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Acting Crazy: A training program that strengthens
empathic listening, self-awareness, and creativity for
psychology students
Abigail A. Bradecich
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ii
Acting Crazy: A Training Program that Strengthens
Empathic Listening, Self-Awareness, and Creativity for
Psychology Students
Abigail A. Bradecich
2008
Approved By:
iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my chair, Dr. Grant White, for initially taking me on as a
dissertation student with my ideas of blending acting and psychology. You helped me to
I would also like to thank my reader, Dr. Ted Rubenstein, whose wisdom about
all things acting/improvisation/art, psychology, and the blending of these fields helped
me to structure this dissertation and the training program. Your encouragement and
feedback helped to keep me invested in this project and continually provided direction
moving forward.
I cannot thank Keith Whipple, M.A., enough for leading the pilot course, the
actual research portion, of this dissertation. Thank you for meeting with me to structure
the pilot course as well as to share your knowledge about improvisation, drama therapy,
psychodrama, and teaching. Thank you also to all of the students who participated in the
pilot course. Thanks for taking risks and sharing your experiences.
Diana Castle was the initial inspiration for this dissertation as well as a catalyst
for me to go back to school in the field of mental health. Her acting class, for me, was not
about acting per se, but about truly understanding the human condition and the human
My mother and step-mother were my role models in this process. Both women
modeled going back to graduate school and writing their dissertations while I was
growing up; you are both inspirations. Thank you to my father for always believing in me
iv
and being a supportive presence in my life. And to my sisters and girlfriends, who I love
dearly and feel blessed to have in my life, thank you for checking in on me and
Mike, Sophie, and Sara, nothing I can write here can truly express how much
support and love you have given to me throughout this process. Mike, thank you for
watching the girls weekend after weekend so that I would have time to write, and Sophie,
Sara, and Mike, thank you for taking me away from all of this to focus on what matters
most.
v
Abstract
Abigail A. Bradecich
psychology students in training. Although helping skills training is a common first step in
training programs today, the impact and effectiveness of this training is not fully
understood. Research suggests that novice therapists can learn basic helping skills
relatively quickly (Baker, Daniels, & Greeley, 1990), but also indicates that anxiety can
impact the beginner therapist's self-efficacy which negatively impacts the utilization of
helping skills in counseling related behaviors and clinical situations (Larson & Daniels,
technique taken from the dramatic tradition. Throughout history, drama has been utilized
theatre, educators can pass on and construct meaning through multiple intelligences
vi
attempt to decrease anxiety, increase self-efficacy and, as development continues,
Eight subjects participated in a two-hour pilot class for this program development
Overall feedback on the pilot program was positive. Written feedback suggested the
increase self-awareness and self-discovery, and a potential for more student interaction.
All participants responded yes to believing creative arts should be a part of psychology
training.
psychology. These suggestions were incorporated in the final creation of this training
program. The proposed program utilizes improvisation and playback theatre in the
training of psychology students. It is hoped that this program will be enacted and
vii
Table of Contents
Copyright ii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract vi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
Introduction 1
Relationship Competency 11
Research on Trainees 24
Empathy 25
Listening/Empathic Listening 30
Self-Awareness 31
Creativity 33
Role-Play 36
Psychodrama 47
viii
Drama Therapy 55
Drama in Education 63
Theoretical Framework 74
CHAPTER 4: METHODS 76
Goal 76
Target Population 77
Identify Stakeholders 78
Content of Program 79
Select Measures 81
Personnel 83
Funding Sources 85
Budget 85
The Class 87
The Feedback/Results 94
Discussion 105
REFERENCES 109
x
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Research on the training of basic skills necessary for psychotherapy has declined
dramatically since the late 1960s and early 1970s (Baker, Daniels, & Greeley, 1990;
Carkhuff, 1966; Hill & Lent, 2006; Ivey, Normington, Miller, Morrill, & Haase, 1968).
Basic helping skills training programs were developed at that time to teach distinct
helping skills such as empathy (i.e., reflection of feelings), listening, warmth, open
questions, and interpretations. These skills were typically taught in training programs
prior to individualized supervision or practicum training, thus these skills were also
termed pre-practicum training (Baker et al.; Carkhuff; Hill & Lent; Ivey et al).
Although helping skills training is a common first step in training programs today,
the impact and effectiveness of this training is not fully understood. Research suggests
that novice therapists can learn basic helping skills relatively quickly (Baker et al., 1990),
but also indicates that anxiety can impact the beginner therapist's self-efficacy which
negatively impacts the utilization of helping skills in counseling related behaviors and
clinical situations (Lent, Hill, & Hoffman, 2003). Specific training devoted to these
helping skills would lessen anxiety and strengthen self-efficacy in the novice therapist.
This dissertation will create a training program for novice therapists focusing on
strengthening basic helping skills such as empathic listening, and higher order counseling
skills (Nutt-Williams, Judge, Hill, & Hoffman, 1997), such as self-awareness and
1
therapeutic situation. To strengthen helping skills, this program will utilize acting and
improvisation techniques.
How can an acting class lessen anxiety and deepen understanding? A brief look at
drama and acting will elucidate its therapeutic benefits as well as its ability toward skill
training. In ancient Greece, theatre was central to the society. In his work, The Poetics,
Aristotle established rules in theatre and playwriting, and developed the idea of catharsis,
an emotional release on the part of the spectator (Worthen, 1996). Aristotle presented the
role of the theatre as one of healing (Siroka, 1978). In modern theatre, this emotional
release has migrated from within just the audience, to an emotional shift in the actor as
well. Inspired by Stanislavski and his work, many American acting teachers began
training actors in "The Method" or Meisner techniques in the early to mid 1900s
(Worthen). The actors focused on imagining themselves as the character and bringing in
the actor, or in the case of this dissertation, the psychology student, to experience being
another person, to identify the parts of herself that resonate with the character, and to
practice "performing" in front of others in the class, thus lessening the anxiety and
deepening understanding.
The healing benefits of theatre and drama have existed throughout history, and
specific approaches have blended drama and therapy, utilizing the benefits of both
modalities. The fields of psychodrama and drama therapy identify the therapeutic
benefits of drama in working with clients. Psychodrama takes the metaphor of theatre to
the personal by acting and reenacting the lives of group members in order to facilitate a
2
catharsis within each client, the idea being that truth is displayed through action and
spontaneity, rather than talk therapy (Blatner, 1999; Moreno, 1946). While psychodrama
was founded by a psychiatrist, Jacob Levy Moreno, drama therapy developed from the
art form of drama and is rooted in various disciplines (Emunah, 1994). One of many
But how do the benefits of drama impact the psychology student in training?
Through experiential learning of dramatic action, the psychology student will experience
the catharsis experienced in theatre, as well as the psychological growth and change the
client may experience in psychodrama and drama therapy. In learning improvisation and
other techniques, the psychology student in training will be placed in situations which
student explores the role of the character, thereby understanding more about the self.
Further, the student's creativity will increase as a result of strengthening these skills as
The benefits described above, particularly related to self awareness, are abilities
usually only obtained via individual therapy. However, individual therapy is not a
mandatory component of doctoral training, and avenues for self-understanding and self-
reflection are missing from the training of doctoral students. An acting training program
focusing on these skills could be another opportunity for the student to gain insight into
the self.
3
The field of drama therapy clarifies the need to train therapists through the use of
dramatic enactment. Emunah (1989) indicated that the use of drama in training can help
people practice or prepare for real-life situations. She indicated that the world of make-
believe is a safe place in which a therapist in training can deal with anxieties and develop
confidence.
curriculum. Role-play, a skill used in teaching that is borrowed from the dramatic
play has been accepted as a standard component of therapist education programs (Baker
et al. 1990; Shurts, Cashwell, Spurgeon, Degges-White, Barrio, & Kardatzke, 2006).
al). However, other research noted that performance anxiety and the fear of judgment
can negatively impact the benefits of in-class role-plays (Styles, 1999). Further, the
research given the nature of social interaction and the complexities of behavior are often
difficulties assessing the value of role-play remain, the benefits of learning about the self,
others, and various roles outweigh inconclusive or lacking research in this area.
An acting program geared toward psychology students has the potential to lessen
anxiety in future training role-plays, future practicum experiences, and future practice. It
also creates the possibility of increasing the student's confidence and self-efficacy. Long
4
term potentials include increasing here-and-now engagement and active listening skills
as well as deepening the therapist's ability to understand, empathize with, and portray
clients (Emunah, 1989). Most likely, performance anxiety will slowly dissipate in an
strengthen the skills discussed above: empathic listening, self-awareness, and creativity.
The program will take place weekly throughout one semester. Each class will be three
hours long. These sessions will incorporate experiential learning through improvisation
5
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
stimulate discussion, as well as encourage change in the curriculum of training for the
Smith, & Thompson, 2003; Hill & Kellems, 2002; Roberts, Borden, Christiansen, &
(Aronson, Akamatsu, & Page, 1982; Hill & Lent, 2006; Norcross & Stevenson, 1984).
The field of psychology was and is still today, fragmented with a separatist nature
(Henriques & Sternberg, 2004). The degrees of doctor of philosophy (PhD) and doctor of
psychology (PsyD) are in constant debate and competition about best practices, or more
specifically, the preferable degree for practicing psychology (Craighead & Craighead,
2006; Maher, 1999; Peterson, Peterson, Abrams, & Strieker, 1997, Norcross & Castle,
2002). The varying ideas about practice, research, education, concepts, orientation, and
terminology promote confusion within the field (Henriques & Sternberg). The
delineations between clinical, counseling, and school psychology are unclear and create
the field create additional confusions. Further, the differences between the field of
6
psychology and other helping professions (i.e., psychiatry, clinical social work, or general
counseling) are blurred (Lindskoog, as cited in Henriques & Sternberg). This diversity of
thought and conceptualization within the field of psychology has led to various training
models.
With respect to training, PhD and PsyD training programs are usually divided
between the Boulder Model (also called scientist-practitioner model) and the Vail Model
(or practitioner-scholar model), respectively (Norcross & Castle, 2002). The Boulder
Model was established in 1949, and is linked to the PhD degree (Norcross & Castle). It
focused more on research in psychological education. The Vail Model was established in
1973 and was linked to the PsyD degree (Norcross & Castle). It was born out of the need
for a professional focus in psychology and was equated with professional degrees in the
fields of medicine, dentistry, and law (Norcross & Castle). Norcross and Castle
suggested, "Boulder programs aspire to train producers of research; Vail programs train
the different degrees have blurred the distinction between standards for practice and
standards for research (Craighead & Craighead, 2006; Norcross & Castle). Instead,
(2006) suggested a distinction between the degrees, the PhD reserved solely for research,
7
the PsyD solely for practice while incorporating research findings. Donald R. Peterson,
"one of the most prominent and vocal leaders in the professional psychology movement"
(Henriques & Sternberg, p. 1056) suggested that "science begins and ends in a body of
systematic knowledge... professional activity begins and ends in the condition of the
The best thing scientists in psychology can do to improve practice is not to deride
their professional colleagues for going beyond tested knowledge but to extend the
base of disciplined knowledge and improve the procedures that professionals need
to meet the demands of public service. (Peterson, p. 56)
PsyD program, the history of training will focus on the creation and continuation of the
Founded in 1976, the NCSPP "has devoted itself to the deliberate, systematic, reflective
means of a series of annual conferences" (Peterson, Peterson, Abrams, & Strieker, 2006,
The NCSPP evolved out of the need to prepare psychologists for professional
work and the desire to expand training to professional schools rather than only university
settings (Peterson et al., 1997). Before the establishment of the NCSPP, the Vail
conference of 1973 instituted the intellectual agenda and institutional sanction for
training in professional schools (Peterson et al., 2006). This conference discussed the
8
need for professional schools. The doctor of psychology (PsyD) degree had also attained
credibility around this time which further allowed for the development of the professional
school (Peterson et al., 1997). It initiated the models of training and development for
students in professional psychology and sparked the creation of the NCSPP (Peterson et
Professional Psychology Training" occurred in 1981 and resulted in the initial NCSPP
volume of standards (Callan, 1986 as cited in Peterson et al., 1997). Initial discussions
The NCSPP's Mission Bay conference in 1986 was the next significant
al., 1997). At this conference, six core training competencies were established as follows:
education, and management and supervision (Bent). This conference marked a shift from
"For those who think in terms of learning theory, the competencies suggest a much
In 1992, and in line with the American Psychological Association's (APA) focus
on evaluation, the NCSPP turned its attention to evaluation of students (Peterson et al.,
1997). In 1993, Peterson et al. (1997) noted that the title of the organization changed to
9
incorporate programs, although the acronym remained NCSPP. After the 1993
conference, the APA asked two representatives from NCSPP to sit on its Committee on
In 1994, the NCSPP reflected upon their educational model in attempt to integrate
work that was occurring in the field (Peterson et al., 1997). Related specifically to
based core curriculum in which practical and scientific knowledge, skills, and attitudes
Psychology" (Bieschke, Fouad, Collins, & Halonen, 2004; Kaslow et al., 2004;
Krishnamurthy et al., 2004; Spruill et al., 2004). The mission of this conference was
"toward gaining greater agreement about domains and levels of competence by bringing
research, credentialing, and regulatory constituency groups" (Kaslow et al., p. 701). The
In the past year, the NCSPP completed a review and revision of the, now, seven
Core Competencies (Dobbins, 2007). These competencies are: "(1) Relationship, (2)
competencies are now placed within Developmental Achievement Levels (DALs), which
10
"describe the knowledge, skills, and attitudes within each competency across three stages
Each of the competencies is further broken down into specific domains. Each domain is
assessed in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes across the three levels of training.
