CSIT 302 Data Communication: University of Ghana

CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 1 – Introduction
Lecturer: Julius Yaw Ludu, MENG

Contact Information: mcclyconsult@gmail.com
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Department of Computer Science
2016/2017 Academic Year
Department of Computer Science, UG

Session Overview
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Understand trends in data communication
 Understand data representation and data

transmission

Julius Yaw Ludu, MENG Slide 2 Department of Computer Science, UG
Topic One
INTRODUCTION & BASIC CONCEPT

Introduction
The computer communications revolution has produced
several remarkable facts:
 There is no fundamental difference between data
processing (computers) and data communications
(transmission and switching equipment).
 There are no fundamental differences among data, voice,
and video communications.
 The distinction among single processor computer, multi
processor computer, local network, metropolitan
network, and long-haul network has blurred (not clear)

Introduction
 Effective and efficient data communication and
networking facilities are vital to any enterprise
 Three different forces have consistently driven the

architecture and evolution of data communications
and networking facilities:
 Traffic growth, development of new services, and

advances in technology.

Trends
 Communication traffic, both local (within a building or
building complex) and long distance, both voice and data,
has been growing at a high and steady rate for decades.
 The range of services expands which causes an increase in

the demand for high-capacity networking and
transmission facilities
 Trends in technology enable the provision of increasing

traffic capacity and the support of a wide range of services

Trends
There are four notable trends
 The trend toward faster and cheaper technology, both in
computing and communications
 Voice-oriented telecommunications networks, such as the

public switched telephone network (PSTN), and data
networks are more intelligent than ever
 The Internet, the Web, and associated applications have

emerged as dominant features of both the business and
personal world, opening up many opportunities and
challenges for managers

Trends
 There has been a trend toward ever increasing
mobility for decades, liberating workers from the
confines of the physical enterprise

Data Transmission and Network
Capacity Requirements
 Changes in the way organizations do business and
process information have been driven by changes in
networking technology.
 This has resulted in a need to increase the speed and

efficiency of the Internet.
 On the other hand, it is only such increased speed that

makes the use of Web-based applications appreciable
to the end user.

Requirements
Two significant trends altered the role of the personal
computer and therefore the requirements on the LAN:
 The speed and computing power of personal

computers continued to enjoy explosive growth
 MIS organizations have recognized the LAN as a viable

and essential computing platform,

Requirements
Examples of requirements that call for higher-speed
LANs:
 Centralized server farms
 Power workgroups
 High-speed local backbone

CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 2 – A Communication Model

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Data Link Institute

Topic One
DATA COMMUNICATION
Data Link Institute

What is Data Communication
 When we communicate we are sharing information
 Data: Information being shared, e.g. text, numbers,

images, audio, video
 Data Communications: exchange of data between two (or

more) devices via some transmission medium
 For Data Communication to occur, the communicating

devices must be a part of a communication system made
up of a combination of hardware and software
Data Link Institute

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends
on four fundamental characteristics;
 Delivery : Data must be delivered to the correct destination.
 Accuracy : Data received must be accurate representation of

the data sent.
 Timeliness : The data should be delivered in a timely manner

(real-time transmission).
 Jitter : Refers to the variation in the packet arrival time

Data Link Institute
 There are 5 components making up the data communication
system. This is shown in the diagram below;
Data Link Institute

 Message: The message is the information (data) to be
communicated
 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data
message
 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the
message
 Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the
physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices
Data Link Institute
Simplified Communications Model
 Source : Device that generates data to be transmitted
 Transmitter: Converts data from source into transmittable
Signals
 Transmission System: Carries data from source to
destination
 Receiver: Converts received signal into data
 Destination : Takes and uses incoming data
Data Link Institute

Data Representation
 Information today is present in different forms which
includes text, numbers, pictures, audio and video
 Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit

pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is). Different sets of bit
patterns have been designed to represent text symbols.
 Numbers: These are also represented by bit patterns.

Numbers are directly converted to a binary number to
simplify mathematical operations.
Data Link Institute

Data Representation
 Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its
simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot.
 Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of
sound or music. Audio is by nature different from text,
numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete.
 Video: Refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture

or movie. Video can either be produced as a continuous
entity or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete
entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
Data Link Institute

Data Flow
 The flow of data, in other words the communication
between two devices can be described as simplex, half-
duplex, or full-duplex.
 Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is

unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Data Link Institute

Data Flow
 Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both
transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
 The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each

direction.
Data Link Institute

Data Flow
 Full-Duplex: In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both
stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
 Signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link

with signals going in the other direction.
Data Link Institute

Data Communication Task
 There are some technical complexities with regards to the
simplification of the communicating model
 There are several task that must be performed in a data

communication system;
Data Link Institute

Data Communication Task
 Transmission system utilization: Refers to the need to make
efficient use of transmission facilities that are typically
shared among a number of communicating devices.
 There must be some form of synchronization between

transmitter and receiver. The receiver must be able to
determine when a signal begins to arrive and when it ends
 Error detection and correction are required in circumstances

where errors cannot be tolerated
 Recovery is a concept distinct from that of error correction.

Data Link Institute
A Data Communication Model
 An example of a data communication model using text as
the input information.
Data Link Institute

CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 3 – Data Transmission

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Data Link Institute

Topic Two
DATA TRANSMISSION
Data Link Institute

Data Transmission
 The transmission of data occurs between transmitter and
receiver over some transmission medium.
 Direct link is used to refer to the transmission path between

two devices in which signals propagate directly from
transmitter to receiver with no intermediate devices.
 A transmission may be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
 A signal is a function of time, but it can also be expressed as

a function of frequency; that is, the signal consists of
components of different frequencies.
Data Link Institute
Time Domain Concept
 Viewed as a function of time, an electromagnetic signal can
be either continuous or discrete.
 A continuous signal is one in which the signal intensity varies

in a smooth fashion over time
 A discrete signal is one in which the signal intensity

maintains a constant level for some period of time and then
changes to another constant level
Data Link Institute

Time Domain Concept
Data Link Institute

Time Domain Concept
 The continuous signal might represent speech, and
the discrete signal might represent binary Is and 0s.
 The simplest sort of signal is aperiodic signal, in which

the same signal pattern repeats over time
 A general sine wave can be represented by three

parameters: amplitude (A), frequency (f), and phase
(∅).
Data Link Institute

Time Domain Concept
 The amplitude is the peak value or strength of the
signal over time; typically, this value is measured in
volts or watts
 The frequency is the rate (in cycles per second, or

