Alternating Current Motors

• AC induction motor is the most widely used type of electric

motor in the modern world.
• AC motors are primarily used as a source of constant-speed
mechanical power but are increasingly being used in variable
speed-control applications.
• Advantages: They are popular because they can provide
rotary power with high efficiency, low maintenance, and
exceptional reliability—all at relatively low cost.
• These desirable qualities are the result of two factors:
(1) AC motors can use the AC power “right off the lines.”—DC
motors require the added expense of a rectifier circuit;
(2) most AC motors do not need brushes as DC motors do. In
most cases, the AC power is connected only to the motor’s
stationary field windings. The rotor gets its power by
electromagnetic induction, a process that does not require
physical electrical contact. Maintenance is reduced because
brushes do not have to be periodically replaced. Also, the
motor tends to be more reliable and last longer because there
are fewer parts to go wrong and there is no “brush dust” to
contaminate the bearings or windings.
Disadvantages:
• there is a problem with using AC motors in
control systems: These high-efficiency AC motors
are by nature constant speed, and control
systems usually require the motor speed to be
controllable.
• the speed of a DC motor can be controlled by
simply adjusting the applied voltage. For
complete speed control of an AC motor, both
voltage and frequency must be adjusted, which
requires using special electronic speed-control
circuitry, such as the volts-per-hertz (V/Hz) drive
or the vector drive
INDUCTION MOTORS
 Induction Motor Operation

Rotor windings built into Iron Rotor

Air Gap

Stator windings in outer fixed Iron Core

The Three phase ac voltage in the stator windings

sets up a rotating magnetic field which crosses the
air gap and induces current in the rotor winding.

The resultant current acts with the field to produce

a rotational force
 Theory of Operation
How 2-phase AC causes a rotating field:
• Synchronous speed: The speed of the rotating field. For a line frequency
of 60 Hz, the field would rotate at 3600 rpm—(60 cycle/s) × (60 s/min)
=3600 rpm.
• For an induction motor, the rotor speed does not exactly match the
synchronous speed, it’s slightly lower.
 V/F OPERATION
U/f-Characteristic

2-pole 4-pole
motor: motor:

-U W
U -W
V -V
-W N S U
-V S N V
U -W
S N
-V V
W -U W -U

U [V] U [V]

3000 n [rpm] 1500 n [rpm]

U U

t t

Motor voltage (=output voltage of inverter)

Single-Phase Motors
Start Winding (Split Phase)
Three-Phase Motors
• The three-phase motor is simpler and smaller than its single-phase counterpart, but it can
be used only where three-phase power is available.
• The natural timing sequence of the three individual phase voltages produces the rotating
stator field that pulls the rotor around. The rotor is the squirrel cage type. The reason this
motor is so simple (and hence reliable) is that it is self-starting—just apply the power, and
it starts.
• A three-phase motor, once started, will continue to run even when one of the phases is
disconnected, because two-thirds of the rotating field is still working and the mechanical
inertia of the spinning rotor will carry it over the “dead spot” caused by the missing wire.
However, vibration and noise will increase, torque will decrease, and the motor may
overheat due to greater current in the active field windings.
Torque - Speed Chart of Induction Motor

Maximum Torque
2.5

2.0

Nominal Torque

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Constant Flux Range Field Weakening Range

Practical meaning of this graph

If overloaded too The motor will

much, the motor continue to run
will stall ‘pull out’ in overload, and
but continue to may overheat
draw high
current.

At lower At frequencies
frequencies full above ‘normal’,
torque is Maximum torque
available is greatly
reduced
 Voltage and Frequency Requirements

Because an induction motor works like a transformer, the

voltage must be reduced if the frequency is reduced.
A Linear Voltage to Frequency Curve is
suitable for most Applications.
120

A Quadratic curve can be used with

100
pumps and fans to save energy by
reduction of magnetising losses.

Output Voltage %
80

Special curves can be programmed for 60

special motors and applications.