The Developmental Achievement Levels (DALs) model was approved by the NCSPP
membership on August 15, 2007 as the NCSPP education and training model in
Relationship Competency
education approach that successfully responds to the societal needs and shifts in
education priorities" (Dobbins, 2007, p. 3). It should be noted that the competencies
established by the NCSPP are consistent with the APA's Committee on Accreditation
requirement that programs have a philosophy about education and training that is fitting
to the practice of psychology (Kaslow et al., 2004; Peterson et al., 1997; Peterson et al.,
2006).
For the interest of this dissertation, the relationship competency will be the focus
of further training discussion. While the skills discussed in this dissertation overlap into
each of the competencies, the competency specified is most relevant. According to the
(P- 11).
The current NCSPP education and training model divides the relationship
competency into six domains as follows: professional demeanor, self, other, interpersonal
connection, cultural adaptability, and ethics (Dobbins, 2007). Most relevant to the skills
of this dissertation are the domains of self, other, and interpersonal connection. The "self'
communication, and negotiation (Dobbins). These domains require that students are
taught and must learn skills such as empathic listening and self-awareness; skills gained
from the training program in this dissertation. The relationship competency does not
attitude. The need for creativity within the field of psychology and, specifically, within
Peterson et al. (2006) indicated the need for training of interpersonal skills is also
interpersonal skills included "training in empathy, respect for others, and personal
12
relatedness—experiential learning with self-reflection and direct observation of behavior
and feedback by peers and experts" (Peterson et al, 1997, p. 380). These skills are
"A certain degree of relational competency must exist prior to entering a graduate
program. Thus, this competency calls for an admissions level baseline competency in
openness to others, and lack of obvious psychopathology" (Dobbins, 2007, p. 9). This
falls in line with the notion that empathy and communication skills are either innate or
difficult to teach (Spruill et al., 2004). This topic will be discussed further in the empathy
and trainee sections of this dissertation. However, this notion within the NCSPP model
for education and training in professional psychology that students must come in with
baseline relational skills may be related to the fact that there is a lack of research focusing
relationships, the integration of science and research into practice, the commitment to
continuous life-long learning, and the need to train students to be self-aware (Kaslow et
al., 2004). Spruill et al. (2004) indicated that training for relationship and communication
skills should include experiential techniques such as empathy training through role play
and self exploration activities along with didactic training. They indicated that individual
13
As mentioned above, training on specific helping skills such as empathy,
listening, and self-awareness are likely under the umbrella of the relationship
competency. However, training for these skills was not found in the professional
addressed these skills using the terms helping skills or pre-practicum skills (Hill & Lent,
2006). First, we will look at Carl Rogers' and client-centered therapy as a basis for
understanding helping skills and relationship training. It is the belief of this writer that
Rogers' techniques and theories are utilized in many helping professions as well as
Client-centered therapy focuses on the helping relationship between the client and
therapist. One of the parties in the relationship is focused on "promoting the growth,
development, maturity, improved functioning, improved coping with life of the other"
(Rogers, 1961, p. 40). It is assumed that the person intent on helping is the therapist. The
three main aspects within this relationship that the therapist needs to emphasize are
empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness (Rogers, 1961). In 1942, Rogers
In 1959, Rogers' defined empathy "to perceive the internal frame of reference of
another with accuracy, and with the emotional components and meanings which pertain
14
thereto, as if one were the other person, but without ever losing the "as if' condition"
(Hackney, 1978, p. 210). However, definitions of empathy have changed and developed
over time and Rogers' own definition is no exception. Rogers' later described empathy
as a process rather than a concept and as "entering the private perceptual world of the
other and becoming thoroughly at home in it" (Rogers, 1995, p. 142). Empathy as a
positive attitudes of warmth, caring, liking, interest, and respect toward the client
(Rogers, 1961). Genuineness within the relationship between therapist and client
manifests by the therapist's words or actions matching his or her own internal feelings
(Rogers).
"Although Rogers (1942) first considered the facilitative conditions as skills (e.g.
restatements, reflections of feelings) that could be taught, he later came to the conclusion
that they were attitudes that could not be taught (1957)" (Hill & Lent, 2006, p. 155). In
1951, Rogers indicated significant trends in the training of therapists as follows: a trend
away from technique toward relationship, a trend of utilizing one's attitudes to develop
individual techniques, a trend toward the student's experience of therapy within the self,
and a trend toward the practice of therapy within training (Rogers, 1951).
Students are encouraged to take the role of someone whom they know well, and
talk out some of the problems of this person, with another student acting as
counselor. As described, this device may seem artificial, but it develops a
surprising amount of reality and at times can become just as real for the counselor
as actual therapy. (Rogers, 1951, p. 469)
He encouraged students to counsel one another's minor problems to further enact the
therapist.
The general principle which seems to apply here is that if the climate of the
teaching situation, and the relationship between the teacher and the beginning
counselor, are the same as the climate and the relationship which exist in therapy,
then the young therapist will begin to acquire a knowledge in his viscera of what
the therapeutic experience is. (Rogers, 1957, p. 81, as cited in Truax, Carkhuff, &
Douds, 1964, p. 241)
Rogers developed a training curriculum for graduate education similar to the premise of
client-centered therapy (Rogers, 1969). He indicated the major focus of the program
could take place (Rogers, p. 190). He believed that students should be selected for
graduate programs based on their intelligence, their empathic ability, and their degree of
with cognitive learning as he had suggested throughout his career related to ideas of
teaching and learning (Rogers, 1995). "Rogers was the first person to move the training
of counselors out of the realm of the mysterious to the realm of the observable and
al., 1990, p. 357). Rogers' theories led to further research on helping skills training,
listening, warmth, open questions, and interpretations (CarkhufF, 1966; Hill & Lent,
2006; Ivey et al., 1968). These skills were typically taught in training programs prior to
individualized supervision or practicum training, thus these skills were also termed pre-
practicum training (Carkhuff; Hill & Lent; Ivey et al ). Although helping skills training is
a common first step in training programs today, the impact and effectiveness of this
training is not fully understood Research on helping skills training declined dramatically
after the late 1960s and early 1970s (Carkhuff; Hill & Lent; Ivey et al ). Research
suggested that novice therapists can learn basic helping skills relatively quickly, but
noted an assumption of training effectiveness has decelerated research in this area (Baker
et al, 1990). Research also indicated that anxiety can impact the beginner therapist's self-
efficacy which negatively impacts the utilization of helping skills in counseling related
behaviors and clinical situations (Lent, Hill, & Hoffman, 2003). Helping skills training
models that received the most empirical attention will be discussed below.
Each of the training models discussed was based in Carl Rogers' theories of
client-centered therapy (Hill & Lent, 2006). In 1964, Truax et al. indicated therapists
needed didactic training to shape behavior and experiential training to promote growth
and development. By 1972, Carkhuff developed the Human Relations Training model
(HRT), also called Integrated Didactic Experiential Training (IDET) (Hill & Lent, 2006)
or the Human Resource Development Model (HRD) (Baker et al, 1990). This model was
closely tied with Rogers' theories in that "Training and therapy share a common goal in
17
this system by providing the facilitative conditions necessary to enable the trainee or
client to grow toward greater self-actualization" (Baker et al, p. 359). It was also the most
influential and widely used of the training models in counselor education programs
(Baker et al ).
The three major stages therapists progress through with a client were: self-
exploration, understanding, and action (Hill & Lent, 2006). These stages were facilitated
and through the use of problem-solving or behavioral techniques (Hill & Lent). Empathy,
genuineness, and respect were considered the core conditions (Toukmanian & Rennie,
1975). There are two phases in HRT. The first is discrimination training where the
program (Baker et al., 1990; Hill & Lent, 2006; Ivey et al., 1968). Derived from social-
learning theory, "MC introduced the idea of identifying clearly delineated discrete
teaching them systematically, one at a time, and then integrating them" (Baker et al., p.
358). MC focused on similar skills used in HRT, but did not utilize a stage model as did
HRT (Hill & Lent). MC focused on the hierarchy of attending behavior, minimal activity
18
MC involves teaching helping skills through (a) having trainees perform a
baseline interview; (b) providing instruction and modeling on a specific skill; (c)
having the trainee practice; and (d) providing feedback on how well the skill was
implemented. (Hill & Lent, p. 156)
step and worked through a video medium in the training of counselors (Toukmanian &
Rennie).
Recall (IPR) based on the discovery model of learning (Baker et al., 1990; Hill & Lent,
The IPR system is based on the theory that counselors, even beginning
counselors, perceive and understand much more of their communication with the
client than one would suspect, and that beginning counselors do not attend to
portions of interviews because of performance anxiety and a preoccupation with
impression management. (Baker et al., p. 360)
interview, and then were asked questions by an "inquirer" about their thoughts and
feelings during the interview (Baker et al.; Hill & Lent). They were asked about what
thoughts and feelings may have interfered with the process of the interview (Hill & Lent).
The trainees then processed the questions asked by the inquirer with their interviewee
about own behaviors, thoughts, and the importance of the therapeutic relationship (Baker
et al.).
(Baker et al., 1990; Hill & Lent, 2006). Some studies suggested that previous research on
HRT had methodological problems, while others found HRT to be effective (Baker et al.;
Hill & Lent). Other studies indicated that MC could be taught effectively, especially
Meta-analytic studies found that trainees benefited more from HRT than MC or
IPR, and more from MC than IPR (Baker et al., 1990; Hill & Lent, 2006). However, the
research indicated differences in hours needed in each training model, HRT the longest
amount of time and MC the least amount of time. The hours spent in training was related
for all three models, but indicated further research and development would be needed.
Another major finding from this research suggested the importance of the trainer.
Both HRT and MC relied on the ability of the trainer in providing modeling and didactic
training, whereas EPR depended upon an "inquirer" to aid the trainee in their own
findings (Hill & Lent, 2006). This suggested that IPR might be more beneficial after
basic helping skills training occurred (Hill & Lent). In their meta-analytic study of the
literature, Hill and Lent, found support for HRT and MC as valid helping skills training
programs.
Hill and Kellems (2002) developed a Helping Skills Measure (HSM) to assess
beginning helpers in sessions. They found that HSM was valid and could be used to
evaluate client perception of counselor's helping skills (Hill & Kellems). The training
programs assessed in their research integrated aspects of HRT, MC, and IPR (Hill &
20
Exploration (involves attending skills, open questions, restatements, and
reflections of feelings), insight (involves challenges, interpretations, self-
disclosures of insight, and immediacy), and action (involves information and
direct guidance). (Hill & Lent, p. 158)
The researchers found increases over the course of training in the use of helping skills,
In looking at the specific methods within these programs, Hill and Lent (2006)
of anxiety as effective. In their own meta-analytic study, Hill and Lent confirmed the
results found in narrative studies. They concluded that instruction, modeling, and
feedback were effective in teaching exploration skills (Hill & Lent). They also found that
the modeling method outperformed instruction and feedback (Hill & Lent).
Hill and Lent (2006) noted that much of the research is based on MC, which, as
mentioned earlier, was influenced by Bandura's social-learning theory, thus the research
They indicated a need to understand these processes and skills in a flexible, client-
supplement behavioral skills training (Morran, Kuprius, Brack, & Brack, 1995). Empathy
and other skill definitions were also noted as vague terms (Hill & Lent). These
21
Larson (1998) described a social cognitive model of counselor training using a
drama metaphor. The counselor portrayed the major character, and the client and the
supervisor played supporting roles. A triadic, reciprocal causation process was explored
Other research on early counselor training has called for a shift in focus to
problem-solving strategies rather than listening skills (Lopez, 1985). The researcher
premature intervention was due to lack of instruction in verbal skills and structuring
methods (Lopez).
capabilities to effectively counsel a client in the near future" (Larson et al. (1992) as cited
in Larson, 1998, p. 221). Larson indicated that self-efficacy is a term within Bandura's
social-learning theory, but is usually studied on its own. Leach and Stoltenberg (1997)
indicated that trainees experience anxiety and low self-efficacy related to evaluation
counseling, even though they receive basic knowledge and skills. Self-efficacy related to
a trainee's perception of his or her skill set rather than the actual skill set (Bandura, 1986,
as cited in Larson).