Hertz (Hz)) at which the signal repeats.
 Phase is a measure of the relative position in time

within a single period of a signal.
Data Link Institute

Frequency Domain Concept
 A frequency-domain is concerned with only the peak
value and the frequency
 The frequency domain is more compact and useful

when we are dealing with more than one sine wave.
 The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies
that it contains
 The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the width of the

spectrum
Data Link Institute
Analog & Digital Data Transmission
 In transmitting data from a source to a destination,
one must be concerned with the nature of the data.
 The terms analog and digital correspond, roughly, to

continuous and discrete, respectively.
 These two terms are used frequently in data

communications in at least three contexts; Data,
Signaling and Transmission
Data Link Institute

Data
Analog data take on continuous values on some
interval. Eg is voice and Video
Digital data take on discrete values; examples are

text and integers
Data Link Institute

Signals
An analog signal is a continuously varying
electromagnetic wave that may be propagated
over a variety of media, depending on spectrum
A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that

may be transmitted over a wire medium
Data Link Institute

Transmission
Analog transmission is a means of transmitting
analog signals without regard to their content; the
signals may represent analog data or digital data.
Digital transmission, in contrast, is concerned with

the content of the signal. A digital signal can be
transmitted only a limited distance before
attenuation endangers the integrity of the data
Data Link Institute

Data Link Institute

Data Link Institute

Topic Two
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS
Data Link Institute

Transmission Impairments
 With any communications system, received signal
differs from the transmitted signal due to various
transmission impairments
 For analog signals, these impairments can degrade the

signal quality.
 For digital signals, bit errors may be introduced
Data Link Institute

Transmission Impairments
 The most significant impairments are
 Attenuation and Attenuation distortion
 Delay distortion
 Noise
Data Link Institute

Attenuation
 Attenuation is where the strength of a signal falls off
with distance over any transmission medium.
Data Link Institute

Attenuation
 Attenuation introduces three considerations for the
transmission engineer;
 A received signal must have sufficient strength so

that the electronic circuitry in the receiver can
detect the signal.
 The signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher

than noise to be received without error
 Attenuation varies with frequency
Data Link Institute

Attenuation
 The unit of measurement for a loss or gain of signal
strength is decibel
 The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of
two signals or one signal at two different points.
 The decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and

positive if a signal is amplified. Its given by:
𝑃𝑃2
dB = 10𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10
𝑃𝑃1
Data Link Institute

Delay Distortion
 Delay distortion occurs because the velocity of
propagation of a signal through a guided medium
varies with frequency
 This causes various frequency components of a signal

to arrive at the receiver at different times
 Delay distortion is particularly critical for digital data

and causes Intersymbol Interference
Data Link Institute

Noise
 Noise are additional signals inserted /added to the
original signal between the transmitter and the
receiver.
 Noise is a major limiting factor in communications

system performance
 Noise may be divided into four categories.

 Thermal, Intermodulation, Crosstalk and
Impulse Noise.
Data Link Institute

Thermal Noise
 Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons
which is present in all electronic devices and transmission
media.
 It is uniformly distributed across the bandwidths usually

used in communications system and are also referred to at
White Noise
 Thermal noise cannot be eliminated and therefore places

an upper bound on communications system performance.
Data Link Institute

Intermodulation Noise
 When signals at different frequencies share the same
transmission medium, the result may be
intermodulation noise
 Its effect is that it produces signals at a frequency that

is the sum or difference of the two original
frequencies or multiples of those frequencies
 It is produced by nonlinearities in the transmitter,

receiver, and/or intervening transmission medium.
Data Link Institute
Crosstalk
 Crosstalk is an unwanted coupling between signal
paths.
 It can occur by electrical coupling between nearby

twisted pairs or, rarely, coax cable lines carrying
multiple signals.
 Crosstalk can also occur when unwanted signals are

picked up by microwave antennas
Data Link Institute

Impulse Noise
 Impulse noise is non-continuous, consisting of
irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration and
of relatively high amplitude.
 It is generated from a variety of causes, including

external electromagnetic disturbances
 It is generally only a minor disturbance for analog data

but a primary source of error in digital data
communication.
Data Link Institute
Topic Three
CHANNEL CAPACITY
Data Link Institute

Channel Capacity
 Channel Capacity is the rate at which data can be
transmitted over a given communication path, or
channel, under given conditions.
 There are four concepts with regards to Channel

Capacity;
 Data rate: This is the rate, in bits per second (bps), at

which data can be communicated.
Data Link Institute

Channel Capacity
 Bandwidth: This is the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal as constrained by the transmitter and by the
nature of the transmission medium.
 It is expressed in cycles per second, or hertz
 Noise: The average level of noise over the

communications path.
 Error rate: The rate at which errors occur
Data Link Institute

Nyquist Bandwidth
 In a noise free channel, the only limitation on the data
rate is the bandwidth of the signal
 Nyquist states that if the rate of signal transmission is

2W, then a signal with frequencies no greater than W
is sufficient to carry the data rate.
 This limitation is caused by Intersymbol interference

due to delay distortion.
Data Link Institute

Nyquist Bandwidth
 Nyquist Formula for capacity is given by;
 C = 2W 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2 M, where M is the number of discrete

signal or voltage levels and W is the bandwidth.
 Nyquist formula is the theoretical channel capacity
 Eg: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of

3000Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
Calculate the maximum bitrate.
Data Link Institute
Shannon Capacity
 Lets consider the relations between data rate, noise
and error rate.
 It is expected that for a given noise level, higher rates

will results to higher errors.
 Shannon developed a formula relating these to signal-

to-noise ratio (in decibels)
Data Link Institute

Shannon Capacity
 Signal-to-noise ratio: Is the ratio of the power in a signal to
the power contained in the noise that is present at a
particular point in the transmission.
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
 This is given by: (𝑆𝑆/𝑁𝑁)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 10log
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑆𝑆
 Shannon Capacity (C) = W 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿2 1+
𝑁𝑁
where C is the capacity of the channel in bits per second and

W is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz
Data Link Institute
CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 4 – Transmission Media

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Data Link Institute

Topic Two
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Data Link Institute

Transmission Media
 The transmission medium is the physical path between
transmitter and receiver in a data transmission system.
 Transmission media can be classified as guided or unguided.
 With guided media, the waves are guided along a solid

medium, such as copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable,
and optical fiber
 The atmosphere and outer space are examples of unguided

media. This form of transmission is referred to as Wireless
Transmission.
Data Link Institute
Transmission Media
Data Link Institute

Transmission Media
 In the design of data transmission systems, a key concern,
generally, is data rate and distance.
 A number of design factors relating to the transmission

medium and to the signal determine the data rate and
distance:
 Bandwidth: The greater the bandwidth of a signal, the

higher the data rate that can be achieved.
Data Link Institute

Transmission Media
 Transmission impairments: Impairments, such as
attenuation, limit the distance. For guided media, twisted
pair suffers more impairment than coaxial cable and optical
fiber
 Interference: Interference from competing signals in

overlapping frequency bands can distort or wipe out a
signal.
 Number of receivers: A guided medium can be used to

construct a point-to point link or a shared link with multiple
attachments.
Data Link Institute
Guided Transmission Media
 For guided transmission media, the transmission capacity, in
terms of either data rate or bandwidth, depends critically on
the distance and on whether the medium is point-to-point or
multipoint
Data Link Institute

