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The Chemistry of Copper Heap Leaching
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John Dreier
Figure 1 November, 1999
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Introduction
Figure 9
Between 1980 and 2000, primary copper produced by acid sulfate leaching
Figure 10
has grown from about seven percent of world output to 20 percent. Driving the increase in
leach production has been the widespread adoption of solvent extraction and electrowinning
Figure 11 (SX/EW), an efficient, lowcost technology for recovering copper from leach solutions.
While a few standalone leaching operations have been commissioned since the early
Figure 12 1980’s, notably, El Abra, Cerro Verde, Quebrada Blanca, El Tesoro, and CarolinaMichilla,
all in Chile, most new leaching capacity has been installed at existing mines. Outside of
Figure 13 the existing mines is a large, undeveloped oxide copper resource that is technologically
amenable to acid sulfate leaching. The purpose of this chapter is to explain the
Figure 14 geochemical principles that govern acid sulfate copper leaching and to provide a basis for
understanding the testing application of acid leaching to the undeveloped oxide copper
resource base.
Figure 15
The leaching of copper in commercial operations is similar in principal (virtually identical in
Figure 16
most respects) to natural processes including the formation of leached cappings above
copper deposits, the weathering of rocks, the generation of acid and metals by the
Figure 17 oxidation of mine dumps (ARD), and the formation and leaching of soils. Given its
importance in so many fields, natural leaching has received a great deal of attention from
Figure 18 economic geologists, geochemists, soil scientists and others for more than a century. The
approach taken by this chapter is to apply to commercial copper leaching the theories and
methods used to quantitatively understand and predict the outcomes of natural leaching.
The principal message of this chapter is that leaching kinetics and acid consumption
depend on the ore and gangue mineralogy. To summarize for copper minerals: (1) oxide,
hydroxide, sulfate, and silicate minerals leach quickly, (2) Reduced copper oxides such as
delafossite and cuprite, native copper, and copper sulfide minerals of the chalcocite series
leach slower than copper oxides, sulfates, and silicates, and (3) chalcopyrite and bornite
leach very slowly. Gangue composed of quartz, sericite and other nonreactive minerals
(minerals that do not react with the leach solution) allows fast leach kinetics and low acid
consumption. Economic recovery of copper from nonreactive gangue often requires little or
no crushing or curing. By contrast, gangue composed of calcite and other reactive minerals
(minerals that dissolve rapidly in acid) is typified by low leach kinetics and high acid
consumption. A worst case example for reactive gangue is limestone. The commercial
leaching of copper from reactive gangue requires crushing and acid curing if, indeed,
leaching is feasible.
Copper leaching coupled with SX/EW consists of the following steps:
1. Application of a sulfuric acid solution to the top of a heap.
2. Interaction of the leach solution with the ore and gangue minerals within the heap.
3. Soichiometric exchange of one copper ion for two hydrogen ions in the SX plant.
4. Recirculation of the copper depleted solution back onto the heap.
The preceding four points state that oxide copper leaching with SX/EW takes place within a
system that is closed to all elements save copper and sulfur. Sulfur is added as fresh leach
solution. Copper is removed from the system in the SX/EW plant. Sulfide dump or heap
leaching, where all acid is derived from the dissolution of pyrite and other sulfides, is closed
to all elements save copper. For all other elements and compounds, copper heap leaching
is a closed system. The characterization of copper leaching as a closed system has
profound implications to the chemistry of leaching.
The Mineralogy of Copper Deposits
Virtually all copper deposits amenable to acid sulfate leaching were formed at or very near
the Earth’s surface by the weathering and oxidation of primary copper deposits. Most
primary copper deposits form deeper in the crust under conditions of elevated temperature
and pressure. Copper deposits formed by the oxidation and leaching of primary deposits are
profound implications to the chemistry of leaching.
The Mineralogy of Copper Deposits
Virtually all copper deposits amenable to acid sulfate leaching were formed at or very near
the Earth’s surface by the weathering and oxidation of primary copper deposits. Most
primary copper deposits form deeper in the crust under conditions of elevated temperature
and pressure. Copper deposits formed by the oxidation and leaching of primary deposits are
termed secondary or supergene copper deposits. Some secondary copper deposits result
from the in situ oxidation of primary deposits while others were formed by the gradual
accumulation of copper that was leached from its original location and transported to the
new site in some cases for distances of tens of kilometers by acidoxidizing ground
waters.
In nature, copper combines with nearly every element in the periodic table to form minerals
as carbonates, silicates, hydroxides, oxides, chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, and sulfides.
While natural copper minerals number in the hundreds, if not thousands, only a few are
economically important outside of a mineral collection. In a given copper deposit,
substantially all of the copper may occur in only two or three minerals. The most
economically important copper minerals are listed below.
Economically Important Copper Minerals
tenorite CuO
pitch limonite (Fe,Cu)O 2
delafossite FeCuO 2
native copper Cu
cuprite Cu2O
malachite Cu2CO3.(OH) 2
chalcocite Cu2S
covellite CuS
digenite Cu1.95x S
djurleite Cu1.95x S
bornite Cu5FeS 4
chalcopyrite CuFeS 2
The small number of important secondary copper minerals results from the following:
1. An overall uniformity in the chemical composition of rocks that occur in porphyry copper
deposits as shown by published tables of whole rock chemistry and mineralogy for
various porphyry copper deposits (Titley, 1978,1982). The whole rock chemical data in
these publications suggests that weathering of primary copper deposits would tend to
produce copper silicates, sulfates, and carbonates in combination with iron, and
manganese.
2. The prevalence of oxygen and carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere and hydrosphere
suggests that oxides, hydroxides, and carbonates of copper should be common.
3. The presence of sulfur in minerals such as pyrite, chalcopyrite, and bornite in primary
copper deposits suggests that copper sulfates might be common in secondary deposits.
4. That sulfuric acid is released during the weathering and oxidation of primary copper
deposits suggests that common secondary copper minerals might be stable in ground
water of weak to moderate acidity.
5. The thermodynamic properties of copper minerals suggests that oxidized porphyry copper
deposits would tend to be rich in chrysocolla, tenorite, coppermanganese silicates,
cuprite, delafossite, and various members of the chalcocite series. These copper
minerals are stable relative to other secondary copper minerals because their structures
permit widespread substitution of other cations for copper.
6. The kinetics of mineral precipitation suggests that copperironmanganese hydroxides,
oxides and silicates would be common.
Eh pH Diagrams
EhpH diagrams have been widely used for the past 50 years as a convenient and visually
effective method to evaluate the stability of copper minerals in contact with aqueous
solutions, Anderson (1982), Garrels and Christ (1965), Sato (1960), and Titley (1978). The
diagrams are constructed from thermodynamic data for minerals and aqueous solution
species and employ assumed or analytical data for dissolved aqueous species of interest.
They are thoroughly explained as to construction, thermodynamic basis, limitations, and
many other aspects by Garrels and Christ (1965).
