position in
 Indian ocean. Broad consensus bw Delhi and Washington
 In 2011 Obama announced that USA would rebalance the it global strategy to Indian ocean
 By 2020 the US navy would split 50% Between Pacific and Atlantic- thus toward Indian Ocean
 These moves are seen to be designed to counter China

 Strait of Malacca would be a key target of USA to thereat the chines energy security
iv. Pakistan and Iran

 Since 9/11 there has been growing Indo-Iranian Naval cooperation in Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea
 Pak and China are directly affected by these moves
 In this regard Pak and China are Actively collaborating on the development of Gawadar Port.
 In response India brought Iran into economic and strategic alliance
 India Spent huge amount on the Iranian port of Chahbahar in Sistan Balochistan
 The development of Chahbahar by India and Gawadar by China resulted into open rivalry b/w Pakistan and
Iran.
Shakoor Kakar
91
 Chahbahar port:
 India aim to Bypass Pakistan from Central Asian Routes
 It will play a role to connect India to Afghanistan and Central Asia.
 India has dual objective, to encircle pak and to counterweight china
 Gawadar Port:
 It will reduce the distance for energy imports from Persian gulf to China
 It will provide a base for China surveillance for oil trade routes and Indian Ocean
 It has a close proximity with the strait of Hormuz
 China has plan to build a oil pipeline from Arab and African states via Gawadar to Xinjiang
Shakoor Kakar

IR Part II

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

IR Part II

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

International Relations Shakoor Kakar

Syllabus and Contents (Paper II; 100 Marks)

I. International Relation between two Wars

II. Cold War Page 39 VU

III. Post Cold War

IV. International and Regional Organizations VU page 53

V. Foreign Policy of Selected Countries

VI. South Asia

VII. Weapons of Mass Destruction

- Programs and Postures: Indian-Pakistan Nuclear Doctrines

VIII. Contemporary Issues

Chapter One: International Relation between Two Wars

How the first war Began?

1. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia

World War II Leadership

Fascist states were characterized by:

1. Blind loyalty to a leader

Totalitarianism in Nazi Germany

ii. Lack of Civil Liberties

iv. Economic Controls

HITLER‟S FOREIGN POLICY

FASCISM IN OTHER COUNTRIES

3. Second World War

10-year nonaggression pact

The Phony War

Fall of Denmark and Norway

Invasion of Great Britain

INVASION OF USSR (Eastern Front)

Fall of Yugoslavia and Greece

The Battle of Stalingrad

The D-Day: Battle of Normandy

The end of Hitler: The end of Drama

Causes Of World War II

i. Invasion of {Poland was immediate cause

i. The USSR absorbed sic hundred thousand territory

Chapter Two: Cold War

2. Five aspects of decolonisation are worth highlighting.

4. DECOLONIZATION OF AFRICA AND MUCH OF ASIA

2. Rise of Soviet Union and United States

The Mighty USSR

3. Cold War Period

2. THE COLD WAR AND ITS IMPACTS

3. Expansion of the Cold War Arena

6. REVIVAL OF COLD WAR

1. INTRODUCTION OF COLD WAR PHENOMENON

ii. Two Power Blocks

iii. Communist Ideology and Practice

iv. Capitalist Ideology and Practice

2. THE COLD WAR AND ITS IMPACTS

i. The division of Europe into two blocks

ii. Truman Doctrine

iii. Marshal Plan 1947

iv. NATO: 1949

v. Warsaw Pact 1955

vi. Balance of Terror; Nuclear Arms Race

vii. Impacts on United Nation

3. Expansion of the Cold War Arena

4. Khrushchev Replaced Stalin

i. Cuban Missile Crisis

4. Meanwhile Reconciliatory efforts

2. Negotiations, Summit and Treaties

ii. The Helsinki Accords; 1975