Twisted Pair
 The least expensive and most widely used.
 Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular
spiral pattern
 It is the most commonly used in the telephone network and
is the workhorse for communications within buildings.
 Twisted pair may be used to transmit both analog and digital
transmission
 Twisted pair is limited in distance, bandwidth, and data rate
Data Link Institute

Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable, like twisted pair, consists of two conductors,
but is constructed differently to permit it to operate over a
wider range of frequencies
 Used in a wide variety of applications. E.g. Television
distribution, long-distance telephone transmission, Short-run
computer system links and LANs
 Also used to transmit both analog and digital signals
Data Link Institute

Optical Fiber
 An optical fiber is a thin (2 to 125 µm), flexible medium
capable of guiding an optical ray
 Optical fiber already enjoys considerable use in long-distance
telecommunications, and its use in military applications is
growing
 Optical fiber transmits a signal-encoded beam of light by
means of total internal reflection
 The following characteristics distinguish optical fiber from
twisted pair or coaxial cable; Greater capacity, smaller size
and lighter weight, lower attenuation, etc
Data Link Institute
Wireless Transmission
 Three kinds of frequencies are of interest in wireless
transmissions.
 Frequencies in the range of about 1 GHz 1gigahertz = 10
Hertz2 to 40 GHz are referred to as microwave frequencies.
 Frequencies in the range of 30 MHz to 1 GHz are suitable for
omnidirectional applications. We refer to this range as the
radio range
 The last frequency range used for local applications, is the
infrared portion of the spectrum. This covers, roughly, from
3 * 1011 to 2 * 1014 Hz
Data Link Institute

Wireless Transmission
 For unguided media, transmission and reception are
achieved by means of an antenna
 An antenna can be defined as an electrical conductor or

system of conductors used either for radiating
electromagnetic energy or for collecting electromagnetic
energy
 In two-way communication, the same antenna can be and

often is used for both transmission and reception
Data Link Institute

Categories of Wireless Transmission
Terrestrial Microwave
 The most common type is the parabolic “dish.” A typical size
is about 3m in diameter.
 The antenna is fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam to
achieve line-of-sight transmission to the receiving antenna
 Used in long-haul telecommunications service, as an
alternative to coaxial cable or optical fiber
 The higher the frequency used, the higher the potential
bandwidth and therefore the higher the potential data rate
 Common frequencies used for transmission are in the range
1 to 40 GHz
Data Link Institute
Satellite Microwave
 It is used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter or receivers, known as earth stations, or ground
stations
 The most important applications for satellites are for

television distribution, long-distance telephone transmission,
private business networks and global positioning
 The optimum frequency range for satellite transmission is in

the range 1 to 10 GHz
Data Link Institute
Broadcast Radio
 The principal difference between broadcast radio and
microwave is that the former is omnidirectional and the
latter is directional
 Used to encompass frequencies in the range of 3 kHz to 300
GHz which covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
 Transmission is limited to the line of sight, and distant
transmitters will not interfere with each other due to
reflection from the atmosphere for the range of 30 MHz to 1
GHz
Data Link Institute

Wireless Transmission Propagation
 A signal radiated from an antenna travels along one of three
routes: ground wave, sky wave, or line of sight (LOS)
Ground Wave Propagation

 This propagation follows the contour of the earth and can
propagate considerable distances, well over the visual
horizon.
 This effect is found in frequencies up to about 2 MHz
 The best-known example of ground wave communication is AM
radio.
Data Link Institute

Sky Wave Propagation
 Used for amateur radio, CB radio, and international
broadcasts such as BBC and Voice of America
 With this propagation mode, a signal can be picked up

thousands of kilometers from the transmitter.
Data Link Institute

Line-of-Sight Propagation
 Above 30 MHz, neither ground wave nor sky wave
propagation modes operate, and communication must be by
line of sight
 For ground-based communication, the transmitting and

receiving antennas must be within an effective line of sight
of each other
Data Link Institute

Impairment Specific to LOS
 A transmitted signal attenuates over distance because the
signal is being spread over a larger and larger area. This form
of attenuation is known as free space loss
 An additional loss between the transmitting and receiving
antennas is atmospheric absorption
 Another impairment is Multipath. Signals can be reflected by
obstacles so that multiple copies of the signal with varying
delays can be received
 Refraction is caused by changes in the speed of the signal
with altitude or by other spatial changes in the atmospheric
conditions
Data Link Institute

CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 5 – Signal Encoding Techniques

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Data Link Institute

Topic One
MODULATION
Data Link Institute

Modulation
Modulation is the process of encoding
source data onto a carrier signal with
frequency fc.
The frequency of the carrier signal is
chosen to be compatible with the
transmission medium being used.
Modulation techniques involve operation
on one or more of the three parameters:
amplitude, frequency, and phase
Data Link Institute
Modulation
With an input source signal m(t) (either
analog or digital), which is called baseband
signal (or modulating signal) , the carrier
signal fc(t) will be modulated into
modulated signal s(t).
Data Link Institute

Encoding/Modulation Techniques
Digital data, digital signal
 The equipment for encoding digital data into a
digital signal is less complex and less
expensive than digital-to-analog modulation
equipment.
Analog data, digital signal
 Conversion of analog data (e.g., voice, video)
to digital form permits the use of modern
digital transmission & switching.
Data Link Institute
Encoding/Modulation Techniques
Digital data, analog signal
 Optical system and unguided media (wireless
system) only propagate analog signals.
Analog data, analog signal
 Baseband: easy and cheap, e.g., in voice-grade
telephone lines, voice signals are transmitted
over telephone lines at their original spectrum
 Modulation permits frequency division
multiplexing, e.g., AM/FM radios
Data Link Institute
Digital data, Digital signal
 The simplest form of digital encoding of digital
data is to assign one voltage level to binary one
and another to binary zero
 Factors affecting successful interpreting of signals

 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
 Data rate
 Bandwidth
Data Link Institute

Digital data, Digital signal –
Encoding Schemes
 Non-return to Zero (NRZ)
 Non-return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
 Non-return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
 Multilevel Binary
 Bipolar-AMI
 Pseudoternary
 Bi-phase
 Manchester
 Differential Manchester
 Scrambling techniques
 B8ZS
 HDB3
Data Link Institute
Digital data, Analog signal
 A modem converts digital data to an analog signal
so that it can be transmitted over an analog line
 Designed to transmit analog signals in 300Hz to