40

At higher frequencies higher voltage

20
would be desirable, but is not usually
possible. 0

Vector and Flux Current control Output Frequency

systems control the flux levels
independently.
Motor and Load Torque Characteristics

MN Rated-load torque
MM Motor torque
ML Load torque
MB Accelerating torque
MA Locked-rotor torque
MK Breakdown torque
MS Pull-up torque
nN Rated speed
nS Synchronous speed
AC Servomotors
• A special case of the two-phase motor is the AC servomotor. This is a high-slip, high
torque motor, designed specifically for control systems, and it has a relatively linear
torque-speed curve). the lighter the load, the faster the motor runs. This is very similar to
the way a DC motor behaves.
• The two windings are called the main winding and the control winding. The main winding
is connected to an AC source, usually 120 Vac. The control winding is driven by an
electronic circuit that (1) causes the phase to be either leading or lagging the main
winding (thereby controlling the motor direction) and (2) sets the magnitude of the
control-winding voltage, which determines the speed. Typically, the maximum control
winding voltage is about 35 Vac. If the control winding has 0 V, the motor will coast to a
stop, even though the main winding is still connected to the line voltage. This is different
from a normal induction motor that will continue to run on a single phase.
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
• The synchronous motor is similar to the induction
motor with one important difference:
The rotor in the synchronous motor rotates at exactly
the speed of the rotating field—there is no slip. i.e, the
speed of the synchronous motor is always an exact
multiple of the line frequency.
This feature is extremely desirable in industrial
applications, for example, when several motors along a
conveyer belt must all be going exactly the same
speed.
• Although many synchronous motors are large, the
concept is also used extensively in small clock or timing
motors where an exact relationship must exist between
frequency and speed.
Operation
• To make a synchronous motor work, the power to form a magnetic field in
the rotor must come from another source. Traditionally, this is done by
supplying DC power into the rotor via slip rings and brushes.
• Slip rings and brushes on the synchronous motor are similar to the
commutator assembly used in DC motors, with one important difference;
here the electrical contact from stator to rotor is made through a smooth
• ring, not the multiple contacts of the DC motor’s commutator. The action
is smoother, the components last far longer, and less electrical noise is
generated.
UNIVERSAL MOTORS
• The universal motor is so named because it can be powered with either
AC or DC.

• Basically, it is a series-wound DC motor that has been specifically designed

to operate on AC. Like its DC counterpart, it is reversible by changing the
polarity of either the field or the rotor windings, but not both. Physically,
the universal motor is similar to a DC motor except that more attention is
paid to using laminations (thin sheets of lacquered metal) for the metal
parts (to reduce the AC eddy currents) and the inductance of the windings
is minimized as much as possible.

• The operating characteristics of the universal motor are similar to those of

the DC motor. For a fixed voltage, the speed is inversely proportional to
the load torque—as the load increases, the speed decreases. For a
constant load, as the applied voltage increases, the speed will increase.

• Typically, universal motors are designed to operate at high speeds—from

3600 to 20,000 rpm—but, because they use a commutator and brushes
(which wear out), they have a limited lifetime. Being a series-wound
motor, they have high starting torque, and for this reason are widely used
for handheld power tools (for example, a hand drill motor).
 AC MOTOR CONTROL
Start–Stop Control
Reduced-Voltage Starting
 Variable-Speed Control of AC Motors