Larson and Daniels (1998) noted that counselor self-efficacy correlates positively with
22
satisfaction, and negatively with anxiety in relation to the counseling role. In beginning
trainee's, Hill and Lent (2006) noted that self-efficacy can decline when trainees realize
that helping skills utilized in friendships may differ from the skill set needed in therapy.
therapeutic skills, Nutt-Williams et al. (1997) found that although trainees displayed
evidence of growth during a training semester, they continued to struggle with feelings of
anxiety, frustration, inadequacy, and distraction. Another study found that self-efficacy
increased over time in a counseling program and in practice (Melchert, Hays, Wiljanen,
Orlinsky and Howard and stated that, "in two thirds of the research results, client
'unsureness' was never positively related to outcome" (p. 640). Levitt (2001) found that a
training program focusing on listening skills over other microskills used in teaching
performance in other areas. Larson and Daniels (1998) further indicated that role-play,
modeling and their impact upon trainee self-efficacy (Larson et al., 1999). They found
that both techniques impacted self-efficacy in the counselor in training. Role-play was
more volatile, increasing self-efficacy significantly in trainee's who felt they performed
well, but for trainee's who believed they performed less well, self-efficacy dropped
23
significantly (Larson et al ). Videotape modeling was less potent as far as the impact on
They suggested that utilization of videotape modeling can increase the chance of
follows: to perform basic helping skills, to manage session tasks, and to negotiate
challenging situations and presenting issues (Lent et al ). They found the measure to be
reliable and that self-efficacy increased with amount of experience. They further found
that self-efficacy can be divided into two concepts, task self-efficacy and coping self-
efficacy. Both task and coping are necessary for development, and it appeared that
coping self-efficacy builds upon the more basic task self-efficacy (Lent et al.).
Research on Trainees
In their analysis and review of the literature, Hill and Lent (2006) noted that
students entering training programs may have more ability towards support and guidance.
They further asserted that people with natural helping abilities will be easier to train. In
contrast, they indicated that training may not impact persons with a greater skill level as
much as persons with a lower skill level. This idea is similar to a finding by Baker et al.
(1990) in that undergraduates displayed greater improvement with helping skills training
than graduate students, although undergraduates lost these skills more quickly than did
Factors include type or value of school, trainer, and previous experience (Hill & Lent,
2006). Another issue to consider is the quality of the student being accepted into graduate
programs. Research indicated that character and fitness are of great importance to
directors in evaluating applicants (Johnson & Campbell, 2004). However, the assessment
The next sections will be devoted to the specific skills this training program will
Empathy
Empathy was translated into English from the term einfuhlung (in-feeling) in the
last century (Escalas & Stern, 2003). Before that, the term empathy was enmeshed with
the idea of sympathy and the term mitgefuhlung (with-feeling). The difference between
these words lies in the ability to remain emotionally conscious. To experience sympathy
one may be aware of the feelings of another but is not absorbed in the feelings
themselves, while, when experiencing empathy, one may forget their own personal
The earliest therapeutic use of the term empathy was by Carl Rogers in client-
centered therapy, although other researchers may have described the phenomenon before
Rogers labeled it (Hackney, 1978). Rogers introduced empathy as "one of the six
necessary and sufficient conditions for positive personality change to occur" (Rogers,
1957, as cited in Hackney, p. 36). Over the years, the definition of empathy has changed.
As mentioned in the section about Carl Rogers, his description of empathy changed from
his first discussion in 1957 to a later depiction of deep empathy in 1980 (Glanzer, 2006;
Hackney).
The term empathy has several definitions, some of which have been noted
previously. Rogers (1957) defined empathy "to perceive the internal frame of reference
of another with accuracy, and with the emotional components and meanings which
pertain thereto, as if one were the other person, but without ever losing the "as if'
condition" (p. 210, as cited in Hackney, 1978). Other leading researchers in the field of
empathy defined it as, "an affective response more appropriate to someone else's
situation than to one's own," (Hoffman, 1987, p. 48), "an affective response that stems
that is similar to what the other person is feeling or would be expected to feel"
(Eisenberg, 2002, p. 135), and "the capacity to think and feel oneself into the inner life of
another person" (Kohut, 1984, p. 82). Some researchers suggested empathy could be
broken down into separate entities of emotional empathy and cognitive empathy (Davis,
Hull, Young, & Warren, 1987). Smith (2006, p. 3) defined cognitive empathy as "mental
emotion."
26
But how does one learn to use empathy in life, and, for mental health workers, in
therapy? Patterson (2002) indicated that the capacity for empathy has some biological
component. By age two, infants are able to identify themselves as separate individuals.
Once this separation is established, the infant can feel empathy for others (Eisenberg,
1995). Hoffman (1979) suggested that there is a developmental schedule for the
development of empathy in children; from the two-year-old toddler who can understand
adolescent who can begin to think abstractly enough to empathize with a group of
individuals.
ability to empathize (Hoffman, 1987). This experience is usually related to the parent-
child relationship. The parent either engenders empathy in the child by discussing
feelings and displaying their own empathy for others, or negates the development of
(Eisenberg, 1995).
There is debate surrounding the notion of teaching empathy. Some believe that
empathy and listening are innate skills that cannot be taught (Spruill et al., 2004).
However, each of the helping skills training programs discussed earlier described
methods attempting to increase empathic ability in the beginning trainee. Methods such
27
empathic ability in HRT, MC, and IRP (Baker et al., 1990; Hill & Lent, 2006; Ivey et al.,
Further, he observed that the definition of empathy has changed from Rogers' subjective
description of a condition and process to a more definable and measurable condition that
can be studied (Hackney). As often occurs in research, empathy needed to become more
measurable, thus the focus switched to the communication of empathy rather than the
condition. Educators understood that communication skills' training was easier than
empathy skills training (Hackney). Hackney urged trainers to remind themselves not to
confuse the terms of communication and empathy. "These are (we hope) the
manifestations of empathy and we can't be altogether sure that they are that" (Hackney,
p. 37). Hackney recommended trainees work to allow for empathy rather than train for it.
Of note related to this dissertation is the use of drama in other helping professions
empathy training. The education and medical fields have studied how to teach empathy to
children and medical students, respectively. Crosser (2002) indicated specific methods to
educate children about empathy. These methods were as follows: model caring behaviors,
name emotions, interpret emotions, role play helpful behaviors, be supportive, and teach
conflict resolution. Current research in child and medical education expanded on the idea
28
of role-playing behavior by using acting and theatre to teach children and medical
In educational research, Verducci (2000) examined acting and the use of "The
Method", a technique actors utilize in order to understand and play characters. Founded
by Stanislavski, the actor's job using the Method "is not to present merely the external
life of his character. He must fit his own human qualities to the life of this other person,
and pour into it all of his own soul. The fundamental aim of our art is the creation of this
inner life of a human spirit, and its expression in an artistic form" (Stanislavski, 1936, p.
14). Verducci indicated that the Method breaks down the process of empathy into
identifiable steps; therefore, these techniques may be valuable to educators. Further, she
discussed the following Method steps as techniques to use in teaching empathy , cognitive
understanding through textual and contextual analysis, attention and attunement to the
psychology, medical education research indicated that empathy improves the doctor-
patient relationship (Deloney & Graham, 2003). Deloney and Graham found after
watching and discussing a performance of "Wit", a play about a woman dying of cancer,
medical students' attitudes changed and empathy improved. Shapiro and Hunt (2003)
also discussed the use of theatrical performance to increase understanding and empathy
for medical patients. They discussed the current use of role-play to promote empathy in
medical education, and indicate that dramatic performances can be an adjunct method in
teaching empathy to students. Larson and Yao (2005) suggested that techniques such as
"deep acting" and "surface acting" can be taught to medical students to promote empathy
with their patients. Deep acting methods used "imagination and emotional memories to
generate genuine feelings of empathy for the patient," and, in the surface acting method,
the "doctor forges emotional expressions inconsistent with internal feelings" (Larson &
Listening/Empathic Listening
In some cases, the construct is labeled empathic listening (Irwin, 1986; Myers, 2000).
Murphy and Dillon (2003) asserted that clinical listening refers to focused attention and
vigilance to everything that is going on in the session and in the relationship, both
verbally and non-verbally. They further indicated that what we are able to listen to and
other skills in helping training was found to increase self-efficacy (Levitt, 2001). Toller
(1999) described listening as the heart of the counseling approach. Spruill et al. (2004)
listen attentively, both to what is being said and what is not being said, sometimes
Spruill et al. (2004) noted that listening skills can be learned from textbooks
Although it is important to note that empathy and listening are distinct concepts,
for the purposes of this project, these constructs will be linked as empathic listening. As
mentioned above, empathy is a condition or process that must be allowed for, while
listening is a communication skill that is more easily measured. However, within the
boundaries of an improvisation or drama class, these concepts are more fluid. Training of
these skills will be representative of how they are enacted in a therapeutic relationship
rather than as the objective measures that are needed for research situations.
Self-Awareness
being a skilled therapist (Corey, Corey, & Callahan, 1998; Jennings & Skovholt, 1999).
"Self-awareness is the consciousness a person has of specific events that influence his or
Sommers-Flanagan, 1993, as cited in Brown, Parham, & Yonker, 1996). They farther
stated that self-awareness includes identity as influenced by the perception of self and
Hill and Lent (2006) noted that self-awareness of one's own intentions and
motivations may be necessary for trainees in order to employ helping skills. They
indicated that self-awareness facilitation techniques might best be utilized before training
31
in helping skills (Hill & Lent). However, it is likely that self-awareness needs to be an
helping the trainee understand useful self-information in relation to their clients (Nutt-
Williams et al., 1997). They found that self-awareness could help a trainee manage his or
her own reactions. However, while early research indicated that negative self-talk within
a therapeutic situation led trainees to believe themselves to be less helpful, and linked
self-awareness to increased anxiety (Nutt-Williams & Hill, 1996, as cited in Hale &
therapeutic situation was helpful to trainees rather than hindering (Fauth & Nutt-
Williams, 2005).
Self awareness was a component of the relationship competency as part of the six
was the "belief in the value of self-awareness" (Peterson et al., p. 380). Self-awareness
was also an important component in the training of psychotherapists at the NCSPP's Core
and evaluating their potential impact on clients and the processes of psychological work)"
(Krishnamurthy et al., p. 737). Self-awareness was also highly valued within the
32
relationship competency of the most recent NCSPP model for education and training for
Irwin (1996) indicated that self-awareness could be facilitated through one's own
personal therapy. Spruill et al. (2004) indicated that self-awareness could be garnered
through work with one's supervisor as personal issues arise in therapy. In his article,
"Know Thyself," Hulnick (1977), utilizing the Socratic term, indicated self-awareness
forgiving ourselves. He stated, "We need to be able to skillfully guide our clients and
students down into the hell of their own pain, distortion, and illusion; we need to work
with them until they are literally and symbolically born anew" (Hulnick, p. 69).
Creativity
One of the training methods cited by the Scientific Foundations and Research
Competencies work group of the NCSPP's 2002 Core Competencies conference was,
"teaching science as a creative enterprise" (Bieschke et al., 2004, p. 720). Although much
of the research and literature in psychology relates to science, there is recognition that
creativity exists within a therapeutic relationship. Irwin (1986) noted that creativity is
central to therapy, as "therapy is, after all, a healing process involving renewal and re-
creation" (p. 194). In the 2005 NCSPP conference which centered on improving
teaching, one of the main aspects was to learn how teachers of psychology incorporated
creativity into their classrooms (Dittman, 2005). However, as creativity is not objective
33
and measurable, research in this area is limited and disparaged for not being 'scientific'
enough.
Rogers defined the creative process as, "the emergence in action of a novel
relational product, growing out of the uniqueness of the individual on the one hand, and
the materials, events, people, or circumstances of his life on the other" (Rogers, 1961, p.
Rogers tied the creative potentials of the individual to the client, the therapist, and the
relationship itself.
discussed creativity as "the ability to bring something new into existence" (Rothenberg &
Hausman, 1976, p. 190). His research suggested that creative personalities were
something new into being" (May, 1975, p. 39). He further identified a process of
creativity starting with an encounter between a person and the world, the engagement of
the person in this encounter, and finally the absorption, in which the person is wholly
involved with this engagement (May). He discussed creativity as subjective and therefore
34
difficult to study. As it is difficult to define objectively and measure, it is generally
produce art, science, and other aspects of culture to compensate for their own
1975).
psychology compared to the preferred notions of objectivity and facts (May). He further
be more open to experience, more flexible, less rigid, more tolerant to ambiguity, and
more sensitive to problems than less creative persons (MacKinnon, 1960; Taylor, 1964;
35
as cited in Cicirelli & Cicirelli, 1970). Cicirelli and Cicirelli quote Torrance (1964, p.
165) in his parallel between the ideal therapeutic relationship and the creative
relationship,
.. .to achieve the relationship... one must enter imaginatively into the thinking and
feeling experiences of another. Only by doing this can one participate completely
in another's communicating, keep his comments in line with what the other is
trying to say, understand his feelings, follow his line of thought, and share his
feelings. (Cicirelli & Cicirelli, p. 178)
Role-Play
psychological literature, it will be discussed as a technique within this field, and later
discussed in relation to theatre and drama. A brief look at role-theory will inform the
origins of role-play.