3400Hz
 Modulation involves operation on one or more of

the three characteristics of a carrier signal
Data Link Institute

Digital data, Analog signal –
Encoding Schemes
 Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
 Frequency shift keying (FSK)
 Binary FSK (BFSK)
 Multiple FSK (MFSK)
 Phase shift keying (PSK)
 Binary PSK (BPSK)
 Four-level (quadrature) PSK (QPSK)
 Multilevel PSK (MPSK)
 QAM: a combination of ASK and PSK
Data Link Institute
Analog Data, Digital signal
 Analog data, such as voice and video, are often
digitized to be able to use digital transmission
facilities
 The simplest technique is PCM (Pulse Code
Modulation), which involve sampling the analog data
periodically and quantizing the samples.
 Analog to digital conversion done using a codec

(coder-decoder)
 Another technique is Delta Modulation

Data Link Institute
Analog Data, Analog signal
 Analog data are modulated by a carrier frequency to
produce an analog signal in a different frequency
band, which can be utilized on an analog transmission
system
 The basic encoding techniques are;

 AM (Amplitude Modulation)
 FM (Frequency Modulation)
 PM (Phase Modulation)
Data Link Institute

CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 6 – Data Link Control

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Data Link Institute

Topic One
DATA LINK CONTROL
Data Link Institute

Data Link Control Protocol
 For an effective digital data communications, much more
is needed to control and manage the exchange
 To control the sending of data over a link, a layer of logic is

added above the physical interfacing.
 This logic is referred to as data link control or a data link

control protocol
 When a data link control protocol is used, the transmission

medium between systems is referred to as a data link
Data Link Institute

Data Link Control Protocol
 Flow control: The sending station must not send
frames at a rate faster then the receiving station can
absorb them.
 Error control: Any bit errors introduced by the

transmission system must be corrected.
 Addressing: On a multipoint line, such as a local area

network (LAN), the identity of the two stations
involved in a transmission must be specified.
Data Link Institute

Flow Control
 Flow control is a technique for assuring that a
transmitting entity does not overwhelm a receiving
entity with data.
 In the absence of flow control, the receiver's buffer

may fill up and overflow while it is processing old data
Data Link Institute

Stop-and-Wait Flow Control
 The simplest form of flow control
 Source transmits frame
 Destination receives frame and replies with

acknowledgement
 Source waits for ACK before sending next frame
 The destination can thus stop the flow of data by

simply withholding acknowledgment
Data Link Institute
Stop-and-Wait Flow Control
Large block of data may be split into small frames –
Fragmentation
 Limited buffer size
 Errors detected sooner (when whole frame received)
 On error, retransmission of smaller frames is needed
 Prevents one station occupying medium for long

periods
Data Link Institute
Sliding-Window Flow Control
 Allow multiple frames to be in transit (between
sender and receiver)
 To keep track of which frames have been

acknowledged, each is labeled with a sequence
number
 Receiver acknowledges a frame by sending an ack

that includes the sequence number of the next frame
expected
Data Link Institute

Sliding-Window Flow Control
 In general, for a k-bit field, the range of sequence
numbers is 0 through 2𝑘𝑘 - 1
 Frames are numbered modulo 2𝑘𝑘
Data Link Institute

Error Detection
 For a given frame of bits, additional bits that
constitute an error-detecting code are added by the
transmitter
 This code is calculated as a function of the other

transmitted bits.
 The receiver performs the same calculation and

compares the two results
Data Link Institute

Error Detection
Data Link Institute

Error Detection – Parity Check
 The simplest error-detection scheme is to append a
parity bit to the end of a block of data.
 A typical example is ASCII transmission, in which a

parity bit is attached to each 7-bit ASCII character
 Value of parity bit is such that character has even

(even parity) or odd (odd parity) number of ones
 Even parity is used for synchronous transmission and

odd parity for asynchronous transmission
Data Link Institute
Error Detection – CRC
 Most common and most powerful error-detecting
codes – Cyclic Redundancy Check
 Given a k-bit block of bits, or message, the

transmitter generates an (n - k) bit sequence, known
as a frame check sequence (FCS)
 Hence total number of frame to be transmitted is n

bits, which can be divided by a predetermined
number
Data Link Institute

Error Detection – CRC
 There are three procedures that a CRC can take:
 Modulo 2 arithmetic
 Polynomials
 Digital logic
NB: Refer to William Stallings Book for How to calculate

the various procedures of CRC
Data Link Institute

Error Control
 Error control refers to mechanisms to detect and
correct errors that occur in the transmission of
frames
 There are two possible types of errors that needs
control;
 Lost frame: A frame fails to arrive at the other side
 Damaged frame: A recognizable frame does arrive,

but some of the bits are in error (have been altered
during transmission).
Data Link Institute
Error Control
 These errors can be controlled by one or all of these
mechanisms;
 Error detection
 Positive acknowledgment
 Retransmission after timeout
 Negative acknowledgement and retransmission
 These are collectively called Automatic Repeat

Request (ARQ)
Data Link Institute

Error Control
 There are three forms the ARQ
 Stop-and-wait ARQ
 Go-back-N ARQ
 Selective-reject ARQ
Data Link Institute

Stop-and-Wait ARQ
 Stop-and-wait ARQ is based on the stop-and-wait
flow-control technique
 The source station transmits a single frame and then

must await an acknowledgment (ACK).
 If received frame is damaged, it is discarded

 Transmitter always has timer which expires
 If no ACK within timeout, retransmit
Data Link Institute

Stop-and-Wait ARQ
 If ACK is damaged, transmitter will not recognize it
 Transmitter will retransmit
 Receiver gets two copies of frame
 Use ACK0 and ACK1
 The principal advantage is its simplicity.

 Its principal disadvantage is its an inefficient
mechanism
 The use of sliding-window flow control technique
could better improve efficiency – continuous ARQ
Data Link Institute
Go-back-N ARQ
 This error control is based on sliding-window flow
control.
 If no error, destination acknowledges frame with an ACK
(RR – receive ready) and the next frame
 Use window to control number of outstanding frames
 If error is detected, destination reply with rejection (REJ)

 Discard that frame and all future frames until error
frame received correctly
 Transmitter must go back and retransmit that frame
and all subsequent frames
Data Link Institute

Go-back-N ARQ – Damaged Frame
 Case 1
 Station A transmits frame x.
 Station B sends REJ x, indicated that frame

x is rejected.
 When A receives the REJ, it must retransmit

frame x and all subsequent
Data Link Institute

 Case 2
 Frame x lost in transit
 Transmitter sends x+1
 Receiver gets frame x+1 out of sequence
 Receiver send reject x (REJ x)
 Transmitter goes back to frame x and
retransmits
Data Link Institute

 Case 2
 Frame x lost in transit
 Transmitter sends x+1
 Receiver gets frame x+1 out of sequence
 Receiver send reject x (REJ x)
 Transmitter goes back to frame x and
retransmits
Data Link Institute