Eh pH Diagrams
EhpH diagrams have been widely used for the past 50 years as a convenient and visually
effective method to evaluate the stability of copper minerals in contact with aqueous
solutions, Anderson (1982), Garrels and Christ (1965), Sato (1960), and Titley (1978). The
diagrams are constructed from thermodynamic data for minerals and aqueous solution
species and employ assumed or analytical data for dissolved aqueous species of interest.
They are thoroughly explained as to construction, thermodynamic basis, limitations, and
many other aspects by Garrels and Christ (1965).
EhpH diagrams show the thermodynamic relationships of minerals under specified
conditions of dissolved sulfur, copper, iron, and other species, as in the following examples.
In these examples, and in others throughout the text, a species enclosed in brackets
[Cu +2] signifies the activity of the species in the leach solution where a = γm, a = activity, γ
= activity coefficient, and m = molality (moles of solute per kg of solution). Cu 2+, Al 3+,
Fe 3+, etc. denote the valence state of the aqueous species dissolved in the solution.
The solubility of a mineral or other solid substance in a leach solution is the amount of the
solid that will dissolve to produce a saturated solution. K (sp) is the solubility product of a
solid substance:
For the reaction aA + bB = cC
K(sp) = [A] a[B] b
For copper sulfate where:
Cu2+ + SO 4 K (sp) = [Cu 2+][ SO 4].
If the activity product of the reactants raised to the appropriate powers shown in the
equilibrium expression exceed the value of K (sp) then the mineral will tend to precipitate. In
the case of copper sulfate, if K (sp) < [Cu 2+][ SO 4] copper sulfate will tend to precipitate.
Likewise, copper sulfate will tend to dissolve if the activity products of the reactants raised
to the appropriate powers shown in the equilibrium expression are less than the value of the
solubility product K >[Cu 2+][ SO ].
(sp) 4
The importance of pH in the dissolution and precipitation of copper minerals is apparent in
the hydrolysis of chrysocolla.
CuSiO 3.H2O + 2H + = Cu 2+ + H 4SiO 4
K(sp) = 10 0.8 = [Cu 2+][H 4SiO 4]/[H +] 2
log K (sp) = 0.8 = log[Cu 2+] + log[H 4SiO 4] 2log[H +]
According to the equation for the solubility of chrysocolla:
when pH = 4 and dissolved silica = 58 ppm (0.058gms/kg sol/60gms/mole = 0.000959m)
log[Cu +2] = 0.8 log 0.000959 2pH = 4.218m
If log [Cu +2] is greater than –4.218m (0.0000605m), chrysocolla will tend to precipitate. If
[Cu +2] is less than 0.0000605m, chrysocolla will tend to dissolve. The calculations suggest
that groundwater saturated in silica at pH = 4 could be an effective leaching agent. Over the
thousands or millions of years that encompass a geological process, the ground water
could slowly dissolve chrysocolla and transport the copper to some other location. By
contrast, the calculations indicate that in the case of a commercial operation, which must,
of economic necessity, leach and recover copper within a few months, chrysocolla would
be stable and copper would be immobile.
In acid sulfate leaching, the solubility of antlerite and other copper sulfate minerals depends
on the activity of sulfate in solution as well as pH.
Cu3SO 4.(OH) 4 + 4H + = 3Cu 2+ + SO 4= + 4H 2O
K(sp) = 10 8.29 = [Cu +2] 3[SO 42]/[H +] 4
log K (sp) = 8.29 = 3log[Cu 2+] + log[SO 4=] 4log[H +]
log[Cu +2] = (8.29 log[SO 42] 4pH)/3
at pH = 5 and log [SO 4=] = 0.3 (or 0.5m), log [Cu 2+] = 3.80m
or 1.57 x 10 4 m or 0.01g/l.
In nature, where leaching may go on for a very long time, ground water @pH=5 would slowly
dissolve antlerite and leach copper from the rock. However, in commercial leaching
operations, where leach times are short, antlerite would remain appreciably unaffected and
copper would remain in the heap. If, however, the pH of the leach solution were decreased
to 2, then log[Cu +2] increases to 0.59 (16.5 g/l) causing antlerite to dissolve and copper to
leach from the heap.
The stability relationship between cuprite and tenorite demonstrates the effects of pH and
Eh on the relative stabilities of mineral species.
Cu2O + H 2O = 2CuO + 2H + + 2e
o
to 2, then log[Cu +2] increases to 0.59 (16.5 g/l) causing antlerite to dissolve and copper to
leach from the heap.
The stability relationship between cuprite and tenorite demonstrates the effects of pH and
Eh on the relative stabilities of mineral species.
Cu2O + H 2O = 2CuO + 2H + + 2e
Eh = E o 0.059pH = 0.339 – 0.059pH
Calculations show that when pH = 4 then Eh = 1.1, and when pH = 2, Eh = 1.221. On a
graph where Eh is the ordinate (vertical axis) and pH, the abscissa (horizontal), a plot of
equilibrium calculations for all conditions of pH and Eh for the reaction Cu 2O + H 2O = 2CuO
+ 2H + + 2e gives a straight line. Below the line, cuprite is stable with respect to tenorite
and above the line tenorite is stable with respect to cuprite.
The construction of EhpH diagrams such as Fig. 1 (also see Garrels and Christ, 1965 p.
232) using various values for dissolved sulfur, iron, SiO 2, Mn, CO 2 and other species
indicates that copper minerals form, or are preserved in, oxide and chalcocite deposits as a
result of geological and geochemical conditions as follows:
1. The Chemical composition of the host rocks.
2. The content of pyrite and other sulfide minerals in the deposit prior to weathering.
3. The EhpH at various parts of the deposit during weathering.
Chrysocolla is abundant in oxide copper deposits because it is stable relative to other
copper minerals under oxidizing moderate pH conditions where dissolved silica is near its
solubility limit. The stability of chrysocolla relative to other secondary copper silicate
minerals is enhanced by the widespread substitution of Fe, Mn, Al and other cations into
the chrysocolla structure. Conditions favorable to chrysocolla deposition occur in many
weathered porphyry copper deposits of low to moderate sulfide content in andesite,
monzonite, or granite host rocks. The oxidation of pyrite and chalcopyrite in these deposits
produces sulfuric acid sufficient to break down some silicate gangue minerals but not
enough to mobilize copper from the rock. Chrysocolla deposits form in ground water
environments where pH is in the range of 5 to 6 and [H 4SiO 4] is at or near silica saturation.
Tenorite is common in oxidized copper deposits of original low sulfide contents where
dissolved silica was low. Native copper, cuprite and delafossite occur towards the bottom of
oxide deposits where Eh has been lowered through the reaction of the ground waters with
gangue minerals. Delafossite, as opposed to cuprite or native copper, is favored if dissolved
ferrous iron is high. Malachite and azurite are common where dissolved CO 2 and pH are
high, as in oxidized skarn and limestone hosted copper deposits.
Antlerite, brochantite and other copper sulfate minerals occur in oxidized chalcocite
blankets where sulfate was high and pH was in the range of 3 to 5. Antlerite deposits are
preserved from dissolution by desert conditions or by an influx of neutral to basic ground
water.