In his work, The Study of Man, Ralph Linton presented the idea of role as the
Every individual has a series of roles deriving from the various patterns in
which he participates and at the same time a role, general, which
represents the sum total of these roles and determines what he does for his
society and what he can expect from it. (Linton, p. 114)
Comparing the presentation of self with the presentation of an actor, he linked the human
person to his appearance to others, and to himself via others (Goffman; Wilshire, 1982).
He described interactions between people, where one makes any attempt to influence the
36
other, as performance. He assumed that an individual has many motives for trying to
control the impression they receive and give in any situation (Goffman).
thoughts, and behaviors tend to be role specific, and that the self emerges from the roles
we play from infancy through adulthood (Dayton, p. 149). Landy indicated several
The first is that human beings are role-takers and role-players by nature... human
behavior is highly complex and contradictory and any one thought or action in the
world can be best understood in its counterpart., .(and) personality can be
conceived as an interactive system of roles (Landy, p. 31).
Role playing involves playing out the many roles within oneself (Emunah, 1994).
However, other research has noted that performance anxiety and the fear of judgment can
negatively impact the benefits of in-class role-plays (Larson et al, 1999; Styles, 2000).
Further, the validity of role-play has been difficult to assess in research given the
37
complexities of human behavior and the difficulty of re-creating these behaviors in a
simulations of family scenarios (Shurts et al., 2006, Styles, 2000). Students report that
role-play often feels artificial within a classroom setting, but are often too intimidated to
train with actual families (Rich & Sampson, 1990). Larson et al. (1999) suggested that
modeling be used first as a technique with novice trainees, and then introduce role-play
with students preparing for practicum situations. Shurts et al. concluded in their research
that reflecting teams can help facilitate the understanding of in-class role-plays.
psychology programs the client role is often portrayed in a superficial manner. She
indicated that therapists may benefit in their future training if they are equipped with
acting skills. She noted that role-plays could be more involved and take on a different
dimension (Emunah). The aim is to create full-fledged characters, people with inner lives
38
and to use theater skills to understand, empathize with, and portray clients (Emunah, p.
32).
As training in psychology has been discussed, I will now move to the benefits of
drama and elucidate how drama will aid in the training of psychologists.
Drama is derived from the Greek word, dran, meaning a thing done (Landy,
1986). In ancient Greece, and first discussed in relation to Aristotle's Poetics, catharsis is
described as a purging, "an emotional release on the part of the spectators, or as the
recognition and purging of wrongdoing in the action of the play" (Worthen, 1996, p.
1302). "Aristotle proposed that the function of tragedy was to induce the emotional and
spiritual state of catharsis - a release of deep feelings that originally had a connotation of
purification of the senses and the soul" (Jones, 1996). Jones indicated Aristotle
established a theme that would be reiterated throughout the history of writing about
theatre in which,
The theme can be characterized as drama having a unique and direct relationship
with human feelings, and as being able to produce change in people's lives. At
different times in history different kinds of change have been emphasized - from
religious to political change, from an individual's psychological make-up to mass
societal change. (Jones, p. 44)
imitation of real action (Burton, 1962). Mimesis developed into mime as symbols of
actions were constructed and mimes developed into ritual (Burton). Later, ritual became
enshrined in liturgy, which facilitated drama and the development of characters (Burton).
Burton (1962) discussed the Coronation Play of Ancient Egypt as the oldest
written drama known. From this play, he discussed the constructs of kenosis and
plerosis as "the filling with new life" (Burton, p. 40). Kenosis prepares the audience for
the reception of the plerosis (Burton). Burton further indicated literature originated in
drama and that the development of the Bible likely stemmed from drama.
Fox (1986) discussed the oral theatre as tradition before the development of the
literary theatre. Fox discussed Homer's Odyssey as created in the oral tradition which was
further noted the purpose of oral theatre was to entertain, to instruct, to recite history, and
World theatre and drama differed in eastern and western traditions. Briefly,
Eastern drama includes but is not limited to Noh Theatre and Kabuki Theatre of Japan,
the Sanskrit epic poems of India, the Kamyonguk masked dance drama of Korea, and the
40
Western understanding of drama and theatre began in Greece, where it played a
central role in politics, religion, and society (Worthen, 1996). In Greece, plays were
performed in the celebration of the god Dionysus (Worthen). In both Greek and Roman
theatre, acting was more of a song-like recitation by the chorus, rather than the acting we
think of today. In The Poetics, Aristotle discussed key terms within dramatic works and
the six elements of a tragedy. He proposed the unities of action, time, place which
continues to be relevant in theatre and art today. The unity of action: a play should have
one main action that it follows, with no or few subplots. The unity of place: a play should
cover a single physical space and should not attempt to compress geography, nor should
the stage represent more than one place. The unity of time: the action in a play should
take place over no more than 24 hours (Mandleberg, 2006). He further developed the
ideas of plot, character, language, theme, and the performative elements of music and
spectacle (Worthen). According to Aristotle, the role of theatre became one of healing
(Siroka, 1978).
playwrights of the time. Their works were central to life in the City Dionysia (Worthen,
1996). During the 6th and 7th centuries, actors became part of the festivals in order to
make the narrative experience more dramatic and immediate for the audience (Siroka,
1978). Around this time in Rome, theatre and drama were also central to the society.
However, Roman drama was related to more secular entertainment than was Greek drama
(Worthen). Drama and theatre waned with the fall of the Roman Empire.
41
After a period of no theatrical performance, the Middle Ages defined a period of
theatre and drama existing to support the church. Plays were performed around religious
occasions. For example, morality dramas enacted the symbolic structure of Christian life
(Worthen, 1996). Secular plays were also performed, but lacked social and institutional
support (Worthen). Theatre and drama re-emerged with the aspects of theatre we see
today during the Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries (Worthen).
The Renaissance transformed theatre and drama into an "art" as well as theatrical
London was reminiscent of the Greek dramas in that it was connected to the political and
social pressures of the new era (Worthen). While there was still religious unrest, theatres
such as Shakespeare's company, Lord Chamberlain's Men, were able to work under the
royals, and were able to profit from their newly formed corporations. In one of his many
famous plays, Hamlet, Shakespeare meditated on the purpose and limits of theatre. In the
first scene, Hamlet explains his and the play's "obsession with the arts of seeming, with
acting, performance, and theatre" (Worthen, p. 246). Hamlet questioned the notions of
performance and truth, constructs that are challenged in modern theatre and similar to the
After the Renaissance, theatre and drama moved into a neoclassical period.
Neoclassicism was a revival of the classical ordering of the arts (Worthen, 1996).
Aristotle's unities were again prominent in drama, as well were the constructs of tragedy
and comedy. Neoclassicism was more prominent in French theatre compared to English
theatre (Worthen).
42
Periods of romanticism and restoration occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries. In
these periods, art was symbolic, but, at the same time, artists and audiences were
interested in reality. Plays were also written to be read as literature rather than staged in a
theatre (Worthen, 1996). By the 19th century, famous playwrights like Ibsen, Chekhov,
Strindberg, and Shaw wrote plays in opposition to the values of contemporary society,
and new theatre strategies were devised to find new audiences (Worthen).
Modern theatre, beginning in the latter half of the 19th century, established a
This modernist tendency has itself produced a kind of reaction, a desire to bring
the devices of popular culture and mass culture into drama, as a way of altering
the place of the theatre in society and changing the relationship between the
spectators and the stage. (Worthen, p. 7)
Modernist art also arose due to the popular forms of film, radio, and television, and its
Different forms of modern drama emerged. Naturalism and realism criticized the
values and institutions of middle-class society (Worthen, 1996). In realistic drama, the
individual accepts the world as unchanging, but continues to search for freedom, value,
characterizations, but continued to discuss the dehumanizing process of life. Other forms
that emerged were symbolist theatre, constructivist theatre, epic theatre, and surrealist
theatre (Worthen).
43
Acting style changed in modern theatre as well. Stanislavski developed the most
Stanislavski trained the actor to associate his or her personal history with
the invented actions of the dramatic character so that the actor could tap
that emotional spontaneity, a "life in art," as part of the performance. By
using the magic if - imagining themselves as the character, rather than
applying a stock line of business - and using their own emotion memory
to vivify the character's inner life, Stanislavski's actors were taught to
bring authentic emotional experience into their performances. (Worthen,
1996, p. 570)
Actor and director Joseph Chaiken also described this shift in acting,
Harold Clurman, Lee Strasburg, Stella Adler, Bobby Lewis, and Sanford Meisner,
all went on to teach the American acting style labeled The Method (Meisner &
Longwell, 1987).
Bertolt Brecht indicated realistic acting was too focused on product rather than
process, and that realistic theatre was a biased social reality. He argued that the
actor should both empathize with the character and demonstrate the character to
the audience (Worthen, 1996). Brecht developed his ideas from the non-western
tradition of theatre. His political epic theatre enabled a more critical view of the
44
process of theatre, and allowed the audience to question dramatic effect and the
Artaud sought to break down the boundaries between acting and observing,
fiction and reality, and conscious and unconscious (Worthen, 1996). Theatre of
and poetry. She indicated his work was closer to religious rite than to
existential, in that the audience must decide on the meaning for themselves
(Worthen).
1994). Grotowski's depiction of the holy actor discusses the elimination of blocks
rather than the accrual of skills (Emunah). "In performance, the actor, serving as a
kind of high priest/priestess, exposes and sacrifices this core, or truth, to the
Theatre (Fox, 1986). The Living Theatre roamed the world, "a defiant, often-
outlawed collective" (Fox). The Living Theatre and other theatres in the 1960's
(Schutzman & Cohen-Cruz, 1994). Boal worked with actors and non-actors in
help the non-actor freely express their feelings and intentions. In his book, Games
for Actors and Non Actors (2002), Boal indicated that: "Artists are witnesses of
their times: ... they should help others to stimulate inside themselves the artists
that lie within, underdeveloped and timid as they may be, shy thoughts still
unborn and fragmented, the delicate sensibility that has been blunted" (Boal, p.
The Theatre of the Oppressed blurs the lines between the disciplines of art,
therapy, and politics, and the theatre itself speaks to the inseparability between
these disciplines when dealing with issues of change (Schutzman & Cohen-Cruz).
46
Boal's ideas linked therapy, art, and politics with theatre; however,
therapy and drama were formally linked earlier in our history by Jacob L.
Psychodrama
his actors (Fox, 1986). Today Moreno is known primarily as the founder of
psychodrama, a form of therapy based on role playing (Fox, 1987). Moreno (1889
pioneer in the field of group psychotherapy, social role theory, and applied
sociology (Blatner, 1999). Moreno was raised in Vienna and moved to the United
and was profoundly concerned with our spiritual roots, our interdependence and
Moreno defines psychodrama "as the science which explores the "truth"
means to study behavior in its concrete form" (Dayton, 2005, p. 3). Psychodrama
takes the metaphor of theatre to another level by acting and reenacting the lives of
psychodrama, the director role is taken on by the therapist who carefully guides
the enactment while playing the role of mediator in instances when issues need to
be processed (Blatner, 1999). The protagonist is the group member acting as the
subject of the enactment. The protagonist chooses which group members will
portray other characters within the story, and can stop the others to provide
realistic feedback on how these characters truly reveal themselves within the
protagonist's life (Blatner). The auxiliary egos are assigned by the protagonist
and monitored by the director. The auxiliary egos may play other characters in
the protagonist's life, or may play other aspects of the protagonist's personality.
The remaining group members act as audience members who serve in the sharing
Psychodrama involves having clients enact specific scenes related to their life
problems instead of merely talking about them (Blatner, 1999). The assumption in
psychodrama is that individuals more intensely experience their affective states while
enacting their life stories in comparison to simply discussing their issues within any talk
therapy. Psychodrama could be termed an action method implied in the form of the
clinical therapy session. Group members are on their feet, reliving their experiences
rather than passively talking about their experiences as in talk therapy. The depiction and
exploration of life dramas via live enactment allows the externalization of an inner world
and enables the group members to witness their own and others dilemmas (Emunah,
1994). As described by Moreno, "Because we cannot reach into the mind and see what
the individual perceives and feels, psychodrama tries, with the cooperation of the patient,
to transfer the mind "outside" of the individual and objectify it within a tangible,
controllable universe.. Its aim is to make total behavior directly visible, observable, and
of spontaneity is as follows: "The root of this word is the Latin sua sponte, meaning of
free will. Spontaneity is, "1) deviation from the "laws of' nature, 2) the matrix of
creativity, 3) the locus of the self' (Moreno, 1947, p. 127). Spontaneity enables one to
appropriately respond to a new situation, even though this new situation might remind the
person of a previous one. Thus, spontaneity becomes the catalyst for creativity and it
fuels the creative act at the present moment (Apter, 2003). Moreno felt that spontaneity
enabled the present moment which helped one to actualize the self (Apter). Moreno
believed that the people who were the most creative and spontaneous would survive at
the expense of those whose ideas remained fixed and rigid (Carnabucci, 2002). Using
both action methods and spontaneity within the therapy provided a unique sense of
complete (Blatner, 1999). The session includes a warm-up phase, an action phase, and a
sharing phase that also serves as closure (Blatner). In the warm-up phase, group
members' work together using activities that foster group cohesion and trust. For
example, the group may physically warm up by stretching and vocalizations, but may
also add in theatre games to establish camaraderie and trust while minimizing anxiety.