 Case 3
 Frame x lost and no additional frame sent
 Receiver gets nothing and returns neither
acknowledgement nor rejection
 Transmitter times out and sends
acknowledgement frame with P bit set to 1
 Receiver interprets this as command which
it acknowledges with the number of the
next frame it expects (frame x )
 Transmitter then retransmits frame x
Data Link Institute
Go-back-N ARQ – Damaged RR
 Case 1
 Receiver gets frame i and send RR (i+1)
which is lost in transit
 Acknowledgements are cumulative, so next
acknowledgement (i+n) may arrive before
transmitter times out on frame i
 If transmitter times out, it sends an RR with
P bit set as in Case 3
 This can be repeated a number of times
before a reset procedure is initiated
Data Link Institute
Selective-reject ARQ
 The only frames retransmitted are those that
receive a negative acknowledgment, called
SREJ, or those that time-out
 Subsequent frames are accepted by the
receiver and buffered
 Minimizes retransmission
 Receiver must maintain large enough buffer
 More complex logic in transmitter
Data Link Institute
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
 HDLC is widely used, and form the basis for
many other important data link control
protocols
 HDLC defines three types of stations, two link

configurations, and three data-transfer modes
of operation
Data Link Institute

 The 3 Stations include
 Primary station
• Controls operation of link
• Frames issued are called commands
• Maintains separate logical link to each secondary
station
 Secondary station
• Under control of primary station
• Frames issued called responses
 Combined station
• May issue commands and responses
Data Link Institute
 The two link configurations are
 Unbalanced configuration: Consists of one primary
and one or more secondary stations.
 supports both full-duplex and half-duplex
transmission.
 Balanced configuration: Consists of two combined

stations
 supports both full-duplex and half-duplex
transmission.
Data Link Institute

 Normal Response Mode (NRM)
 Unbalanced configuration
 Primary initiates transfer to secondary
 Secondary may only transmit data in
response to command from primary
 Used on multi-drop lines
 Host computer as primary
 Terminals as secondary
Data Link Institute

 Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)
 Balanced configuration
 Either station may initiate transmission
without receiving permission
 Most widely used
 No polling overhead
Data Link Institute

 Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
 Unbalanced configuration
 Secondary may initiate transmission
without permission form primary
 Primary responsible for line, including
initialization, error recovery, and logical
disconnection
 Rarely used
Data Link Institute

Frame Structure
 HDLC uses synchronous transmission.
 All transmissions are in the form of frames.
 Single frame format is used for all data and control
exchanges
Data Link Institute

Frame Structure
 Flag Field
 Flag fields delimit the frame at both ends with the
unique pattern 01111110
 May close one frame and open another
 Receiver hunts for flag sequence to synchronize
 A procedure known as bit stuffing is used to ensure
frame-level synchronization
• 0 inserted after every sequence of five 1s
• If receiver detects five 1s it checks next bit
• If 0, it is deleted
• If 1 and seventh bit is 0, accept it as a flag
• If sixth and seventh bits 1, sender is indicating abort
Data Link Institute
Frame Structure
01111110 11111011 01111110 11101101111101011111010 01111110
Data Link Institute

Frame Structure
 Address Field
 Identifies secondary station that sent or will receive
frame
 Usually 8 bits long
 May be extended to multiples of 7 bits
 LSB of each octet indicates that it is the last octet (1)
or not (0)
 All ones (11111111) is broadcast
Data Link Institute

Frame Structure
 Control Field
 HDLC defines three types of frames, each with a
different control field format.
 Information frames (I-frames): carry the data to be

transmitted for the user
 Supervisory frames (S-frames): provide the ARQ
mechanism when piggybacking is not used.
 Unnumbered frames (U-frames): provide supplemental
link control functions
 First one or two bits of control filed identify frame type
Data Link Institute

Frame Structure
 Information Field
 Only in information (I-Frame) and some
unnumbered frames (U-Frame)
 Must contain integral number of octets
 Variable length – System defined
 Frame Check Sequence Field

 FCS - Error detection code
 Normal code - 16 bit CRC
 Optional 32 bit CRC
Data Link Institute

Frame Structure
 HDLC Operations
 HDLC operation consists of the exchange of I-
frames, S-frames, and U-frames between two
stations
 There are Three phases with regards to HDLC

Operations
 Initialization
 Data transfer
 Disconnect
Data Link Institute

CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 7 – Multiplexing

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Data Link Institute

Topic One
MULTIPLEXING
Data Link Institute

Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the process in which multiple Data
Streams, coming from different Sources, are
combined and transmitted over a Single Data Channel
or Data Stream.
 In other words, it is the set of techniques that allows

the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link
 In multiplexing, our goal is efficiency; we combine

several channels into one
Data Link Institute

Multiplexing
Data Link Institute

Multiplexing
 There are three types of multiplexing techniques.
 The first is Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

which is the most heavily used.
 The second is a particular case of time-division

multiplexing (TDM) known as synchronous TDM.
 This is commonly used for multiplexing digitized voice

streams and data streams.
Data Link Institute

Multiplexing
 The third type, statistical TDM, seeks to improve on
the efficiency of synchronous TDM by adding
complexity to the multiplexer.
 All these forms of multiplexing enables us to utilize

bandwidth and brings about efficiency
 Multiplexing therefore reduces to the sharing of

bandwidth between users
Data Link Institute

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 In Frequency Division Multiplexing, Data Streams are
carried simultaneously on the same Transmission medium
by allocating to each of them a different Frequency Band
within the Bandwidth of the Single Channel
 Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds required bandwidth

of channel
 Each signal is modulated to a different carrier frequency
Data Link Institute

 Carrier frequencies separated so signals do not
overlap (guard bands - unused portions of the
spectrum)
 Each modulated signal requires a certain bandwidth

centered around its carrier frequency, referred to as a
channel.
Data Link Institute

 Multiplexing Process
Data Link Institute

 Demultiplexing Process
Data Link Institute

Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM)
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed
to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable
 WDM is conceptually the same as FDM
 The combining and splitting of light sources are easily
handled by a prism.
Data Link Institute

Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM)
 One application of WDM is the SONET network
 A new method, called dense WDM (DWDM), can

multiplex a very large number of channels
 Channels are more closely spaced as compared to

WDM.
 It achieves even greater efficiency.
Data Link Institute

Synchronous Time-Division
Multiplexing
 It is a digital process that allows several connections
to share the high bandwidth of a link
 Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
Data Link Institute

Synchronous Time-Division
Multiplexing
 Multiple digital signals interleaved in time

 The process of taking a group of bits from each input line
for multiplexing is known as Interleaving
 Time slots preassigned to sources and fixed
 Time slots allocated even if no data
Data Link Institute
TDM Link Control
 No headers and trailers
 Data link control protocols not needed
 Flow control
 Data rate of multiplexed line is fixed
 If one channel receiver can not receive data, the others
must carry on
 The corresponding source must be quenched
 This leaves empty slots
 Error control
 Errors are detected and handled by individual channel
systems
Data Link Institute