Atacamite is found in very arid regions where total chloride in the ground water is high. Not
surprisingly, atacamite is a common mineral in the secondary copper deposits of northern
Chile, one of the driest regions on earth.
The significance of Fig. 1 to the leaching of copper in commercial operations is that all
copper minerals, including oxides, hydroxides, sulfides, phosphates, sulfates, carbonates,
and silicates, are soluble under acidoxidizing conditions as exist in sulfate leach solutions.
In nature, the leaching of copper deposits commonly produces leached caps that may
contain as little as a 50 ppm copper residue. This is not to say, however, that all copper
minerals dissolve at the same rate or that all of the copper in a heap or dump may be
recovered during the life of a given operation; far from it. Copper minerals do not all dissolve
at the same rate and it may take a great deal of time to establish EhpH conditions
conducive to leaching throughout every part of a heap. Nevertheless, all of the copper in a
copper deposit is ultimately acid soluble. In view of this fact, the purpose of leach testing is
to determine if leaching is economically feasible, and, if so to optimize leach kinetics and
acid consumption.
Dissolution Rates of Copper Minerals in Leach Solutions
Relative to rock forming minerals, copper minerals dissolve quite rapidly in oxidized acid
sulfate leach solutions. For example, as measured in the laboratory, chrysocolla dissolves
at least 10 10 times faster than the common rock forming mineral albite, while chalcopyrite,
a copper mineral notorious for its slow dissolution kinetics, dissolves about 10 3 faster than
albite. Copper minerals may be grouped by dissolution rate into five categories, Very Rapid,
Rapid, Moderate, Slow, and Very Slow ( Fig. 2 ).
In the Very Rapid category are copper sulfates, chlorides, and carbonates. Sulfates are
soluble in water. They dissolve very quickly releasing metals and acid. Chlorides dissolve
quickly releasing metals and chloride. Carbonates dissolve violently in sulfuric acid
releasing copper and CO 2 gas.
1. These minerals tend to have very high surface areas because they usually occur along
fractures as powdery coatings (solids tend to dissolve faster as their surface areas go
up).
2. Chrysocolla has a fibrous, highly porous structure that promotes the entry of solutions into
the mineral.
3. The dissolution of these minerals involves breaking the relatively weak CuO bond
(according to Brady and Walther (1989), the solubility of silicate minerals is a function of
the solubility of the principal metal oxide and CuO is highly soluble.
1. These minerals tend to have very high surface areas because they usually occur along
fractures as powdery coatings (solids tend to dissolve faster as their surface areas go
up).
2. Chrysocolla has a fibrous, highly porous structure that promotes the entry of solutions into
the mineral.
3. The dissolution of these minerals involves breaking the relatively weak CuO bond
(according to Brady and Walther (1989), the solubility of silicate minerals is a function of
the solubility of the principal metal oxide and CuO is highly soluble.
In the Moderate category is native copper and “reduced” oxide minerals containing Cu + and
Fe 2+. These minerals, like chrysocolla, commonly occur as powdery or paintlike coatings
on fractures. The reduced copper and copperiron minerals dissolve more slowly than the
previous two groups because dissolution of “reduced” oxide copper minerals requires
removing an electron from copper (and from iron if present):
Cu+ Cu 2+ + e
It is well known that electron transfer is a sluggish process.
In the Slow category are the copper sulfide minerals: chalcocite, covellite, digenite, and
others of the chalcocite series. The dissolution of chalcocite type minerals requires the
oxidation of sulfur from S = to S 6+ with the removal of eight electrons. It may also involve the
oxidation of copper from Cu + to Cu 2+ with the removal of an additional electron.
In the Very Slow category are chalcopyrite and bornite. The dissolution of chalcopyrite
requires the oxidation of iron from Fe 2+ to Fe 3+ and the oxidation of sulfur from S = to S 6+
(with the resultant removal of 17 electrons) for each ion of copper released to the leach
solution.
Of practical importance, the minerals of the Very Rapid and Rapid categories have
dissolution rates that permitted vat leaching (contact times of up to 48 hours). Copper
minerals in the Moderate and Slow categories are permissive of heap leaching (contact
times of 30 to >300 days). Chalcopyrite dissolves so slowly that heap leaching is not a
feasible recovery method. It is frequently stated that chalcopyrite cannot be recovered by
acid sulfate leaching because it is insoluble. However, equilibrium considerations given
below shows that chalcopyrite is highly soluble in leach solutions; the problem with
chalcopyrite is not one of solubility but of dissolution kinetics.
Eh AND pH The Driving Forces in Copper Leaching
Chemical reaction requires a driving force. The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds
is determined by the magnitude of the driving force. In oxide copper leaching (as opposed to
sulfide leaching), the driving force is the activity of hydrogen ions in the leach solution as
shown in the following equation:
CuSiO 3.H 2O + 2H + Cu 2+ + SiO 2 + 2H 2O
ΔG o (reaction) = ΔGo + 2.303RT(log[Cu 2+] – 2log[H +])
Where ΔGo = ΔGo(Cu2+) + ΔGo(SiO2) + ΔGo(H2O) – ΔGo(CuSiO3.H2O) – ΔGo(H+)
In sulfide leaching, the driving force is electron acceptors in the leach solution (Fe 3+ and
oxygen are the most common) as shown in the following equation:
FeS 2 + 14Fe 3+ + 8H 20 = 15Fe 2+ + 2SO 4= + 16H +
Log K = [Fe 2+] 15 [SO 4] 2[H +] 16/[Fe 3+] 14
Because copper leaching is driven by the activity of hydrogen ions and electron acceptors
(ferric ions) in the leach solution, it follows that leach kinetics depend on two fundamental
properties of the leach solution: (1) the activity of H + (measured as pH) and (2) the oxidation
When log[Fe ] = 1, log[Fe ] = 10.65
Because copper leaching is driven by the activity of hydrogen ions and electron acceptors
(ferric ions) in the leach solution, it follows that leach kinetics depend on two fundamental
properties of the leach solution: (1) the activity of H + (measured as pH) and (2) the oxidation
potential (measured as Eh). At the most fundamental level, we may imagine copper
leaching as a process in which we drive protons (H +) into the system while we pull
electrons out of it.
The Importance of Whole Rock Mineralogy in Copper Leaching
While oxide copper minerals dissolve rapidly in acid sulfate leach solutions, the amount of
copper that is ultimately extracted from a heap is largely dependent on the percentage of
the heap exposed to acidoxidizing conditions. In this regard, the principal obstacle to
successful leaching is the persistence within the leaching system of low Ehhigh pH
microenvironments. A low Eh high pH microenvironment may exist within an individual
mineral grain, an ore fragment, or some large part of the heap blinded from the leach
solution. Because low Ehhigh pH micro environments are present within virtually all
leaching systems, it is a given that the macro chemical conditions as measured in the
pregnant leach solution differ from the micro conditions existing within minerals, ore
fragments, or areas of the heap blinded from the leach solution.