The protagonist and problem chosen in this phase should reflect the concerns relevant to
The action phase explores the issues presented by the protagonist through a series
of scenes. In the action phase the director carefully guides the interactions between
protagonist and auxiliary egos, as well as the flow of the enactment itself (Blatner, 1999).
The enactment of life dramas implies a type of reliving, through which both the
protagonist and groups members experience an emotional catharsis. Moreno traces the
catharsis for the group to the Aristotelian concept of catharsis, in which the spectator is
has often been characterized as a cathartic process, its aim is not simply the expression of
the emotion itself, but the deeper dynamic of integration of dissociated elements within
The sharing phase occurs after all aspects of the enactment are finished. This is
the time where the protagonist, auxiliary egos, and audience can process the scenes and
share their individual experiences. This is not a time for group members to make
interpretations, but rather a time to speak about the own lives and situations (Blatner,
50
Different tools and techniques are used throughout the psychodrama. Many of
these tools are applied today in other therapies. The most recognized tool is role-reversal.
In role-reversal, the participants in the scene switch roles. In doing so, they physically
change positions with the other character and assume the position, posture, and attitude as
the other's perspective or point of view. It is also used by the protagonist to demonstrate
how a role should be played. Finally, it is used to increase role repertoire to enhance the
Another technique used is doubling. In doubling, another group member joins the
protagonist on stage and voices out loud what the protagonist may be thinking or feeling
but not expressing verbally. Doubling is used to provide support and encouragement, to
sustain the protagonist's emotional engagement or affect, and to enable others in the
group who identify with the protagonist to become an active part of the scene (Emunah,
1994).
Another tool within psychodrama is magic shop. When applying the magic shop
to the psychodrama, the group is invited to come, one at a time, to a magic shop in which
they can purchase human qualities. The shopkeeper is usually the therapist who attempts
to engage each individual on reasons they chose the specific quality. The shopkeeper
then negotiates with each individual on what quality they will give in return. Then, in
following scenes, the group can observe whether or not the quality purchased was used in
the scene.
51
Many other techniques and tools used within psychodrama and now are being
incorporated into other therapies. Others mentioned but not described are; replay, the
empty chair, the mirror, the soliloquy, as well as many others (Blatner, 1999). Tools
from sociometry, another clinical theory established by Moreno, can also be incorporated
into psychodrama. One of the most commonly recognized from sociometry is called
family sculpture. In this technique, the protagonist creates his or her social network as if
it were a sculpture of people standing in various positions and distances from each other
- as a kind of living diorama (Blatner). This positioning often vividly expresses the
Moreno was very interested in social atom theory. Moreno describes the social
universe where each social atom (a person's emotion connections, whether real or wished
for by either party) is linked to other atoms (Apter, 2003). This social atom theory seems
thought that every human being chooses the best or least detrimental position for oneself
at any point in time. Similar to what Rogers and Maslow discuss in their later
Humanistic theories, Moreno believes there is an innate tendency to grow and develop
interpersonal preferences among the various people in a social system (Blatner, 1999). It
can be used as an aid in clarifying group dynamics. Moreno also coined the term 'group
therapy' (Blatner). Moreno conceptualized roles as having both collective and private
52
components. Sociodrama revolves around the collective components and psychodrama
revolves around the private components, those which are unique to the individual
about which many journal articles have been published on its use and value (Blatner,
difficult to assess any psychotherapy that does not follow a predictable path. Aspects of
psychodrama are also incorporated into other therapies; therefore, it is difficult to assess
Moreno's trust in the innate potential of human beings induced his hostile view of
(Apter, 2003). He believed that human beings have the urge to act and interact and,
further, that action is part of the human condition. There are many similarities and
arrived to the United States from Vienna, Moreno a little later than Freud. Although
Moreno's theory seemed to accept the inner psychic desires commonly discussed in
life and begin the interaction. In contrast, Freud's psychoanalysis relied on discussion of
language (i.e., ego) of Freud's theory as well as the instinctual desires, yet was action-
53
oriented and hopeful in its presentation. Moreno's theory seemed a precursor to later
into other orientation's therapies. Role-play and reversal are especially popular in
utilized in discussing psychodynamic theories. Moreno's intuition of the need for three
levels of staging can be compared to Freud's id, ego, and superego, as well as to Jung's
ego, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious (Conforti, 2002). Images and
psychology. Psychodrama is also, but perhaps less frequently, used for role training as a
means to practice new ways of thinking and behaving (Treadwell & Kumar, 2002). For
which the function of the double is to provide supportive, positive perceptions while
identifying mental distortions and aiding in the process of reframing these patterns of
Overall, psychodrama involves a complex array of methods and ideas that offer
building, spiritual development, personal growth, conflict resolution, social action, and
form of clinical psychology in its classic form as well as a benefit to many other modern
therapies.
54
It should be noted that as a person, Jacob L. Moreno was a "problem personality"
(Fox, 1987, p. xix). He had an inability to separate himself from his creations, and was
considered a megalomaniac (Fox, 1987). His personality may have interfered with an
Psychodrama is one method that blends the use of therapy and drama. Drama
therapy incorporates psychodrama in its practice, but also utilizes many other aspects of
Drama Therapy
Jones (1996) discussed drama therapy as the involvement in drama with a healing
intention. He indicated the first notion of drama therapy occurred in Peter Slade's lecture
to the British Medical Association in 1939 (Jones). In the United States, the earliest
recorded use of the term drama therapy was in 1946 in a paper by Florsheim entitled
"Drama Therapy" (Jones). Jennings (1987) indicated the current practice of drama
therapy began in Great Britain in the early 1960s. The National Association for Drama
Kingdom, was first mentioned in the 20th century, its roots span as far back as the
emergence of drama and theatre. Pioneers of the use of drama in therapy were Iljine,
Evreinov, and Moreno (Jones, 1996). Evreinov developed Theatrotherapy which focused
on the internal and psychological processes of acting (Jones). In the Soviet Union, Iljine
55
developed the Therapeutic Theatre which incorporated improvisation, theme
working with groups or individuals (Jones). Moreno and psychodrama were discussed
above.
David Read Johnson suggested that Moreno was most influential in the
development of drama therapy because he communicated his ideas to others, while there
was no transmission of ideas from the others mentioned above. Johnson specifically
noted Moreno's work in the United States at St. Elizabeth's Hospital with Marion Chace
as his protege (Lewis & Johnson, 2000). He influenced her as a dance therapist. She
blended dance therapy with drama therapy in her work with patients at St. Elizabeth's
Renee Emunah (1994) defined drama therapy as "the intentional and systematic
3). She indicated five sources as the origins of drama therapy; theatre, psychodrama,
dramatic play, dramatic ritual, and role play (Emunah). She noted psychodrama as the
Drama therapy differed from psychodrama in that it was group oriented rather
therapy incorporated the use of role play, reenactment, and improvisation, but drama
therapy also included the use of theatre games, storytelling, puppetry, mask work,
pantomime, and scripted scenes (Emunah). Drama therapy developed from the art form
been previously discussed, a look at dramatic play and dramatic ritual as a source for
drama therapy is necessary. Erikson stated, "To play it out is the most natural self-healing
measure childhood affords" (Erikson, 1993, p. 222). Winnicott indicated that playing is
one of the only methods for a child or an adult to be creative (Winnicott, 1971). Dramatic
In early societies, drama and healing were inseparable in dramatic rites and rituals
(Emunah, 1994). "In ritual dramas led by shamans (from prehistoric times to
contemporary non-Western cultures), the internal and often unconscious struggles of the
observers to release emotion and achieve catharsis" (Emunah, p. 21). The dramatic ritual
within drama therapy creates a structure in which the period of transition can be
Distancing was a key term related to drama therapy. Distancing was defined as
separation" (Landy, 1986, p. 100). The key was to find balance between the
acting (Landy). When balanced, there were clear delineations between the self and other,
one role and another role, yet the boundaries were flexible to change when the interaction
shifts (Landy). This point of balance was termed aesthetic distance, a place where
catharsis can occur (Landy). When used in drama therapy, distancing can be influential.
To be and to watch ourselves at once, to live a new reality and the existing one at
once, to relinquish and penetrate ourselves at once... such are some of the
paradoxes that make this form of art and therapy so powerful. (Emunah, 1994, p.
xvi)
Robert Landy, a professor of drama therapy and a drama therapist, noted drama
therapy is about learning, renewing, re-creating, while incorporating the goals of artists,
can clarify meaning for a client. His work focused on a construct he created termed the
Taxonomy of Roles (Emunah, 1994; Landy, 2001; Landy, 2005). He created Taxonomy
of Roles in attempt to clarify the contents of the role system, roles that make up the
human personality (Landy, 2001). He utilized this role system in assessment and working
with clients. He also stressed the importance of a guide in drama therapy who, as the
instructor or drama therapist, provides a secure holding environment for the student or
In Acting For Real, Emunah (1994) discussed five phases of long-term drama
therapy in relation to the five sources of drama therapy discussed earlier. These phases
are. "I. Dramatic Play; II. Scenework; III. Role Play; IV. Culminating Enactment; V.
Dramatic Ritual" (Emunah, p. 34). These five phases should be considered fluid and
58
The work of David Read Johnson was linked to dramatic play. He started
embodiment, encounter, and playspace (Lewis & Johnson, 2000). He worked with
personal play, defined by Peter Slade as "a physically active utilization of one's own
self/body, in the taking on of roles" (Emunah, 1994, p. 6). Transformations was based in
emanation theory, in which the world is understood as flowing out from the Source of
existence (Lewis & Johnson, 2000, p. 88). Important aspects of the approach were as
follows.
(1) the sessions consist entirely of dramatic, improvisation interaction between the
therapist and client(s)
(2) the therapist is an active participant in the play and intervenes through his/her
own immersion in the client's playspace
(3) the process of play is used to loosen or remove (i.e., deconstruct) psychic
structures that inhibit the client(s) from accessing primary experiences of Being
(4) the client's progress in treatment is believed to follow natural, developmental
processes that in themselves will lead to greater emotional health. (Lewis &
Johnson, p. 87)
Eleanor Irwin was another prominent drama therapist. She worked from a
psychoanalytic viewpoint and draws on play therapy as a tool in her work (Emunah,
1994). Like Landy, her work was similar to a distancing model (Emunah). She utilized
projected play, another term from Peter Slade, which "involves projecting an imagined
dramatic situation outwards onto objects (e.g. dolls, puppets)" (Emunah, p. 6). Irwin
defined the goal of drama therapy "is to make changes in personality, which implies
dealing with unconscious aspects of functions; while the aims of creative drama are
59
Phil Jones discussed drama therapy in terms of nine core processes. He defined
connection, and transformation" (Jones, 1996, pp. 99-100). He indicated that these
processes display the inherent healing within the art form of drama (Jones).
these techniques are similar or the same as used in psychodrama. Others are taken from
theatre games, storytelling, puppetry, mime work, and scripted scenes (Emunah, 1994).
She categorized techniques into experiences facilitated from each technique. The
theatre as
The therapeutic development of a play in which the roles are established with
therapeutic goals in mind; the whole process of the play production is, in fact, a
form of group psychotherapy; it is all facilitated by a therapist skilled in drama or
a drama therapist; and, finally, the play must be performed for a public
audience... beyond the social sphere of the therapeutic group, itself... (and) that
there be post-production processing by the group to deal with all the issues that
have been provoked and evoked by the performance experience. (Snow,
D'Amico, & Tanguay, 2003, p. 74)
60
Snow et al. (2003) qualitatively evaluated the therapeutic theatre experience of clients at
the Centre for the Arts in Human Development, and found that their therapeutic goals
from the production experience were accomplished. The therapeutic goals included:
Daniel Wiener, drama therapist and founder of Rehearsals! for Growth (RfG)
psychotherapists based on the work of Keith Johnstone (Wiener). Besides the benefit to
stressed the need to understand the discomfort that clients experience while role-playing,
improvising, or within the therapy itself (Wiener). RfG could lessen the judgment of the
indicated that clinical situations are improvisatory and thus can benefit from a clinician
potential need to enter into role-playing and modeling with the client, skills that could be
RfG improv is not merely a therapeutic technique applied to clients, but a means
by which the therapist opens to her or his own courage, resourcefulness, and
creativity. In addition to contributing to the therapist's capacity to use improv
exercises with clients, improvising heightens the therapist' involvement in the
present moment, increases tolerance for both ambiguity and risk of the unknown,
and stimulates metaphorical connections, particularly nonverbal ones. (Wiener, p.