Framing
 No flag or SYNC characters bracketing TDM frames
 Must provide synchronizing mechanism
 Added digit framing
 One control bit added to each TDM frame
 Looks like another channel - “control channel”
 Identifiable bit pattern used on control channel
 e.g. alternating 101010…unlikely on a data channel
 Can compare incoming bit patterns on each
channel with sync pattern
Data Link Institute
Pulse Stuffing
 Problem - Synchronizing data sources
 Clocks in different sources drifting
 Data rates from different sources not related by
simple rational number
 Solution - Pulse Stuffing
 Outgoing data rate (excluding framing bits) higher than sum
of incoming rates
 Stuff extra dummy bits or pulses into each incoming signal
until it matches local clock
 Stuffed pulses inserted at fixed locations in frame and
removed at demultiplexer
Data Link Institute

Statistical TDM
 In Synchronous TDM many slots are wasted
 Statistical TDM allocates time slots dynamically based

on demand
 Multiplexer scans input lines and collects data until

frame full
 Data rate on line lower than aggregate rates of input

lines
Data Link Institute

CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 8 – Spread Spectrum
Lecturer: Mr Julius Ludu, MEng

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Data Link Institute

Topic One
SPREAD SPECTRUM
Data Link Institute

Spread Spectrum
 Used to transmit either analog or digital data, using an
analog signal
 Essential idea is to spread the information signal over a
wider bandwidth
 Makes jamming and interception harder
 Frequency hoping
 Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of frequencies
 Direct Sequence
 Each bit is represented by multiple bits in transmitted signal
 Chipping code
Data Link Institute

Spread Spectrum Concept
 Input fed into channel encoder
 Produces narrow bandwidth analog signal around central
frequency
 Signal modulated using sequence of digits
 Spreading code/sequence
 Typically generated by pseudonoise/pseudorandom number
generator
 Increases bandwidth significantly
 Spreads spectrum
 Receiver uses same sequence to demodulate signal
 Demodulated signal fed into channel decoder
Data Link Institute

Spread Spectrum Concept
Data Link Institute

Spread Spectrum - Gains
 Immunity from various noise and multipath distortion
 Including jamming
 Can hide/encrypt signals
 Only receiver who knows spreading code can retrieve
signal
 Several users can share same higher bandwidth with little
interference
 Cellular telephones
 Code division multiplexing (CDM)
 Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Data Link Institute
Spread Spectrum - Pseudorandom
 Generated by algorithm using initial seed
 Deterministic algorithm
 Not actually random
 If algorithm good, results pass reasonable tests of
randomness
 Need to know algorithm and seed to predict sequence
Data Link Institute

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
 Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of
frequencies
 Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with

transmitter
 Eavesdroppers hear unintelligible blips
 Jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits
Data Link Institute

FHSS – Basic Operations
 Typically 2𝑘𝑘 carrier frequencies forming 2𝑘𝑘 channels
 Channel spacing corresponds with bandwidth of input
signal
 Each channel used for fixed interval
 300 ms in IEEE 802.11
 Some number of bits transmitted using some
encoding scheme
oMay be fractions of bit
 Sequence dictated by spreading code
Data Link Institute

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
 With DSSS, each bit in the original signal is represented
by multiple bits in the transmitted signal, using a
spreading code
 Spreading code spreads signal across wider frequency

band
 In proportion to number of bits used
 10 bit spreading code spreads signal across 10 times bandwidth
of 1 bit code
Data Link Institute

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
One method:
 Combine input with spreading code using XOR
 Input bit 1 inverts spreading code bit
 Input zero bit doesn’t alter spreading code bit
 Data rate equal to original spreading code
Data Link Institute

Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
 Multiplexing Technique used with spread spectrum
 Start with data signal rate D

 Called bit data rate
 Break each bit into k chips according to fixed pattern

specific to each user
 User’s code
 New channel has chip data rate kD chips per second
Data Link Institute

Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA - Explanation
 Consider A communicating with base
 Base knows A’s code
 Assume communication already synchronized
 A wants to send a 1
 Send chip pattern <1,-1,-1,1,-1,1>
o A’s code
 A wants to send 0
 Send chip pattern <-1,1,1,-1,1,-1>
o Complement of A’s code
 Decoder ignores other sources when using A’s code to
decode
 Orthogonal codes
Data Link Institute

CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 9 – Circuit Switching

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Data Link Institute

Topic One
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Data Link Institute

Switching Networks
 Long distance transmission is typically done over a
network of switched nodes
 Nodes not concerned with content of data
 End devices are stations
 Computer, terminal, phone, etc.
 Switching devices whose purpose is to provide
communication is known as Nodes
 A collection of nodes and connections is a
Communications Network
 Data is routed by being switched from node to node
Data Link Institute
Nodes
Nodes may connect to other nodes only, or to
stations and other nodes
Node to node links usually multiplexed
Network is usually partially connected
 Some redundant connections are desirable for
reliability
Two different switching technologies
 Circuit switching
 Packet switching
Data Link Institute
Circuit Switching
 Dedicated communication path between two
stations
 Connections is in three phases
 Circuit Establishment (end-to-end)
 Data Transfer (analog or Digital)
 Disconnect
 Must have switching capacity and channel capacity
to establish connection
 Must have intelligence to work out routing
Data Link Institute
Circuit Switching
 Inefficient
 Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection
 If no data, capacity wasted
 Set up (connection) takes time
 Once connected, transfer is transparent
 In terms of performance, there is a delay prior to
signal transfer for call establishment
 Developed for voice traffic (phone)
 Public telephone network, Private branch
exchange, Private network
Data Link Institute
Circuit Switching Concept
 Digital Switch
 Provide transparent signal path between devices
 Network Interface
 Control Unit
 Establish connections
• Generally on demand
• Handle and acknowledge requests
• Determine if destination is free
• construct path
 Maintain connection (uses time division principles)
 Disconnect
Data Link Institute

Blocking and Non Blocking
Blocking
 A network is unable to connect stations
because all paths are in use
 A blocking network allows this
 Used on voice systems
• Short duration calls
Non-blocking
 Permits all stations to connect (in pairs) at once
 Used for some data connections
Data Link Institute
Space Division Switching
Developed for analog environment
Signal paths have separate physical paths
Crossbar switch has a number of limitations
 Number of crosspoints grows as square of
number of stations
 Loss of crosspoint prevents connection
 Inefficient use of crosspoints
• All stations connected, only a few crosspoints
in use
 Follows a principle of Non-blocking
Data Link Institute
Multistage Switch
Reduced number of crosspoints
More than one path through network
 Increased reliability
Requires a more complex control scheme
May be blocking
Data Link Institute