• In order to fully control the speed of an AC motor, you must be able to

change the frequency.
• This can be done with off-the-shelf power-conversion units that are
capable of converting the line voltage at 60 Hz into a wide range of
voltages and frequencies.
• A motor-control unit (or the control unit plus the motor) is called a drive.
There are four choices of AC-motor variable-speed drives:
1- the older variable-frequency drive (also known as a V/Hz drive) and
2-4 the newer vector drives (sensorless, flux vector, and field oriented
control
Variable-Frequency (V/Hz) Drives
• In this circuit, 60-Hz AC line power is converted to DC with a silicon-controlled rectifier
(SCR) network. SCRs are used so the magnitude of the DC voltage can be controlled.
• The next job of this circuit is to create a sort of artificial three phase AC power at any
desired frequency. This is accomplished with the six transistors on the right side of the
circuit. Each transistor is turned on and off in sequence by a controller circuit (not
shown) in such a way as to cause three pseudo-sine waves.
• For phase A, during time period 1, both transistors (Q1 and Q2) are off, so the output,
which is taken from between the transistors, is neither positive or negative.
• Then during time period 2, transistor Q1 is on, connecting the phase A output to the
plus DC voltage.
• During time period 3, both transistors are again off;
• finally, during time period 4, transistor Q2 is on, connecting the phase A output to the
minus side of the power supply.
• This same shape waveform is generated by transistor pair Q3-Q4 and again by Q5-Q6,
with each phase lagging the one ahead of it by 120°. Clearly, the apparent frequency of
the output is determined by how fast transistors Q1-Q6 are sequenced, (which is
typically in the range of 5–120 Hz).
• To help visualize the three-phase action, compare the phases A, B, and C in Figure (a)
with phases A, B, and C in the traditional three-phase diagram [Figure (c)]. A better
pseudo-AC waveform can be created by using PWM (pulse width modulation) as shown
in Figure (b).
• For the motor to work well at various speeds, the voltage to the motor must be modified
each time the frequency is changed. Specifically, the voltage and frequency should be held
proportional—that is, when the frequency is increased, the voltage should be increased,
and vice versa.
• The reason for this requirement is that the current in the stator windings must be
maintained at a certain design value for the magnetic induction process (to the rotor) to
work.
• Most motors are designed to operate at 60 Hz and 120 V (or 240 V), so the stator is wound to
create the proper magnetic field with those conditions. If the frequency drops below 60 Hz,
the inductive impedance of the windings also drops, which would allow in more current.
Consequently, the voltage must be lowered as the frequency is lowered in order to maintain
the proper stator current. Figure (a) shows how the voltage should increase linearly with
frequency in the range 0–60 Hz and explains why this type of drive is called a volts-per-hertz
or V/Hz type. The voltage is usually not allowed to increase beyond the motor’s rated voltage
(for its own health).
• in practice, there are really two distinct operating ranges. The first range (5-60 Hz) is called
the constant-torque region because the motor produces a constant torque in this speed
range, as shown in Figure (b). This is the same torque that the motor has at normal (60 Hz)
operating speed. The region above 60 Hz is known as the constant-power region because,
even though the torque is falling off, the speed is increasing, so the actual mechanical power
stays the same (power is the product of speed times torque). Commercial motor-control
 CONVERTER PRINCIPLE
Principle of a Converter

Converter

Rectifier Inverter

Motor

Mains connection: DC link:

e.g. Capacitors with rectified mains voltage
3 AC, 400V Approx. 1.35 x 400V = 540V

Variable frequency and

voltage
 CONVERTER PRINCIPLE
Pulse Width Modulation - Drives

DC link voltage: Output voltage: Mean output voltage: Output current:

VDC VA VA IA

1. Both transistors are switched on. The Motor

full DC link voltage is applied to 2
phases of the motor. The current VDC M
increases.