225)
The field of drama therapy clarified the need to train therapists through the use of
dramatic enactment. Landy (2005) described a method of teaching in which the students
were asked to actively listen and respond to an actors monologue through movement and
words instead of reacting to the actor as a therapist, allowing the student to relinquish the
anxiety of focusing on the self. Because the student therapist did not have to worry about
what their response should be, the student was able to be in the moment and empathize
Emunah (1989) indicated that the use of drama in training can help people
practice or prepare for real-life situations. She indicated that the world of make-believe
is a safe place in which a therapist in training can deal with anxieties and develop
who may become clients, and of experiencing first-hand the impact drama therapy
I do not believe that we must have lived through what our clients have; we need
not have been psychotic or alcoholic or abused to help such a client.
Nevertheless, to come closer to the skill of the shaman, we do need to understand
those we work with as deeply and empathically as possible. This kind of
understanding can occur through becoming the other, for awhile, through
dramatic enactment. (Emunah, p. 35)
Emunah stated that therapy, while considered science is also an art, and the art of
62
Further, Emunah (1989) discussed the boundaries between the self and the other
she indicated that actors need to find themselves within each role, but must have a strong
psychotherapy, the therapist identifies and empathizes with the client, but must maintain
Drama in Education
the classroom" (Anderson, 2004, p. 282). Dramatic education was aesthetic, learning
through art and play (Landy, 1986). Landy described the goals for drama in education as:
"1. learning about drama, 2. learning about learning, and, 3. learning about thinking and
speaking" (Landy, p. 11). He also indicated that learning through drama may be internal
distinction between audience and actor, as compared to drama seen in the theatre
(Anderson). The participant is both in the role-play as well as an observer of the drama
(Anderson).
teaching. When she arrived in America in the 1970s, she surprised teachers by
"consciously employing the elements of drama to educate - literally to bring out what
63
children already know but do not yet know that they know" (Wagner, 1999, p. 1). Her
work with children focused on the quality of the education, rather than always focusing
on the quantity (Wagner). She allowed for creation and education, rather than directing it
(Anderson, 2004). However, there was significant research demonstrating the benefits of
drama in an educational setting and its link to psychology (Anderson; Courtney, 1989).
role-play, one can step outside and analyze what was enacted (Anderson). Courtney tied
He indicated,
The methods of drama in education have the potential to create as-if worlds
within the classroom that can foster situated learning. Drama frames can be
constructed with essential elements of authentic contexts, thereby bringing the
laboratory (or studio, archeological dig, etc.) to the classroom. (Anderson, p. 284)
playback theatre. Creativity will be discussed related to acting and therapy, and the
creative connection between them. May identified a process of creativity starting with an
encounter between a person and the world, the engagement of the person in this
encounter, and finally the absorption, in which the person is wholly involved with this
engagement (May, 1975). Using one's creative imagination, the student can enter into the
developed her ideas about improvisation from her work with Neva L. Boyd at the
Chicago Hull House (Spolin). According to Spolin, improvisation allows for spontaneity;
Improvisation for the Theatre, Spolin described methods to encourage creativity and
intuitively (Spolin). She valued intuition, a skill available to all but one that is often
neglected. She further negated the notion of talent related to improvisation or acting in
general.
From Spolin's perspective, improvisation is not about performance and result, but about
1963). The first is to simply play a game to encourage feelings of personal freedom. Most
games have an obstacle or problem that needs solving, and the players in the
improvisation work together to solve the problem spontaneously. The players are
encouraged to say_yes to their partners in order to further encourage personal freedom and
facilitate the action of the scene. The second aspect of spontaneity is letting go of
65
approval/disapproval (Spolin). Spolin suggested we must work on acceptance of the self
in order to let go of the need for approval. The approval or opinion of others is not
necessary or helpful to working in the moment. The third aspect is working toward
focusing on aiding others in the group allows for the minimization of competition and
comparisons between group members. The fourth aspect is involving the audience in the
improvisation (Spolin). Sharing the improvisational experience with the audience lessens
the need for performance and fosters more spontaneity in the moment. The fifth aspect of
spontaneity comes from practicing various theatre techniques through theatre games
(Spolin). These techniques should not be viewed as tricks to use when a scene is not
working, but as methods of communication that the player is deeply aware of to foster
various ways of being or functioning within a scene or game. The sixth aspect is carrying
this learning process into everyday life (Spolin). In education and training this might be
referred to as a transfer of learning (Forsyth, 2003). "The world provides material for the
theater, and artistic growth develops hand in hand with one's recognition of it and
himself within it" (Spolin, p. 15). The final aspect Spolin discussed is physicalization
(Spolin). She indicated that "physical and sensory relationship with the art form opens the
door for insight" (Spolin, p. 15). Physicalization gives a concrete experience to feelings
and ideas.
imparting improvisation skills to group members. One is to focus upon problem solving
(Spolin, 1963). Another relates to the point of concentration (Spolin). The point of
66
concentration is the focal point for group members while solving the problem. In other
group format, "it is the ball with which all play the game" (Spolin, p. 2). After a team
evaluation should take place between group members, audience members, and the
teacher-director (Spolin). Other workshop procedures include but are not limited to side
coaching, presenting the problem, preparation for the acting problem, timing, and labels
In her book, Spolin describes many improvisation exercises that can be used in
sequence. The progression of this sequence is as follows: orientation, where, acting with
the whole body, non-directional blocking, refining awareness, speech effects, developing
material for situations, rounding-out exercises, emotion, and character (Spolin, 1963).
Spolin used the word player in place of the words actor, non-actor, or character. She
indicated the term player as more preferable for several reasons. First, it implied
spontaneity. Second, it de-emphasized acting or the craft of acting. Third, it connoted that
Many schools of improvisation and books about improvisation have been created
after Spolin's initial work in 1963. One book that will be utilized in this training program
"Improvisation is getting on stage and making stuff up as you go along" (Napier, 2004, p.
67
1) . He emphasizes giving up many of the rules that have been developed from Spolin and
1. Don't deny.
2. Don't ask questions.
3. Don't dictate action.
4. Don't talk about past or future events.
5. Establish who, what, and where.
6. Don't negotiate
7. Don't do teaching scenes.
8. Show, don't tell.
9. Say yes, and then say and.
10. Don't talk about what you are doing.
(Napier, p. 3)
Napier believes rules developed within improvisation can be destructive (Napier, 2004).
In all likelihood, these rules can become destructive because, without the facilitated
procedures set up in Spolin's technique, these rules can create the notion of
approval/disapproval within a scene and may lead to less spontaneity in the work.
Napier's text, including further rules and exercises, emphasizes the need for acceptance
The third major aspect of the training program is playback theatre. Playback
theatre, founded in 1975 by Jonathan Fox, Jo Salas, and other original playback members
in the Mid-Hudson Valley in New York (Fox, 2007; Fox, 2008a; Weinstock-Wynters,
1997), is a "form of theatrical improvisation in which people tell real events from their
lives, then watch them enacted on the spot" (Ford & Ward-Wimmer, 2001, p. 390). It
follows the oral tradition of non-scripted theatre (Fox, 1986) and was inspired by the
68
"In contrast to psychodrama, playback theatre does not position itself in the
(Fox, 2008b). Often compared to Boal's Theatre of the Oppressed, playback differs in
that it does not make assumptions about the audience and their particular oppression, and
it does not seek to find a solution to a particular oppression (Fox, 2008b). The root of the
form is storytelling, and these stories told provoke a spontaneous performance "whose
intention was to illuminate life experiences - rather than camouflage or distort them - by
honoring whatever narratives arose in the moment" (Fox, 2007, p. 92). Playback stories
"become the vehicle for deep dialogue that does not demand an answer" (Fox, 2008b).
people set up in a room, a hall, a theatre, or any space. The audience faces a row of actors
sitting on boxes. On one side of the stage sits a musician with instruments, on the other
side sits a conductor, or emcee, next to an empty chair. The chair is reserved for the
teller, who comes from the audience to share a personal story. "Then, in ritualized
process, using mime, music, and spoken scenes, the players will act out a story. After one
teller, another will come. In this way, the individuals in the audience will witness a
Three primary forms make up the basic structure of playback theatre; fluid
sculptures, pairs, and scenes that tell a story (Weinstock-Wynters, 1997). Fluid sculptures
are similar to a tableau or stage picture, however, a fluid sculpture contains sound and
movement that brings "breath, action, and movement into the feeling or experience that is
utilized to allow the teller to relate two conflicting feelings within a stoiy, and then to see
and experience these feelings both visually and kinesthetically enacted by the performers
(Weinstock-Wynters).
Both fluid sculptures and pairs are forms that encourage and develop
communication, sensitivity, respectful contact and a deep engaged listening. They
provide an opportunity to listen actively to another person and give back to
her/him what you experience as the essence of their telling.. .This work develops
self trust, self initiation, motivation and skills involving a willingness to risk one's
creative, intellectual and intuitive process. (Weinstock-Wynters, p. 34)
The third element of playback theatre is the story, the frame for which is described above.
Working with the elements from fluid sculptures and pairs, the story is the "heart of
playback" (Salas, 1996, as cited in Weinstock-Wynters, p. 35), and "is when the actors
begin to work with the development of themselves, space, music, ritual and contact to
play back a story or a moment that is being told by the teller to the conductor"
(Weinstock-Wynters, p. 35).
change. Spontaneity involves action and non-thinking, but also necessitates structure and
freedom (Fox). Fox described playback theatre as an improvisational, healing theatre that
can be a powerful force for social transformation. In living the personal story on stage,
actors and audience members learn something about themselves in a different, active
way.
70
Playback theatre was selected to be utilized as an active learning method in this
other's stories and moments from our lives requires an attentive listening to one another's
experience" (p. 36). Jonathan Fox stated, "Playback Theatre demands deep listening from
actors and empathy with anyone's story. It builds empathy in audience members" (Fox,
"This approach encourages each person to stay connected with herself while still being
connected with other members of the sculpture or scene. One of the challenging aspects
of this form is that it requires a simultaneous attention to self and others" (p. 37). Fox
expands the idea of self-awareness from an individual level to a societal level by stating,
"Our narrative about ourselves and our society is key to our identity. It takes critical
consciousness even to have something to tell; Friere showed us that. Then seeing it
embodied onstage can crystallize a sense of self that is very empowering" (Fox, 2007, p.
93).
1963, p. 38). It should be noted that Spolin, Fox, and Boal discussed theatre and
goal for therapists in their own growth as well as a goal for therapists in working with
their clients. Utilizing improvisation and playback theatre as action methods fosters this
transformation and learning in students. Games from Boal's Games for Actors and Non-
psychology students. These methods were chosen specifically as they are grounded in the
art form of drama, rather than moving into the more therapeutic realm of psychodrama
and drama therapy, or the more political realm of Boal's Theatre of the Oppressed.
However, even within the art form of drama, dramatic action methods utilized in learning
can create the emergence of therapeutic issues. Perhaps this is why educators tend to shy
away from utilizing action methods in their teaching. Educators seem to fear the
teachers promote only traditional learning as purely rational, linear, and logical
playback theatre, educators can pass on and construct meaning through multiple
intelligences. Weintock-Wynters (p. 40) indicated the benefits of teaching action methods
as follows.
First, the action methods allow increased attention and awareness to develop in a
way that verbal dialogue does not. When one has to be a concept and show what it
looks like, there is a shift from habitual ways of knowing and creativity enters
into the thinking process. What would racism sound like musically? What color
might it be? What physical form or shape would it take? Each of these questions
draws on different intelligences, thus expanding our traditional notion of thinking
as purely rational, linear, and logical. Second, the action methods allow students
to engage in dialogue that is not constricted by fears of being right and wrong.
Using creativity in improvisation and playback theatre, the students will have the
opportunity to depict different roles; persons with whom they can empathize with and
72
identify parts within themselves. Much of our training is devoted to the science of
psychology. Some time needs to be allowed for the art of psychology, especially training
for the time spent in session with a client. This acting program will not attempt to teach
therapy students to be great actors, nor will it teach specific psychological methods. It
73
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Theoretical Framework
The proposed program aspires to strengthen helping skills for psychology students
in training. In recent years, psychology training programs have glossed over skills in
training such as empathic listening, self-awareness, and creativity within the therapeutic
relationship. It is assumed by programs that these skills are either innate, or will be
acquired in practicum, internship, and supervision. There is less of a focus on training for
these skills in pre-practicum courses, and the training that does focus on these skills is
primarily didactic. Thus, psychology students are entering into practicum situations with
lower self-efficacy and heightened anxiety related to their counseling abilities (Larson &
Daniels, 1998).