Time Division Switching
Modern digital systems rely on intelligent
control of space and time division elements
Use digital time division techniques to set up

and maintain virtual circuits
Involves the partitioning of low speed bit

stream into pieces that share higher speed
stream
Data Link Institute
Softswitch Architecture
General purpose computer running software to
make it a smart phone switch
Cost significantly less than traditional circuit

switches
Greater functionality
 Packetizing of digitized voice data
 Allowing voice over IP
Data Link Institute
Most complex part of telephone network
switch is software controlling call process
 Call routing
 Call processing logic
 Typically running on proprietary processor
A more flexible approach is

– Separate call processing from hardware function of
switch
– Physical switching done by media gateway
– Call processing done by media gateway controller
Data Link Institute
Traditional Circuit Switching
Architecture
Data Link Institute

Data Link Institute

CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 10 – Packet Switching

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Data Link Institute

Topic One
PACKET SWITCHING
Data Link Institute

Packet Switching Principles
Circuit switching designed for voice
 Resources dedicated to a particular call
As the circuit-switching network began to be

used increasingly for data connections, two
shortcomings became apparent
 Much of the time a data connection is idle
 Data rate is fixed
• Both ends must operate at the same rate
Data Link Institute

Basic Operations
Data transmitted in small packets
 Typically 1000 octets
 Longer messages split into series of packets
 Each packet contains a portion of user data plus
some control information
Control information
 Routing (addressing) information
Packets are received, stored briefly (buffered)
and past on to the next node
 Store and forward
Data Link Institute
Use of Packets
Data Link Institute

Advantages
Line efficiency
 Single node to node link can be shared by many
packets over time
 Packets queued and transmitted as fast as possible
Data rate conversion
 Each station connects to the local node at its own
speed
 Nodes buffer data if required to equalize rates
Packets are accepted even when network is busy
 Delivery may slow down
Priorities can be used
Data Link Institute
Switching Techniques
Station breaks long message into packets
Packets sent one at a time to the network
Packets on a network handled in two
ways
 Datagram
 Virtual circuit
Data Link Institute

Datagrams
Each packet treated independently
 No reference to packets that have gone before
Packets can take any practical route
Packets may arrive out of order
Packets may go missing
In some datagram network its up to receiver

to re-order packets and recover missing
packets
Data Link Institute
Packet Switching – Datagram Approach
Data Link Institute

Packet Switching – Datagram Approach
Data Link Institute

Virtual Circuits Approach
 Preplanned route established before any packets sent
 Call request and call accept packets establish
connection (handshake)
 Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead
of destination address
 No routing decisions required for each packet
 Clear request to drop circuit
 Not a dedicated path
Data Link Institute

Packet Switching – Virtual Circiut
Approach
Data Link Institute

Packet Switching – Virtual Circuit
Approach
Data Link Institute

X.25
 X.25 is an ITU-T (Study groups) standard formed in 1976
 Specifies Interface between host and packet switched

network
 Almost universal on packet switched networks and

packet switching in ISDN
 Functionalities are defined in three layers

 Physical
 Link
 Packet
Data Link Institute
X.25 – Physical
Interface between attached station and link to
node
Data terminal equipment DTE (user equipment)
Data circuit terminating equipment DCE (node)
Uses physical layer specification X.21
Data Link Institute

X.25 – Link
The link level standard is referred to as
LAPB (Link Access Protocol–Balanced).
 LAPB is a subset of HDLC
Provides reliable transfer across physical link
Help transmit data as a sequence of frames

Data Link Institute
X.25 – Packet Level
The packet level provides a virtual circuit
service.
Logical connections, called virtual circuits,

are set up
These can be called External virtual circuits
Data Link Institute

X.25 – Use of Virtual Circuits
Data Link Institute

X.25 – Relationship Between Levels
User data passes to X.25 level 3
X.25 appends control information
 Header
 Identifies virtual circuit
 Provides sequence numbers for flow and error
control
X.25 packet passed down to LAPB entity
LAPB appends further control information
Data Link Institute

X.25 – Use of Virtual Circuits
Data Link Institute

CSIT 302
Data Communication
Session 11 – Routing In Switched Networks

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Data Link Institute

Topic One
ROUTING IN SWITCHED NETWORKS
Data Link Institute

Routing in Packet Switched Network
Complex, crucial aspect of packet switched
networks
Characteristics required
 Correctness
 Simplicity
 Robustness
 Stability
 Fairness
 Optimality
 Efficiency
Data Link Institute
Performance Criteria
Used for selection of route
Minimum hop
 One that passes through the least number of
nodes through the network
 Minimize the consumption of network
resources
Least cost
 the higher the data rate on a link, the lower
the assigned cost of the link
Data Link Institute
Example of Packet Switched Network
Data Link Institute

Decision Time and Place
Two key characteristics of the decision on routing
are the time and place that the decision is made.
Time
 Packet or virtual circuit basis
Place
 Distributed
• Made by each node
 Centralized
 Source
Data Link Institute
Decision Time and Place
 In distributed routing, each node has the
responsibility of selecting an output link for routing
packets as they arrive.
 For centralized routing, the decision is made by

some designated node, such as a network control
center
 Source routing, decision is actually made by the

source station rather than by a network node and is
then communicated to the network
Data Link Institute
Network Information Source and
Update Timing
Routing decisions usually based on
knowledge of network, traffic load, and link
cost (not always)
Distributed routing
 Nodes use local knowledge (cost of outgoing
link)
 May collect info from adjacent nodes (amount
of congestion)
 May collect info from all nodes on a potential
route
Data Link Institute
Network Information Source and
Update Timing
Central routing
 Collect info from all nodes
Update timing
 When is network info held by nodes updated
 Fixed Strategy – Info source is never updated
 Adaptive Strategy - regular updates of info
source
Data Link Institute
Routing Strategies
Four key routing strategies have evolved
for dealing with the routing requirements
of packet-switching networks
Fixed
Flooding
Random
Adaptive
Data Link Institute
Fixed Routing
Single permanent route for each source
to destination pair
Determine routes using a least cost

algorithm
Route fixed, at least until a change in

network topology
Data Link Institute
Fixed Routing
There is no difference between routing
for datagrams and virtual circuits
Its advantage is its simplicity, and it
should work well in a reliable network
with a stable load
Disadvantage is its lack of flexibility. It
does not react to network congestion or
failures.
Data Link Institute
Flooding
No network info required
Packet sent by node to every neighbor
Incoming packets retransmitted on every link

except incoming link
Eventually a number of copies will arrive at

destination
Data Link Institute
Flooding
Each packet is uniquely numbered so
duplicates can be discarded
Nodes can remember packets already

forwarded to keep network load in
bounds
Can include a hop count in packets

Data Link Institute
Flooding
Data Link Institute

Properties Flooding
All possible routes are tried and are very
robust
At least one packet will have taken minimum

hop count route hence can be used to set up
virtual circuit
All nodes are visited and therefore useful to

distribute information (e.g. routing)
Data Link Institute
Random Routing
Node selects one outgoing path for
retransmission of incoming packet
Selection can be random or round robin
Can select outgoing path based on
probability calculation
No network info needed
Route is typically not least cost nor
minimum hop
Data Link Institute
Adaptive Routing
Used by almost all packet switching
networks
Routing decisions change as conditions
on the network change
Failure
Congestion
Data Link Institute