Acid Consumption
As a leach solution flows down through a heap, it reacts with ore and gangue minerals in a
great many hydrolysis reactions (exemplified by the dissolution of chrysocolla) and redox
reactions (exemplified by the dissolution of pyrite).
Silicate gangue minerals comprise more than 99 percent of most oxide porphyry copper
ores. Given this fact, we would expect that the behavior of silicate gangue minerals in
sulfuric acid solutions would be very important to copper leaching. The most common
silicate gangue minerals in porphyry copper deposits are:
Important Gangue Minerals
quartz SiO 2
In the laboratory, silicate minerals are shown to dissolve in hydrolysis reactions:
KAlSi 3O8 + 4H+ + 4H 2O = K + + Al 3+ + 3H 4SiO 4
K(reaction) = [K +][Al 3+][H 4 SiO 4]/[ H +] 4
The dissolution of orthoclase, as shown above, occurs by means of a hydrolysis reaction
driven only by pH. Because reaction rates depend on the chemical driving force, the rate at
which orthoclase dissolves in hydrolysis reactions is a function of pH ( Fig. 4 ). In the case
of plagioclase, the rate of dissolution increases by about 1000 times as the pH of the leach
solution is lowered from 4 to 1.
Over the past ten years or so, dissolution rates of a number of important rockforming
minerals have been measured in the laboratory. As shown in Fig. 4, Ca plagioclase
dissolves at least 100 times faster than orthoclase, which dissolves 10 to 100 times faster
than sericite. Brady and Walther (1989) demonstrated that in acid aqueous solutions, the
dissolution rates of silicate minerals depend on crystal structure and metal – oxygen bond
strength. To a first approximation, they showed that the rate of mineral dissolution is
proportional to the solubility of the principal metal oxide in the mineral.
solution is lowered from 4 to 1.
Over the past ten years or so, dissolution rates of a number of important rockforming
minerals have been measured in the laboratory. As shown in Fig. 4, Ca plagioclase
dissolves at least 100 times faster than orthoclase, which dissolves 10 to 100 times faster
than sericite. Brady and Walther (1989) demonstrated that in acid aqueous solutions, the
dissolution rates of silicate minerals depend on crystal structure and metal – oxygen bond
strength. To a first approximation, they showed that the rate of mineral dissolution is
proportional to the solubility of the principal metal oxide in the mineral.
The laboratory work cited above generally corroborates field studies on the rates of
weathering of various types of rocks. For example Goldich (1938) showed that (1) basalt,
gabbro and diorite (rocks composed of pyroxenes, Ca plagioclase, and hornblende) break
down quickly in the weathering environment, (2) monzonite, andesite, dacite, and granite
(rocks composed of albite, orthoclase, and biotite) break down at moderate rates, and
rocks composed of quartz, muscovite, sericite, and kaolinite such as those forming the
alteration envelopes around porphyry copper deposits weather very slowly ( Fig. 3 ). In the
tropics, areas of quartzsericite alteration tend to form ridges because they are less
susceptible to chemical weathering than surrounding rocks.
Field and laboratory studies, column testing ( Fig. 5 ), and operational experience show
that:
1. Copper ores hosted by basalt and diabase such as Ray, Arizona or the copper deposits
of the Coast Range of Chile tend to consume a great deal of acid.
2. Ores composed of monzonite, andesite, and granite, consume moderate amounts of
acid.
3. Ores hosted by quartzsericite alteration consume small amounts of acid. and
4. Ore in quartz sandstone consumes almost no acid.
Because porphyry copper deposits typically have a variety of rock and alteration types, they
tend to contain a number of distinct ore assemblages (Fig.. 6), each characterized by
unique acid consuming properties and leach kinetics.
Leaching Kinetics
Silicate gangue may be subdivided into five categories according to the rate at which the
component gangue minerals react with acid. At the relatively high acid consuming end of
the spectrum, basaltdiabase gangue reacts quickly with leach solution. At the lower end,
quartz sandstone is almost unreactive. As gangue becomes more reactive its capacity to
neutralize the leach solution increases.
Highly Reactive Gangue: Highly reactive gangue contains significant amounts of
carbonate minerals, including calcite, dolomite, and siderite. These and other carbonate
minerals dissolve on contact with the leach solution producing cations, water and CO 2 gas.
One kg of calcite will consume 0.98 kg of acid so one percent of calcite in a rock will
consume 9.8 kg of acid. Depending on copper content, the presence of calcite in amounts
of more than a few percent will render most oxide copper deposits unsuitable for leaching.
Reactive Gangue Reactive gangue contains significant amounts of hornblende, pyroxene,
and Ca plagioclase ( upper part of Fig. 3 ), minerals that dissolve quickly relative to other
silicate minerals according to dissociation reactions as follows:
CaAl 2Si 2O8 + 8H + = Ca 2+ + 2Al 3+ + 2SiO 2 + 4H 2O
Ca(Mg,Fe) 3Si 4O12 + 8H+ = Ca 2+ + 3(Mg 2+ + Fe 2+) + 4SiO 2 + 4H 2O
Leach solution descending through a column of reactive gangue becomes involved in
hydrolysis and redox reactions. As these reactions consume hydrogen and ferric ions along
the flow path, the leach solution will undergo progressive and continuous change such that
pH will increase and Eh will decrease. This will cause the chemical driving force behind the
dissolution of copper minerals to diminish, which, in turn, will result in progressively slower
copper leach kinetics and a decrease in the percentage of copper recovered from each
succeeding unit of depth in the column of ore (Fig.. 7 and 8). Depending on the length of
the flow path and the reactivity of the gangue, at some point the EhpH component of the
solution may leave the field of Cu 2+ and enter the field(s) of native copper, cuprite, or
delafossite. If this occurs, copper leaching will stop and copper precipitation might begin.
Moderately Reactive Gangue Moderately reactive gangue contains orthoclase, biotite,
albite, and quartz; silicate minerals that also dissolve as a result of hydrolysis reactions:
KAlSi 3O8 + 4H+ = K + + Al 3+ + 3SiO 2 + 2H 2O
KFe 3(AlSi 3O10(OH) 2 + 10H+ = K + + 3Fe 2+ + Al 3+ + 6H 2O + 3SiO 2
Biotite, albite, and orthoclase dissolve more slowly than hornblende and Ca plagioclase. For
this reason, the hydrolysis reactions involving biotite, albite, and orthoclase consume fewer
hydrogen and ferric ions per unit length of solution flow path than hornblende and Ca
plagioclase with the result that at every point along the flow path, pH is lower and Eh is
higher than in a column of reactive ore. Because fewer hydrogen and ferric ions are
consumed in a unit length of moderately reactive gangue, pH remains lower and Eh higher
over a greater proportion of the solution flow path through the ore column. The end result is
that moderately reactive gangue has (1) faster leach kinetics for each segment of the flow
path and (2) a reduced likelihood that EhpH conditions will move out of the Cu 2+ field before
the leach solution exits the ore column. Thus, the net effect of leaching moderately reactive
gangue, as compared to reactive gangue, is that leaching kinetics are higher, acid
consumption is lower, and the leaching of copper is more uniform throughout the ore
column.