As students are entering into psychology programs less prepared than in the past
(Krishnamurthy et al., 2004), the need for these skills in training becomes even more
important. Larson and Daniels (1998) indicated self-efficacy could be increased by role-
play and modeling. Methods such as role-play, modeling, instruction, and feedback could
also be used to improve the trainee's empathic ability and communication skills (Baker et
al., 1990; Hill & Lent., 2006; Ivey et al., 1968; Truax et al., 1964). Self-awareness can be
facilitated through one's own therapy, supervision, and ability to remain open to
experiences (Irwin, 1986; Hulnick, 1977; Spruill et al., 2004). Finally, creativity is
described as necessary to the therapeutic relationship (Bieschke et al., 2004), and can be
74
A training program utilizing drama and improvisation will help strengthen
and work with others. This program will also aid in the student's examination of the self
and creativity through their work with characters and improvisation. The students will
work with creativity, improvisation, and playback theatre in order to empathize with
others, heighten listening skills, and learn more about the self in the creative process.
75
CHAPTER 4: METHODS
Goal
graduate psychology students in order to increase self-efficacy and lower anxiety related
to counseling abilities and the therapeutic relationship. The program will foster skills
many ways. First, improvisation theories and techniques will be utilized to strengthen
and playback theatre will be used to foster empathic understanding of another character,
as well as the self-awareness that comes from learning how parts of oneself can relate to
that character. Third, the dramatic enactment in improvisation and playback theatre will
foster creativity within the student and an understanding of how each of these skills
Objectives/Anticipated Outcomes
skills, self-awareness, and creativity in graduate psychology students. There are both
short-term and long-term objectives in the proposed program. The short-term objective of
this program is to lessen the anxiety that a student experiences entering into practicum
and real-life therapy situations. Another short-term objective is to increase the student's
76
The long term goal of this program is to increase here-and-now engagement and
active listening of students as they continue to develop and work with others. The ability
therapist. These conditions will impact further training and future clinical work. A by-
enactment will foster empathy and increased connection to enacting client roles, thus
Target Population
their first year of training. This group was chosen as these students have yet to enter into
their first doctoral practicum experience. As these students are likely participating in
courses teaching helping skills through didactic methods, this course will run
simultaneously and serve as an elective for students who want or need experiential
techniques to increase their abilities in these areas. This program will prepare students for
It should be noted that the students will vary in their level of ability in these areas
depending on age and experience level. Some students will have entered into the doctoral
comfortable with their empathic listening abilities, thus their self efficacy may be higher
and their anxiety lower related to their therapeutic abilities. Other students will enter
these skills. Age may also be a factor related to these skills as it is assumed that self-
awareness increases with age, however, this may not be the case in all students.
Identify Stakeholders
Given the research supporting the need for training in empathy, communication
skills, self-awareness, and creativity in the literature from the NCSPP's Core
institutions and programs. As these skills are deemed as important to work as clinical
skills could offer this course as an elective for incoming students. This program could
also be combined with other courses, facilitating a more complete educational experience
78
This program will be valuable to the above mentioned groups for many reasons.
At the program or institutional level, improving student's therapeutic skills will improve
the quality of the program. A program that provides better skills to students will be
evaluated more favorably by both practicum and internship settings, as well as by the
community at large. This will improve perception surrounding the institution which could
aid alumni practicing in the field. The student will benefit by improving their empathic
listening skills, self-awareness, and creativity through improvisation. The student could
also become more competitive for practicum and internship with the higher self-efficacy
and lower anxiety this program will facilitate. Finally, this program will improve the arts
Content of Program
method in training graduate students (Kaslow et al., 2004; Peterson et al., 1997; Spruill et
al., 2004). The program intends to strengthen skills associated to the rapport between
client and therapist within the therapeutic relationship. Skills such as empathic listening,
self-awareness, and creativity can benefit the student psychologist in future practicum,
internship, and work settings. As these skills are assumed to be innate, programs have
deemphasized training in this area. However, research suggests that students are entering
graduate programs less prepared than in the past (Krishnamurthy et al., 2004), and have
79
low self-efficacy and high anxiety related to their therapeutic abilities (Larson & Daniels,
1998).
The program will utilize drama as a technique to promote the above mentioned
skills. Throughout history, drama has been utilized in healing, education, and
entertainment. Employing drama in the training of psychologists blends the healing and
moment and working with a partner. It allows students to work with their empathic skills.
In playing a character, the student must identify with the other, and understand how
aspects of oneself can relate to another. Learning how to identify parts of oneself with the
life of another facilitates self-awareness. The objective is to empathize with the character
as the student should empathize with the client, retaining the as //mentality. It should be
The second component of this program will be playback theatre and role-play.
Playback theatre enacts a story from an audience or group member. To perform the story
requires students to utilize empathic listening, spontaneity, and creativity. Role-plays will
also be enacted from the point of view of a character with another student playing
therapist. This blends the acting portion of the class with aspects of the therapeutic
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relationship. Combining drama and role-plays will also facilitate more invested role-plays
in future training. It will also require that both students utilize empathy, listening,
Select Measures
Pre-test and post-test measures will be used with the proposed program. These
measures will be provided upon entrance to the program, upon exiting the program, and
program.
The first will measure empathy in the trainee. The Interpersonal Reactivity Index
empathy. The ERI scales measure perspective taking, empathic concern, fantasy, and
others. The fantasy subscale assesses ability to identify with characters. The personal
settings. The IRI subscales have been shown to be reliable and accurate indicators of
assessment possibility is the Empathy Quotient (EQ). It should be noted that the writer
agrees with Hackney (1975) in that empathy is a condition rather than an observable,
81
measurable communication skill, therefore any measure is not likely to capture the
The second measure will assess self-efficacy within the novice trainee. Lent, Hill,
and Hoffman's (2003) Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy Scales (CASES) could be used
to measure the trainee's self-efficacy at each time interval. Only the first two segments
(Helping Skill and Session Management) would be given as the third (Counseling
Challenges) does not relate to the program and may represent challenges novice trainees
The student will also write down their experiences each week in an acting
notebook or journal. This journal will be reviewed by the instructor and perhaps even
discussed with each student as they make discoveries throughout the learning process.
A pilot program was held prior to the conclusion of this dissertation and
implementation of the actual program. Participants were accessed after approval by the
Institutional Review Board (IRB). The informed consent document will be included in
Participants were asked to take part in a two hour pilot class. The class briefly discussed
the benefits of utilizing drama in the training of therapists. Class participants then enacted
improvisational games and a playback theatre scenario. The last portion of the class was
devoted to verbal and written feedback of the program. Participants signed a waiver to be
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Personnel
drama therapist or a psycho-dramatist. If the instructor does not have this type of
licensing, a clinical psychologist with a significant background teaching drama could also
instruct the class, however the first scenario is preferred. The instructor will gather the
materials needed for the program, teach the program, and monitor the student's
development. The instructor will be provided with curriculum planning for the course.
Briefly, the curriculum will consist of improvisation games and techniques, and a guided
program will need to be hired. This person will find classroom space, market the class,
accept students and their payments, and coordinate the professor and class members.
dramatist. If a clinical psychologist is hired to instruct the program, she or he will need a
The administrator can have any level of training, but will require a background in
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Materials, Space, and Time Needed
Materials needed to run the program will include a required text, Viola Spolin's
Improvisation for the Theatre (1963), and Mick Napier's Improvise. Scene from the
Inside Out (2004). A supplemental reading list will be given to the participants with the
syllabus of the course. Suggested readings will include Ranier Maria Rilke's Letters to a
Young Poet (1954), Eva LeGallienne's The Mystic in the Theatre: Eleonora Duse (1973),
Rollo May's Courage to Create (1975), Augusto Boal's, Games for Actors and Non-
Michael Rohd's, Theatre for Community, Conflict & Dialogue (1998), Jo Salas's,
Improvising Real Life: Personal Story in Playback Theatre (1993), and Daniel Wiener's,
Classroom space will be rented. The room will require enough space for
movement of classroom participants. The program will accept twelve students as a limit
The program will run over one semester as a three credit class if involved with an
into two eight-week sessions. The first session will be dedicated to improvisation. The
second session will be focused on improvisation and playback theatre. Class will meet
each week for three hours. Class will meet for a total of sixteen weeks.
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Funding Sources
program, a grant from an Art in Education source, or by the students participating in the
program.
Budget
Budget will include classroom space rental, overhead expenses, salary for the
Copying. From various book chapters, estimated copy costs at 10 cents per copy total 50$
The program will be held sixteen times throughout one semester. The length of
each class will be three hours, and class will meet once per week. At the first meeting
85
there will be a discussion about the connection between drama and therapy and
improvisation will be introduced. The next several class sessions will focus on
improvisational games and techniques. This will allow the students to become more
comfortable in the experiential learning atmosphere. The next eight week portion of the
class will open with improvisation, followed by a discussion of playback theatre. The
enactments. Then role-plays between pairs of students will be enacted from the
perspective of characters.
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CHAPTER 5: PILOT PROGRAM
The Class
A pilot program was held for two hours in the evening on August 29th, 2007. The
class consisted of eight participants and was led by Keith Whipple, a drama therapist,
psycho dramatist, and improviser in Chicago. Keith Whipple, MA, is Associate Director
of Drama Therapy at the Institute for Therapy through the Arts. He graduated from The
Theater School of DePaul University with a BFA in Acting in 1986. He then worked in
where he performed and conducted drama workshops as part of the Geese Theatre
Educational Drama (Lesley College, 1996) through theatre work at the Marjorie Kovler
Center for the Treatment of Survivors of Torture, and at The International Refugee
Center of the Heartland Alliance, working with immigrants and refugees in the Uptown
neighborhood. Keith also worked in the Uptown neighborhood with Casa Guatemala's
youth theatre, Konojel Junam, and co-directed Nation of All, a theatre summer-jobs
health and drug treatment. He is a veteran stage actor, and he performs and teaches
Comedy Sportz's first official Director of Education and founded their improv High
School League in the Chicago area. He is a member of the American Society for Group
Psychotherapy and Psychodrama and the National Drama Therapy Association. Keith
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was asked to lead the class given his strong background in improvisation, drama therapy,
The eight participants were from various years in the PsyD program at The
Chicago School of Professional Psychology. The group was made up of two first year
students, three second year students, one third year student, and two fourth year students.
There were three female participants and five male participants. The participants received
a stipend of twenty dollars for their participation. The purpose of the class was to
introduce PsyD students to improvisation as a clinical training tool. The intention was
also to assess student interest in this type of training as well as to gather feedback on their
The class began with an introduction of the dissertation and a discussion about the
link between acting or improvisation and psychological training. The group sat in a circle
and introduced themselves. Before moving on to the improvisation portion of the class,
Keith Whipple discussed the training emphasis of the class. He stressed that the class was
exercises. After each exercise, the leader brought the group back into a circle to process
any questions or experiences from the participants. The first exercise was called Kitty
Wants a Corner. This exercise was selected from readings by Viola Spolin and others. In
this exercise, one participant was in the middle vying for a space in the circle while the
other participants were swapping spots around the circle. The participant in the middle
must continue to ask participants in the circle Kitty Wants a Corner while being aware of
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the spaces left vacant by other participant's movements. The purpose of this exercise was
to create energy in the participants. It was also selected to inspire connection and
interaction between the participants. Finally, it was intended to get the participants out of
their heads. The intention was to get them off balance so that they could be more in the
The leader then moved directly into the next exercise entitled Pass the Gesture. In
this improvisation exercise, the participants created a gesture for themselves and shared it
with the group. The leader continued to repeat gestures as they were created around the
circle. Then the game began in which the participants would enact their own gesture and
then the gesture of someone else in the circle. This pattern then continued to another
participant through gesture. The intention of this game was to increase ease for the
participants. Participants also had to work with call and response in this game. This
The participants were then asked to come back to a circle and process the two
exercises. In the first exercise the group noticed that the circle got closer and closer as the
game progressed. They also noticed that they became more organized as the game went
on. They also discussed the laughter in both exercises as a result of nervousness and
having fun. While discussing the second exercise, the leader asked about what happened
when the gesture stopped? The participants and leader discussed the possibility of the
energy dropping. With that, it was difficult to pick up the pace again.
The leader then moved into the next exercise, a variation on Follow the Leader.
The participants were paired off and given the task of one member leading the other, their
common point the touching of their hands. The pairs continued to switch the leading
partner. Then the group got into one line connected by touching hands and moved about
the space. The leader then asked the participants to go back with their original partners
The group leader then asked the pairings to partner with different people, again
closing their eyes in the exercise, Blind, by Michael Rohd (1998). The group leader asked
the pair leaders to take their blind partner on a journey. The pair leaders were asked to
switch partners and leaders several times. The exercise emphasizes trust within a group.
It also works with physical contact, sharing common goals, and protecting one another.
Participants were then called on to process their experience of the exercise. They
reported it was difficult to switch partners. Group members indicated that it was scary to
close their eyes, and, although they felt the exercise was utilized to foster trust, they
sometimes experienced difficulty trusting the other with their eyes closed. One student
indicated that the movement as partners felt like modern dance. They discussed the
closeness and intimacy of the pairings as well as the trust needed when blindly following
a partner.