Adaptive Routing
Requires information about network
Drawbacks
 Decisions more complex (increases
processing burden)
 Tradeoff between quality of network info
and overhead cause performance
degradation
 Reacting too quickly can cause oscillation
 Too slowly to be relevant
Data Link Institute
Adaptive Routing - Advantages
Improved performance
Aid congestion control
Complex system
May not realize theoretical benefits
Data Link Institute

Least Cost Algorithms
Basis for routing decisions
 Can minimize hop with each link cost of 1
 Can have link value inversely proportional to
capacity
Given network of nodes connected by bi-

directional links where each link has a cost
in each direction
Data Link Institute
Least Cost Algorithms
Define cost of path between two nodes
as sum of costs of links traversed. Hence
for each pair of nodes, find a path with
the least cost
Link costs in different directions may be
different
E.g. length of packet queue
Data Link Institute

Dijkstra’s Algorithm Definitions
(DIJK59)
Find shortest paths from given source
node to all other nodes, by developing
paths in order of increasing path length
 N = set of nodes in the network

 s = source node
 T = set of nodes so far incorporated by the
algorithm
Data Link Institute
Dijkstra’s Algorithm Definitions
w(i, j) = link cost from node i to node j
 w(i, i) = 0
 w(i, j) = ∞, if the two nodes are not directly
connected
 w(i, j) ≥ 0, if the two nodes are directly
connected
L(n) = cost of least-cost path from node s to
node n currently known
At termination, L(n) is cost of least-cost path
from s to n
Data Link Institute
Dijkstra’s Algorithm Methods
Step 1 [Initialization]
 T = {s} that is, the set of nodes so far
incorporated which consists of only
source node
 L(n) = w(s, n) for n ≠ s
 Initial path costs to neighboring nodes
are simply link costs
Data Link Institute

Step 2 [Get Next Node]
 Find neighboring node not in T with
least-cost path from s
 Incorporate node into T
 Also incorporate the edge that is
incident on that node and a node in T
that contributes to the path
Data Link Institute

Step 3 [Update Least-Cost Paths]
 L(n) = min[L(n), L(x) + w(x, n)] for all
n ∈T
 If latter term is minimum, path from s to
n is path from s to x concatenated with
edge from x to n
 Algorithm terminates when all nodes
have been added to T
Data Link Institute
Dijkstra’s Algorithm Notes
At termination, value L(x) associated with
each node x is cost (length) of least-cost
path from s to x.
In addition, T defines least-cost path from
s to each other node
One iteration of steps 2 and 3 adds one
new node to T
 Defines least cost path from s to that node
Data Link Institute
Bellman-Ford Algorithm Definitions
(FORD62)
Find shortest paths from given node
subject to the constraint that the paths
contain at most one link
Then find the shortest paths with a
constraint of paths of at most two links
e.t.c
We define;
 s = source node
Data Link Institute
Bellman-Ford Algorithm Definitions
w(i, j) = link cost from node i to node j
w(i, i) = 0
w(i, j) = ∞, if the two nodes are not directly
connected
w(i, j) ≥ 0, if the two nodes are directly
connected
h = maximum number of links in path at
current stage of the algorithm
Lh(n) = cost of least-cost path from s to n
under constraint of no more than h links
Data Link Institute
Bellman-Ford Algorithm Methods
Step 1 [Initialization]
 L0(n) = ∞, for all n ≠ s
 Lh(s) = 0, for all h
Step 2 [Update]
For each successive h ≥ 0
 For each n ≠ s, compute
Lh+1(n)=min[Lh(j)+w(j,n)]
Data Link Institute
Bellman-Ford Algorithm Methods
Connect n with predecessor node j that
achieves minimum
Eliminate any connection of n with different

predecessor node formed during an earlier
iteration
Path from s to n terminates with link from j to

n
Data Link Institute
Bellman-Ford Algorithm Notes
For each iteration of step 2 with h=K and
for each destination node n, algorithm
compares paths from s to n of length K=1
with path from previous iteration
If previous path shorter it is retained
Otherwise new path is defined

Data Link Institute

CSIT 302 Data Communication: University of Ghana

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

CSIT 302 Data Communication: University of Ghana

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

CSIT 302

Lecturer: Julius Yaw Ludu, MENG

Department of Computer Science, UG

 Understand data representation and data

Department of Computer Science, UG

INTRODUCTION & BASIC CONCEPT

Department of Computer Science, UG

Department of Computer Science, UG

 Three different forces have consistently driven the

 Traffic growth, development of new services, and

Department of Computer Science, UG

 The range of services expands which causes an increase in

 Trends in technology enable the provision of increasing

Department of Computer Science, UG

 Voice-oriented telecommunications networks, such as the

 The Internet, the Web, and associated applications have

Department of Computer Science, UG

Department of Computer Science, UG

 This has resulted in a need to increase the speed and

 On the other hand, it is only such increased speed that

Department of Computer Science, UG

 The speed and computing power of personal

 MIS organizations have recognized the LAN as a viable

Department of Computer Science, UG

Department of Computer Science, UG

Session 2 – A Communication Model

Lecturer: Julius Yaw Ludu, MENG

Data Link Institute

Data Link Institute

 Data: Information being shared, e.g. text, numbers,

 Data Communications: exchange of data between two (or

 For Data Communication to occur, the communicating

Data Link Institute

 Delivery : Data must be delivered to the correct destination.

 Accuracy : Data received must be accurate representation of

 Timeliness : The data should be delivered in a timely manner

 Jitter : Refers to the variation in the packet arrival time

Data Link Institute

Data Link Institute

 Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit

 Numbers: These are also represented by bit patterns.

Data Link Institute

 Video: Refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture

Data Link Institute

 Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is

Data Link Institute

 The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each

Data Link Institute

 Signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link

Data Link Institute

 There are several task that must be performed in a data

Data Link Institute

 There must be some form of synchronization between

 Error detection and correction are required in circumstances

 Recovery is a concept distinct from that of error correction.

Data Link Institute

Session 3 – Data Transmission

Lecturer: Julius Yaw Ludu, MENG

Data Link Institute

Data Link Institute

 Direct link is used to refer to the transmission path between

 A transmission may be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex

 A signal is a function of time, but it can also be expressed as