Slightly Reactive Gangue Quartz, sericite, and/or kaolinite are in equilibrium (quartz) or
near equilibrium (sericite and kaolinite) with the leach solution. Because quartz is stable in
leach solutions and sericite and kaolinite dissolve very slowly, the leach solution undergoes
only minor depletion of hydrogen and ferric ions as it flows through the column of ore. As a
the leach solution exits the ore column. Thus, the net effect of leaching moderately reactive
gangue, as compared to reactive gangue, is that leaching kinetics are higher, acid
consumption is lower, and the leaching of copper is more uniform throughout the ore
column.
Slightly Reactive Gangue Quartz, sericite, and/or kaolinite are in equilibrium (quartz) or
near equilibrium (sericite and kaolinite) with the leach solution. Because quartz is stable in
leach solutions and sericite and kaolinite dissolve very slowly, the leach solution undergoes
only minor depletion of hydrogen and ferric ions as it flows through the column of ore. As a
result, (1) pH and Eh retain their initial values throughout the solution flow path and (2) the
chemical force driving the dissolution of copper minerals remains high along the flow path.
Thus, leaching rates for slightly reactive gangue are substantially higher than for ores
hosted by reactive and moderately reactive gangue and acid consumption is substantially
lower.
Nonreactive Gangue Quartz sandstones are sensibly unreactive to leach solutions and
leaching is accompanied by little, if any acid consumption. If these rocks are porous,
copper leach kinetics are high, acid consumption is low, and leaching is uniform through
the ore column.
The relationship between acid consumption and leaching kinetics for three ore types is
shown in Fig.. 8.
The same principles governing the depletion of hydrogen and ferric ions in the leach solution
also apply to individual ore fragments. As shown in Fig.s. 9 and 10, leach solution flowing
towards the center of an ore particle may become depleted in hydrogen and ferric ions. If
the ore fragment is sufficiently reactive that hydrogen and ferric ions are consumed faster
than they are supplied, the EhpH component of the solution may move out of the Cu 2+
field. The locus of all points around an ore particle where EhpH conditions depart from the
Cu2+ field defines a reaction rim. Outside of the reaction rim, copper is leached from the
particle; inside of the rim copper remains unleached. Because the solubility field for iron
(Fig.. 12) extends to higher pH regions than that of copper, iron oxides may be leached
from the entire ore particle while copper is leached only from the outer rim. As might be
expected, the more reactive the gangue, the narrower the reaction rim and the less
complete the leaching (Fig..11). In practice, the more reactive the gangue and the narrower
the reaction rim, the finer the ore must be crushed to maintain EhpH conditions conducive
to copper leaching for the bulk of the ore. Paulson and Kuhlman (1989) have reported the
preservation of oxide and native copper within individual biotite and plagioclase grains
whereas copper was leached from the matrix surrounding the grains.
Because copper leaching kinetics depends strongly on pH and Eh, laboratory leach tests
must be conducted under EhpH conditions that will be used in the proposed (or ongoing)
operation. If the tests employ a solution of unrealistically low pH, then copper leach kinetics
and acid consumption experienced in the test will be higher than those likely to be
encountered in the operation. Conducting leaching tests using an unrealistically high
solution pH will result in inappropriately low leach kinetics and low acid consumption. Leach
tests that employ inappropriate Eh conditions may also produce misleading data.
The Geochemistry of Iron
In most oxide copper deposits iron is present in a variety of oxide, hydroxide, sulfate,
sulfide and silicate minerals that react readily with the leach solution. Depending on the
relative abundance of these minerals, leaching may release a preponderance of ferric or
ferrous ions into the leach solution and cause Eh to go either up or down, as the case may
be. The types of reactions that involve iron and the overall effects of these reactions on the
chemistry of the leach solution are illustrated by the following reactions:
1. Eh, is determined by the ferric/ferrous ratio of the leach solution.
Fe +2 = Fe 3++ e
Remembering that
ΔG(reaction) = ΔG°f + 1.36log[Fe 3+]/[Fe 2+]
Eh = E o + 1.36log[Fe 3+]/[Fe 2+] = 0.059log [Fe 3+]/[Fe 2+]
(n)23.06kcal/voltgramequiv.
(n = the number of electrons involved in the reaction)
2. The dissolution of copper sulfides and reduced oxides such as cuprite and native copper
depend on dissolved ferric iron as the oxidizing agent.
CuFeS 2 + 18Fe 3+ + 8H2O Cu 2+ + 19Fe 2+ + 16H + + 2SO 4 =
EhpH relations for the ironsulfurwater system are shown in Fig. 12.
The iron content of typical porphyry copper ore is between 2% and 6%. In unoxidized
deposits, the iron is present largely in the ferrous state in the following minerals:
1. Sulfides: pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite
2. Oxides: magnetite (Fe 3 O4 )
3. Silicates: biotite, hornblende, actinolite, chlorite, and montmorillonite.
It was stated previously that the dissolution of biotite, hornblende and other iron silicate
minerals (as well as iron sulfide minerals) releases ferrous iron into the leach solution. The
result of iron silicate mineral dissolution is a lowering of the ferric/ferrous ratio. Because Eh
is a function of Fe 3+/Fe 2+, lowering the ferric/ferrous ratio lowers the Eh of the leach
solution. If the dissolution of iron silicate minerals is sufficiently rapid, it may cause the Eh
of the leach solution to descend into the chalcocite field of Fig. 1. Should this take place,
3. Silicates: biotite, hornblende, actinolite, chlorite, and montmorillonite.
It was stated previously that the dissolution of biotite, hornblende and other iron silicate
minerals (as well as iron sulfide minerals) releases ferrous iron into the leach solution. The
result of iron silicate mineral dissolution is a lowering of the ferric/ferrous ratio. Because Eh
is a function of Fe 3+/Fe 2+, lowering the ferric/ferrous ratio lowers the Eh of the leach
solution. If the dissolution of iron silicate minerals is sufficiently rapid, it may cause the Eh
of the leach solution to descend into the chalcocite field of Fig. 1. Should this take place,
the leaching of copper would terminate and the precipitation of chalcocite (or native copper,
delafossite or cuprite) might take place.
In recent years, ARD, the release of acid and toxic metals from mine workings and dumps
by the oxidation and dissolution of sulfide minerals has been extensively studied (Plumlee
and Logsdon, 1998). The following discussion draws heavily on the review of the
geochemistry of iron summarized by Nordstrom and Alpers (1998) published in a volume
devoted to the environmental geochemistry of mineral deposits.
The Oxidation of Sulfide Minerals
Sulfide minerals oxidize by means of three general mechanisms: (1) the direct application
of oxygen, (2) by ferric ions, and (3) the action of microbes.