2. One of the two transistors is switched

off. The inductance of the motor Motor
causes the current to find a path via
the recovery diode. The current drops
slightly.
VDC M
 CONVERTER PRINCIPLE
Pulse Width Modulation - Output Current

Motor

VDC M

Time shown
in diagram
A sinusoidal mean voltage
value can be produced by
constantly changing the Phase U
pulse width modulation:
t

Phase V

Phase W
= Voltage

= Current t
 V/F OPERATION
Characteristic on Mains and on Inverter

Operation on mains: Operation on inverter

M M

MPullout
1
M Kipp 
n2

1
Mn 
Mn Mn n
Typical
working point

nn n nn n

n (slip) Constant flow Field weakening

range range
Vector Drives
• Vector drives are based on the principle that the
current driving an AC induction motor can be
divided into two components: the current that
produces the magnetic field flux in the stator
and the current that creates the torque that
causes rotation.
• The actual motor current is the vector sum of
these two currents, and if they can be
independently controlled, it is possible to drive
the motor at full torque at any speed, right
down to 0 Hz.
• There are three types of vector drives:
sensorless vector, flux vector, and field-oriented
control drives.
Field-oriented control drive
• Current sensors on the motor leads feed a current resolver, which
identifies the flux-producing and torque-producing currents in the
motor. A position sensor mounted on the shaft provides position and
speed information.
• The drive electronics uses all this information to maintain two
independent control loops: a speed/torque loop for control of the
motor speed and torque, and a flux loop to provide a constant
magnetizing stator current throughout the motor’s speed range.
• By maintaining a constant stator flux, the motor is capable of
providing a constant torque from its base frequency (60 Hz) all the
way down to 0 Hz. The speed/torque loop is able to determine what
the moment-to-moment slip is (some slip is necessary for any
induction motor) and then compensate by adjusting the rotational
speed of the field very precisely within the windings so as to make up
for the slip.
• This process can keep the motor running at exactly its set-point
speed, regardless of the torque demand. The outputs of both the
flux- and the speed/torque-control loops are combined in the vector
rotator to produce a single set of three-phase voltage waveforms.
These waveforms are converted into PWM and fed to the transistors
in the variable-frequency generator.
• The sensorless drive predates the field-oriented control
drive and cannot provide such precise control. As the
name suggests, it does not require a position sensor
but instead makes “guesses” based on current
feedback and what it knows about the motor. This
system is adequate for many applications.

• The flux vector drive does require a position sensor

and maintains better control than the sensorless drive
can (but not as good control as the field-oriented
drive). This system estimates the flux-producing and
torque-producing current vectors in the motor and
uses this information to control the motor. Flux vector
drives can function effectively down to 2-3 Hz
 Vector Representation

Cartesian coordinate system Polar coordinate system (=vector

representation)

V V

I
180° 360° t

180° 360° t
 Vector Control of Induction Motors with Encoder
iR
t
i Values in Cartesian
Design calculation in iw iS
t
coordinate system
polar coordinate system
iT
i Magnetizing current t
= Field current

Speed Current controller

controller Active current
nset Iset, active
Coordinate Power
transformation section Motor Encoder
- nact - Iact, active
P
Field Current controller M E
controller Field current C
Field Iset, field

- Iact, field

Actual value Coordinate

calculation transformation

Motor P
model C

Encoder
evaluation
Speed

Simplified
diagram
 Vector Control of Induction Motors without Encoder
iR
t
i Values in Cartesian
Design calculation in iw iS
t
coordinate system
polar coordinate system
iT
i Magnetizing current t
= Field current

Speed Current controller

controller Active current
nset Iset, active
Coordinate Power
transformation section Motor
- nact - Iact, active
P
Field Current controller M
controller Field current C
Field Iset, field

- Iact,field

Actual value Coordinate

calculation transformation
P
C
Motor
model

Speed

Simplified
diagram
 Block Diagram of Vector Control

Field
requirement Field Compensation with
precontrol feedforward control

' R *
1  R Field controller isp*
+ + v* sp v * s v* s
VT C To inverter
_ _ + * s v*
_
_ isq* v* sq
+
v * s
P
trigger equipment
n* _
Speed controller Current controller
Speed
requirement VT: Vector transformation

isp is i s1
VT 3 i s2
isq - is  is3
2

'R j ' s
e
Actual
1  R values
v s v s1
Magnetic field calculator 3 v s2
vs  v s3
2


n
Field-oriented reference frame Fixed stator reference frame