Oxidation of pyrite by the direct action of oxygen proceeds by the overall reaction:
FeS 2 + 15/4 O 2 + 7/2H 2O Fe(OH) 3(solid) + 4H + + 2SO 4=
The dissolution of pyrite minerals by the action of dissolved ferric iron has been shown to
occur according to the balanced reaction:
FeS 2 + 14Fe 3+ + 8H 2O 15Fe 2+ + 2SO 4= + 16H +
Rates for the dissolution of pyrite by ferric iron in the laboratory range from
While the specific mechanisms operating at the surface of a dissolving sulfide grain are still
debated, various laboratory experiments show that ferric iron dissolves sulfides 100 to 1000
times faster than oxygen. In heap leaching, the oxidation of iron by the direct action of
oxygen is limited by the low solubility of oxygen in water at 25 degrees C (8.11 mg/liter or 5
x 10 4m) and the difficulty in replenishing oxygen to the leach solution in the deeper parts of
heaps and dumps.
The participation of microbes in the oxidation of sulfides has been known or suspected for
more than a century and has been intensively investigated for the past 40 years or so.
Research has shown that microbial action enhances the oxidation of sulfides by catalyzing
the ferrous to ferric transition. Although the site of the microbial mediation of ferrous to ferric
oxidation has not been established, evidence suggests that much of it occurs in the
solution (as opposed to the surface of the pyrite). Laboratory measurements indicate that
the microbial mediated oxidation of ferrous iron occurs at rates of 5 x 10 7 to 8.8 x 10 8
moles per square meter per second, or about 10 times faster than by abiotic oxidation of
ferric iron (see table 6.5 of Nordstrom and Alpers (1998)).
The quantity of iron that may be held in a leach solution and the ferric/ferrous ratio of the
leach solution are largely determined by of the solubility of jarosite:
KFe 3 (SO 4)2(OH) 6 + 6H + K + + 3Fe 3+ + 2(SO 4) = + 6H 2O
K(sol. Prodct) = [K +][Fe 3+] 3 [SO 4=] 2 /[ H +] 6
1. If ferric iron is consumed in the dissolution of biotite or sulfides, jarosite will tend to
dissolve and release ferric iron into solution.
2. If [Fe 3+ ] increases, jarosite will precipitate and Fe 3+ / Fe 2+ will decrease.
3. If solution pH increases, jarosite will precipitate releasing H + (lowering pH) but
consuming Fe 3+ (lowering Eh).
In fact, data from column leach tests show that Eh – pH conditions for leach solutions do
tend to stabilize along the ferrous sulfate (aqueous) – jarosite phase boundary (Fig. 12) in
general agreement with the preceding discussion.
If solution pH increases above 2.5 to 3, or if total dissolve sulfur decreases beyond a certain
level, then the geochemistry will be controlled by the precipitation and dissolution of various
FeO(OH) compounds including goethite and ferrihydrite.
FeO(OH) (solid) + 3H + 3Fe 3+ + 2 H 2O
If the ore is composed of unreactive gangue minerals but has a high pyrite content, the
oxidation of the pyrite may produce a very low pH leach solution. Given sufficient time, pH
may trend down below 1.5 or 1 (into the ferric sulfate field of Fig. 12), and total dissolved
iron may become very high. In most ores, however, acid consuming silicate minerals result
in EhpH conditions within the jarosite field of Fig. 12.
FeO(OH) (solid) + 3H + 3Fe 3+ + 2 H 2O
If the ore is composed of unreactive gangue minerals but has a high pyrite content, the
oxidation of the pyrite may produce a very low pH leach solution. Given sufficient time, pH
may trend down below 1.5 or 1 (into the ferric sulfate field of Fig. 12), and total dissolved
iron may become very high. In most ores, however, acid consuming silicate minerals result
in EhpH conditions within the jarosite field of Fig. 12.
Acid Curing
In the 1920’s and 1930’s the U. S. Bureau of mines conducted leach tests at the Tucson,
Arizona research center to develop an economic method to recover copper from lowgrade
oxide copper ores. The low copper values of the ores dictated an approach involving minimal
handling. Experience with dump leaching pointed to piling the oxide ore in heaps and
applying an acid solution to the top. In testing this general approach, it was found that
leaching rates were low and acid consumption was high. Further work by the Bureau of
Mines and by Inspiration Consolidated Copper Company in the 1970’s showed that leach
kinetics and acid consumption could be considerably improved by applying a strong acid
solution to the ore at the beginning of the leach cycle. Inspiration further improved
performance by adding ferric iron to the initial acid solution. The initial acid dosage was
termed a “cure”.
The geochemistry of acid curing is best understood by further examination of Fig. 1. The
initial EhpH conditions of the leach solution prior to its application to the top of the heap
are within the Cu 2+ field while, for the ore, they are similar to the EhpH conditions of ground
water in the mine area (in the southwest U. S. A. Eh is about 0 and pH is about 8). If the
ore contains Reactive or Moderately Reactive gangue, leaching will quickly lower Eh and
increase pH. If the rate of solutionmineral reaction is faster than the rate of acid addition,
depletion of hydrogen and ferric ions will move the composition of the leach out of the Cu +2
field and into the fields of chrysocolla, native copper, or chalcocite.
At the point shown for Arizona ground water on Fig. 1 the solubility of copper is well below
106m. The rapid neutralization of the leach solution caused by the dissolution of gangue
that is roughly in equilibrium with Arizona ground water chemistry will result in the formation
of an acid front within the ore column (Fig. 13). Behind (above) the acid front, Eh and pH are
within the Cu 2+ field of Fig. 1 and copper is leached. Across the acid front Eh drops from
0.6 – 0.5 to 0.1 – 0 and the solubility of copper drops from 0.1m (6 gms/l) to 10 6m, a
decline of about 5 orders of magnitude. Below the acid front, the solubility of copper is very
low, (perhaps 10 7m). If the acid front develops well up in the ore column, the very low
solubility of copper in the neutralized solution may lead to the precipitation of copper within
the column of ore. Common copper precipitates within columns and heaps include native
copper, delafossite, and chalcocite. If the acid front develops near the bottom of the column,
copper leaching may terminate but there might be insufficient time for copper precipitation
to occur. In any case, the results of many years of testing that included EhpH
measurements of the leach solution indicate that the function of the cure is to establish
high Eh low pH conditions throughout the entire ore column at the beginning of the leach
cycle.
Chemistry of the Leach Solution
The chemical composition of leach solutions results from (1) the action of a lixiviant on the
ore and gangue minerals, (2) the exchange of copper for hydrogen ions in the SX/EW plant,
and (3) the precipitation of new minerals from the leach solution. Considering these factors
it is evident that the chemistry of the leach solution depends on the following:
1. The solubility and dissolution kinetics of ore and gangue minerals,
2. The speciation of Cu, Fe, Mg, S, Na, and other solutes in the solution,
3. The solubility of various potential mineral precipitates,
4. The rate of removal of copper in the SX/EW plant,
5. The rate of addition of new acid to the operation and,
6. The rate of addition of now ore (of each compositional type) to the heap.
Because points (1) and (5), and, obliquely, (5) and (6) were discussed previously and the
chemistry of the SX/EW plant is treated elsewhere in the course, this section focuses on
(2) the speciation of the leach solution and its related topic, (3) mineral precipitation.
Speciation of the Leach Solution Leach solutions are typically complex solutions,
containing Cu, Zn, Fe, Al, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Si, C, P, S, Cl, H, PO 4 and other
constituents. The behavior of the solution depends on the relative and absolute amounts of
these constituents present, and on the ways in which these constituents combine (their
speciation) in the leach solution.
Analyses of leach solutions indicate bulk solution compositions generally similar to the
following table:
Element Composition (gms/liter)
Cu 0.5 – 15
Zn 0.05 – 0.3
Fe 0.5 – 10
Al 1.0 – 8
Na 0.01 – 0.04
K 0.02 – 0.06
Ca 0.04 – 0.07
Mg 1.0 – 4.0
Mn 0.01 – 1.0
Na 0.01 – 0.04
K 0.02 – 0.06
Ca 0.04 – 0.07
Mg 1.0 – 4.0
Mn 0.01 – 1.0
Si 0.01 – 0.3
C 0.0
P 0.1 – 0.5
S 10 – 20
C1 1 – 10
In view of the large number of possible solution species, a computer is required to solve the
equations. The example included with this chapter was solved using WATEQ, Ball and
Nordstrom, (1991). An overview of the example solved is as follows:
Element Principal Solution Species
Cu Cu2+, Cu SO 4
Zn Zn2+, Zn SO 4
Al AlSO 4+
Na Na+
K K+
Ca Ca2+, Ca SO 4
Mg Mg 2+, MgSO 4
Mn Mn 2+, MnSO 4
Si H4 SiO 4
S AlSO 4+, MgSO 4
The example solution species distribution and the above table indicate the strong
predilection for iron, copper, manganese, magnesium, calcium, and zinc to complex with
sulfate in leach solutions. Indeed, copper heap leaching is only possible because copper
(and iron) forms a strong aqueous sulfate complex. Species distribution calculations using
other values for pH will differ from the above example because the stability of solution
species is strongly dependent on:
1. pH
Fe 3+ + 3H 2O = Fe(OH) 3 + 3H + K (react) = [Fe(OH) 3 ][H +] 3/[Fe 3+]
Fe 2+ +HSO 4 = FeSO 4(aq) + H + K(react) = [FeSO 4][H +]/[Fe 2+][H SO 4=]
HSO 41 = H+ + SO 4= K(dissoc) = [SO 4=][H +]/[HSO 41] = 10 1..99
And,
2. Eh:
Fe 2+ = Fe 3+ + e K (react) = [Fe 3+]/[Fe 2+]
Eh = E o + 0.059log[Fe 3+]/[Fe 2+]
Fe 2O3(solid) + 4H 2S = 2FeS 2 + 3H 2O + 2H + + 2e
2. Eh:
Fe 2+ = Fe 3+ + e K (react) = [Fe 3+]/[Fe 2+]
Eh = E o + 0.059log[Fe 3+]/[Fe 2+]
Fe 2O3(solid) + 4H 2S = 2FeS 2 + 3H 2O + 2H + + 2e
Eh = E o .059 log pH – 0.118log[H 2S]
FeS 2 + 4H 2O = Fe 2+ + 2SO 4= + 8H + + 8e
Eh = E o 0.059 log pH + 0.015log[SO 4=] + 0.007log[Fe 2+]
The Solubility of Mineral Precipitates in Leach Solutions The solute geochemistry of
lockedcycle leaching is characterized by; (1) an initial phase of increasing solute
concentration followed by, (2) a prolonged phase, possibly including the remainder of the life
of the operation, of relatively constant solution composition. The initial phase of leaching, in
which total dissolved solids (TDS) increase, occurs at the beginning of leaching and for
some time thereafter as the dissolution of ore and gangue minerals releases solutes to the
leach solution but, before the solubility limits of mineral salts are reached. As TDS reaches
the solubility limits of silica, gypsum, jarosite, clays and other solids the second and
longest phase of leaching begins. The second phase of leaching takes place when the
solubility products of first one, and then all new solids are exceeded and mineral
precipitation begins ( Fig. 14 ). The example solution speciation calculation referred to
above and included with this chapter contains a section on a number of potential solid
precipitates. The tendency for solids to precipitate from the leach solution depends on the
solubility constant of the solid phase and the activities of its component species in the
leach solution :
H2O + SiO 2 = H4 SiO 4 K(sp = [H 4 SiO 4] = 10 2.7
[SiO 2] = 120 ppm
KFe 3(SO 4)2(OH) 6 + 6H + = K + + 3Fe 3+ + 2(SO 4)= + 6H 2O
K(sp) = [K +][Fe 3+] 3 [SO 4=] 2 /[H +] 6 = 10 14.8
CaSO 4.2H2O = Ca 2+ + SO 4= + 2H 2O
K(sp) = [Ca 2+][SO 4=2] = 10 4.58
As shown in the attached solution speciation example, copper leaching results in the
precipitation of many new minerals. In addition to silica, jarosite, and gypsum, predicted
precipitates include various sulfates and hydroxides of iron, aluminum, magnesium, and
manganese. The concentrations of K, SO 4, Fe 3+, Fe 2+, (and possibly sodium and
potassium) are controlled mostly by the solubility of jarosite. Over the life of a leaching
operation, tens or hundreds of thousands of tonnes of such minerals will precipitate from the
leach solution within the heap. Within rock fragments, the concentrations of aluminum,
silica, and potassium in solution may be fixed by the solubility of pyrophyllite (Al 2Si 4O10
(OH) 2), kaolinite, and illite (KAl 4 Si 7O20(OH) 8). The relationship of pyrophyllite and kaolinite
to orthoclase in terms of dissolved silica and the ratio: log [K +]/[H +] (solution) is shown on
Fig. 15 where it can be seen that a decrease in [K +]/[H +] will promote the dissolution of
orthoclase and the precipitation of kaoilnite. A further decrease in [K +]/[H +] may lead to the
dissolution of kaolinite and the precipitation of pyrophyllite. In respect of the Fig. 10, leach
solutions might be expected to dissolve orthoclase and precipitate kaolinite or pyrophyllite
but this has not been reported in the literature. From the preceding discussion it should be
obvious that to predict or understand acid consumption, mineral precipitation, and most
other aspects of leaching periodic total chemical analyses of the leach solution must be
made.
Copper Leaching: A Geochemical Cycle
In column testing it is generally found that open cycle copper leaching leads to higher acid
consumption than locked cycle leaching ( Fig. 17 ). While this might seem contrary to
expectations, examination of mineral hydrolysis reactions shows that copper leaching
involves not only acid consuming reactions but also, acid producing reactions. While the
made.
Copper Leaching: A Geochemical Cycle
In column testing it is generally found that open cycle copper leaching leads to higher acid
consumption than locked cycle leaching ( Fig. 17 ). While this might seem contrary to
expectations, examination of mineral hydrolysis reactions shows that copper leaching
involves not only acid consuming reactions but also, acid producing reactions. While the
idea of acid consuming reactions in copper leaching is readily understood because non
sulfide leaching operations must buy acid to replace that which is consumed, it is less well
known that acid producing reactions also take place during leaching. (By this I am not
referring to acid produced by the oxidation of pyrite during leaching or the acid generated in
the SX plant by the exchange of hydrogen ions for copper). In copper leaching, acid is
generated whenever a mineral having an (OH) in its formula an example would be FeO(OH)
precipitates from the leach solution. Removing (OH) from water (H 2O) leaves H +. In effect,
the precipitation of a compound or mineral having (OH) in its formula is the reverse of
hydrolysis because it generates acid. The mechanism for acid generation by reverse
hydrolysis is illustrated in the following reactions:
K+ + 3Fe 3+ + 2(SO 4)2 + 6H 2O KFe 3(SO 4)2(OH) 6 + 6H +.
Fe 3+ + 2H 2O FeO(OH) + 3H +
H2O + 2Al 3+ + 2H4SiO 4 Al 2Si 2O5(OH) 4 + 6H +
These reactions show that the precipitation of minerals which contain (OH) such as jarosite,
goethite, hematite, alunite, and kaolinite releases hydrogen ions to the solution (in effect
the precipitated mineral strips one or more (OH) groups from H 2O leaving H + in the
solution). A quantitative evaluation of the acid generating capacity of reactions of this type
shows that the precipitation of 1 kg of ferrihydrite generates 1.65 kg of sulfuric acid and the
precipitation of 1 kg of jarosite, 586gms of sulfuric acid.
The fact that locked cycle leaching consumes less acid than open cycle leaching results in
part from the nature of precipitation reactions. Precipitation requires the formation of a
stable solid reaction product. Under equilibrium and near equilibrium conditions, chemical
reactions are dynamic processes involving the simultaneous formation and destruction of
products and reactants. Thus, the nucleation of solid precipitates under equilibrium
conditions is often found to be difficult and time consuming. Indeed, the formation of many
precipitates requires super saturation or the presence of a catalyst. In open cycle leaching
where the solution flows through the ore column and is then discarded, super saturation of
reaction products may not occur and there may be insufficient time for the nucleation of
solid reaction products.
Also, the rate of dissolution of ore and gangue minerals is not constant in time. Rather, the
more easily dissolved minerals, including those in the fine ore fraction and those with fast
dissolution kinetics such as carbonates, dissolve early in the leaching process, while the
less reactive minerals and those blinded from the leach solution dissolve more slowly. As a
result, the rate at which solutes are added to the solution decreases with time (if no new
ore is added to the column). In open cycle leaching this leads to a steady decline in TDS
over time. When TDS falls below the solubility products of hydroxide (OH) type minerals,
mineral precipitation comes to an end and the acid generating side of leaching is
terminated.
The geochemical cycle of copper leaching also has implications on the environmental side
of leaching. Normally, the closure of an operation requires rinsing a heap until effluent pH is
above 6 and all solution parameters are below predetermined analytical limits set by the
closure permit. Unfortunately, as rinse water is run through a heap and the pH of the effluent
solution increases, jarosite, ferrihydrite and other hydroxol containing minerals precipitate
and release acid. The amount of acid that could be generated in this process is apparent in
the following example.
Consider a 200 MMt tonne heap saturated to11% moisture by a leach solution containing 4
gms/l iron, and 4 gms/l aluminum. The leach solution in the heap will contain 88,000 tons of
Fe and 88,000 tons of Al. Precipitation of the iron as jarosite will produce 154,000 tons of
sulfuric acid and the precipitation of the aluminum will produce 319,407 tons of acid. Added
to the acid produced by the precipitation of iron and aluminum, would be a much greater
amount of acid produced by the precipitation of (OH) minerals of Na, Mg, and Mn. All
together, hydroxol mineral precipitation might easily produce 1,000,000 tons of acid.
Free Acid Determination Metallurgical tests employed to estimate the leaching behavior
of copper ores attempt to measure acid consumption. In bottle roll and open cycle tests
acid consumption is measured by subtracting the amount of acid remaining at the end of
the test from the amount added at the beginning. While the procedure sounds simple, it
turns out, for practical and theoretical reasons, to be quite difficult. Acidity is defined as the
activity of the hydrogen ion in solution and is measured as pH. However, because leach
solutions contain high total TDS and are highly buffered, pH understates the capacity of the
solution to donate hydrogen ions. Most acid determination tests employed today seek to
measure “free acid” which is supposedly the quantity of sulfuric acid in the solution
neglecting the amount of acid contained in the metalsalt buffers such as jarosite. Various
techniques have been devised to measure “free acid”. Most involve removing cations and
then titrating for sulfuric acid with a strong base (Booman and others, 1958, Solomans,
1980), although, the Grans Plot method, Orion Research (1970) employs dilution.
Application of the various methods in common use to synthetic solutions give inconsistent
results that diverge from the actual amount of sulfuric acid added to the solution as the
concentration of acid and TDS increase ( Fig. 16 ).
Conceptually, an acid determination method should measure the capacity of the leach
solution to donate hydrogen ions in exchange for cations within the pH range of the leaching
process. Whatever method is used to determine acid consumption, it must take into
account the buffering capacity of metal salts such as jarosite, alunite and clay minerals.
results that diverge from the actual amount of sulfuric acid added to the solution as the
concentration of acid and TDS increase ( Fig. 16 ).
Conceptually, an acid determination method should measure the capacity of the leach
solution to donate hydrogen ions in exchange for cations within the pH range of the leaching
process. Whatever method is used to determine acid consumption, it must take into
account the buffering capacity of metal salts such as jarosite, alunite and clay minerals.
Geological Screening of Copper Leaching Projects Prior Metallurgical
Testing
It is feasible to determine the amenability of a potential project to copper leaching prior to
testing by using standard geological techniques as diagrammed in Fig. 18. In the first step
of the process, field geologists should classify the acid consuming properties of the deposit
into one of the four categories and the leaching kinetics into one of three. The methods
used are field mapping, logging of core and cuttings, and the application of standard field
methods to the identification of ore and gangue minerals. Much of this work may be
accomplished in the field using simple tests that employ a hand lens, a pocketknife, and
small bottles of dilute HCl and H 2SO 4. The tests can determine the presence and quantity
of carbonate minerals, the principal silicate gangue minerals and the relative abundance of
copper minerals. In the second step, the mineralogy of the deposit should be refined by
petrographic methods including the study of polished sections. At the end of step two the
mineralogy of the deposit should have been sufficiently quantified to permit:
1. Rejection of the property.
2. Identification of potential problems concerning acid consumption and leaching kinetics.
3. Estimation of leach kinetics and acid consumption.
4. Design of an efficient leachtesting program as opposed to the normal shotgun approach.
Further metallurgical testing is well described in another chapter.
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