The group leader then directed the group back into the space to continue with the
Blind exercise. During this portion of the exercise, the leader asked the paired group
members to add narrative to the exercise. Essentially, he instructed the leaders of the
pairing to take their partner on a journey. The pairs switched leaders and partners several
times during this exercise. When processing this portion of the exercise, participants
discussed the stories and narratives they were involved in. They also discussed the
90
difficulties involved in switching partners while being blindly led around a room. They
related the switching of partners in this exercise to the field of psychology in that a client
might often see various clinicians as well as clinicians with different orientations. The
difficulty of switching in the trust exercise was associated with the difficulty clients
might experience in having to see various clinicians. Participants reported they relied on
the narrative to distract them from transitions between leaders and partners.
The group then moved into the exercise, Emotional Symphony. The leader asked
group members to voice emotions related to their experience of being a PsyD student.
are always enacting different roles. She questioned how one could be more authentic. A
discussion ensued regarding how it might feel to be 100% in your body and authentic.
From the discussion of emotion, the leader designated groups of two with a specific
emotion. These pairings stood next to each other in a semi-circle. Each pairing was asked
to use sound and vocalize the emotion through sound. The emotions utilized in the
acted as conductor and created a sound symphony of these listed emotions. He then asked
if anyone else wanted to conduct. A student then conducted while others looked on. Then
the group shifted so that the remaining participants could watch the symphony as well.
Emotional symphony works with exaggeration and creativity, trusting intuition, accessing
91
The group then processed the previous exercise. They discussed the stories they
noticed within the emotional symphony. The connection and interaction between the
conductor and the actors was also discussed. The leader decided to add in another
The group moved into the exercise Meet the Client. The group leader separated
the participants into groups of interviewers and interviewees. The interviewers were told
to leave the room, while the interviewees were asked to treat each interviewer differently.
The interviewees were asked to connect with the first interviewer by matching their
physicality and possibly their emotionality. For the second interview, the interviewees
were asked to not match their interviewer. The interviewers walk in without knowing
what to expect. The exercise facilitates listening, empathy, and observation skills.
was easier than not matching. Further, some group members reported they experienced
difficulty not matching their partner. The group discussed the possibility that not
matching may lead to making judgments. The leader asked how much matching one
would see if watching an empathically connected dyad. The group agreed there would be
The final exercise was entitled Machines. In this exercise, the participants worked
together to create a machine of sorts. One participant starts with a motion and perhaps a
sound, and then, one by one, other participants join in and add on to the motions and
sounds. The leader asked the group to create a PsyD machine, asking them to enact a
machine voicing their feelings about being a student. The machine represented much of
the stress and anxiety the participants experienced being graduate students. After
developing that machine, the participants were then asked to create an opposing machine;
the guidance was given to perhaps create the ideal situation or experience for a student.
The machine manifested into two machines, one devoted to the experiences of the
students, and the other devoted to the student's experience of their parents.
group members. Although they felt connected to certain members through sound and
movement, they often ignored other members who were not physically connected to
them. Some group participants reported feeling that their machine broke down and
individual components of the machine were not connected. The leader asked this group to
go back into the space and reenact the machine in effort to create more connection within
the machine. He worked with each member to create a cohesive connection between all
group members. Participants reported they enjoyed re-working the machine. They
reported listening to each other. They indicated that they enjoyed manipulating the
situation and working with an opposite range of emotions. At the end of this discussion,
the group leader suggested that, if this exercise were to continue, the ranges of emotions
might expand and you might see people making stronger character choices within the
machine.
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The Feedback/Results
Participants were asked to discuss their overall experience of the class at the end
feedback form is included in Appendix D and the anonymous responses to each of the
Much of the verbal feedback discussed after each exercise is included in the
section above. Overall verbal feedback about the class was gathered at the end of the
exercise portion of the class. Participants sat in a circle discussing their thoughts and
feedback about the class, improvisation, and psychology while simultaneously filling out
the written feedback forms. One participant reported enjoying the Meet the Client
exercise. He felt the exercise had the ability to expose players to different types of people
one may encounter in a therapy setting. He further indicated that this game prepares
psychology classes. He indicated that in class, one plays a role of the wise psychologist,
find yourself letting go more and really trying to just relax yourself as a person."
Participants indicated that improvisation allows for the opportunity to try out new
ideas and can challenge one to move beyond their comfort zone as a therapist. Another
student pointed out that improvisation allows a player to be creative and let go of what
may be blocking growth. One participant noted that improvisation allows for a discovery
about the self and others in the group. Another student related that improvisation allows
94
people to move beyond dichotomies. She indicated noticing the energy between people
Other students related the improvisation exercises to their work as therapists. One
student indicated that she works as an art therapist. She reported feeling that there are too
many expectations from clients in traditional talk therapy. She indicated experiencing less
pressure when clients are active and engaged in a co-constructed project. Another student
discussed the ways in which these improvisation exercises would be applicable to family
therapy.
The written feedback form incorporated six questions, including open and closed
questions. The first question queried, "Please describe any strength(s) of this
There were several themes derived from the responses of all of the participants. The first
theme related to the class's potential ability to lower anxiety with both clients and
strangers (likely strangers in class). Many participants also wrote about the class's ability
to increase awareness and self-discovery. As a benefit, the participants also indicated the
course's ability to increase interaction with other classmates. Others also wrote about
experiential learning as a strength because one receives full participation in the learning
process. Two participants further noted the specific exercise of Meet the Client. They
The next question asked, "What suggestions do you have for improvements of
training"? Responses to this question included a few themes. One theme related to
95
wanting more detailed conversation surrounding concepts and theory. Responses
suggested more discussion before and after the improvisation exercises linking
improvisation to psychology training. Another suggestion was to allow more time for
The third question asked, "Do you feel there is a connection between
improvisation and therapy"? All participants responded yes, with one participant noting,
"depending on client and their background." The fourth question surveyed, "On a scale of
participant responses was 4.5, between likely beneficial and extremely beneficial.
The fifth question explored, "Which therapeutic skills would this type of class
benefit"? Participants indicated the following therapeutic skills: listening skills, empathy,
The final question asked, "Do you think the creative arts have any place in the
training of psychologists? If so, what"? Participants responded yes overall, with various
reasons behind each yes statement. One respondent suggested that creative arts facilitate
learning about the self as a whole and treating the client as a whole entity. Another
respondent proposed that creative arts facilitate flexibility that is needed for critical
thinking. Another idea indicated that creative arts allows for more role exploration which
can prevent rigidity and provide the psychologist with more tools. One respondent
suggested that creative arts allow for individuals to explore the self. Another put forward
that creative arts would train you "in a different way." One participant indicated that
Overall feedback from the pilot program class was positive. Students seemed to
enjoy the improvisational work, and found benefits working within this experiential
method. Of note in the feedback was the participant emphasis surrounding the
minimize anxiety.
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CHAPTER 6: TRAINING PROGRAM
The Program
This section will discuss the emphasis, agenda, and materials for the proposed
training program. The course was structured based on the workshop sequence that Spolin
(1963) discussed in Improvisation for the Theatre, as well as Forsyth's (2003) textbook,
gathered from the pilot course, conversations with Keith Whipple and Dr. Ted
Rubenstein, and information from supplemental course reading material also aided in the
Appendix F of this dissertation. The syllabus is reflective of the model for creating
The course description indicates that the purpose of the course is to introduce
helping skills prior to going on the first practicum experience. The course will introduce
students to drama and improvisation, playback theatre, and creativity awareness; all
which can strengthen skills needed for building rapport, working with clients, and future
learning as psychologists. The overall goal for this course is to strengthen helping skills
and develop confidence prior to a practicum experience (where a student must learn in
the moment).
There are eight objectives for the students participating in the course. The first
objective is to be able to identify basic methods and rules of improvisation. The next
objective is to be able to describe basic skills needed in interviewing and working with
client populations. The third objective is to be able to demonstrate ability in
improvisation game, role-plays, and playback theatre demonstrations. The next goal is to
be able to react authentically to material and experiential learning methods. Another aim
is to be able to examine and identify personal empathic ability and listening skills. At the
conclusion of the course, the student should be able to analyze how the self is involved in
working with others. The student should also be able to identify creativity within the field
of psychology. Finally, the student should be able to integrate methods from the fields of
The course objectives were developed using the Bloom's Taxonomy of Education
Objectives (Forsyth, 2003, p. 12). The course is geared toward first year PsyD students;
application levels of Bloom's Taxonomy. The last three objectives move into the analysis
The course will be organized around class participation, discussion, and practical
application. Students will spend much of their time on their feet in the class. This entails
active involvement by each student in order to maximize the learning of all students in
the class. The course will cover topics such as improvisation, role-play, playback theatre,
Lecture, discussion, and enactment will be the three primary methods in teaching
this material. Enactment (i.e. improvisation, role-play) methods will be central to the
class. Active and experiential methods are being utilized to help students understand in a
different way; to understand learning actively through movement, contact, and immediate
response. Experiential methods also allow students to rehearse client interactions and
become more comfortable in this type of interaction. As every student has a different
learning style, different methods of teaching will be incorporated into the classroom
setting. Enactment or experiential training will be the focus of the course; therefore much
of this section is devoted to a more in depth description of this type of teaching and
learning.
The suggested textbooks include Viola Spolin's Improvisation for the Theatre
(1963) and Mick Napier's Improvise: Scene from the Inside Out (2004). The Spolin text
was chosen as it is considered the "bible" of improvisation and was developed through
her work with Neva Boyd who used improv in her work with children. Many
improvisational techniques and schools have been developed from Spolin's ideas. Mick
Napier is a well known improviser and director in the Chicago area. His ideas are taken
from Spolin, but he negates many of the rules that are associated with improvisation.
books are focused on improvisation performance. The additional readings intend to blend
improvisation into training for psychologists. The additional readings reveal ties between
psychology and drama/improvisation. They also foster creativity in thinking with the
intention of transferring this type of thought process into everyday life and into the
budding therapist's mindset. Additional suggested readings from the following books
include: Rollo May's The Courage to Create (1975) to help understand the process of
creativity, Rilke's Letters to a Young Poet (1954) and LeGalliene's Mystic of the Theatre
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(1973) to understand the mindset of the artist, Dayton's Drama Games (1990), Boal's
Games for Actors and Non-Actors (2002), and Rohd's Theatre for Community, Conflict,
and Dialogue (1998) for specific improvisation games to utilize in the course as well as
leading into some understanding of playback theatre and image theatre, and, finally,
Fox's Acts of Service (1986), and Salas's Improvising Real Life (1993) to understand the
process of playback theatre. These books are all suggestions and are not necessary texts
to conduct the course. The professor of this experiential course should select texts that
facilitate the activities and assignments as well as the process of the course discussed
below.
The course is divided into five activities and assignments in effort to evaluate
student's growth. The course will utilize several student centered activities. As the class
is focused on building helping skills and confidence, student centered activities seem
most appropriate. The first is improvisation and games the student's will participate in
each week. The student will be evaluated on their participation and motivation, not on
their acting ability. The purpose is for the student to get in touch with their creativity,
spontaneity, and self in order to strengthen skills needed in the client relationship. These
experientials are in essence a large group activity which may be broken down into
The next activity is journaling. Students will be asked to journal about their class
experience, reaction to readings, and reaction to homework exercises each week. Journals
are intended to connect the material with the students' personal experiences (Forsyth,
2003). The journals are intended to help the student make sense of the material. Journals
will help to evaluate if they are able to identify and describe basic methods of
improvisation. Journaling also evaluates how they are examining and identifying personal
ability and listening skills. The journals will also hopefully display how the student is
separate from their participation in experiential exercises. This discussion piece gives
students who have difficulty working in a very experiential way the chance to express
themselves through conversation rather than action. It is also more of a normal type of
classroom activity and may ease the anxiety of students who are experiencing difficulty
development for the student through self-awareness and use of the self in drama and
Factor Model of Teaching Goals. Personal development through self-awareness helps the
student to "develop capacity to think for oneself' and transfer classroom learning into
The fourth evaluative piece is an art and psychology connection paper. This
research assignment asks the students to research a topic that involves looking into the
connections between art and psychology. Possible topics are specified in the course
syllabus, but topic decision is at the discretion of the student. The course integrates
writing as an activity as, "writing is a profoundly active experience, for when people
write, they identify and define problems, evaluate evidence, analyze assumptions,
102
recognize emotional reasoning and oversimplification, consider alternative
interpretations, and reduce their uncertainty" (Wade, 1995, as cited in Forsyth, 2003, p.
115).
The final activity and evaluative piece of the course is the final improvisation and
playback performance. The students will perform for the class and possibly an invited
audience during the last class period. The performances will be evaluated on their
commitment to the project, their authenticity, and their integration of the subject material
learned over the course of the semester. Again, students will not be evaluated on their
acting ability. The final performance is the closure for the class. An improvisation or
performance class loses some of its life without a final presentation as closure. Hopefully
the final performance will inspire students to continue this type of learning beyond this
course, into further role-play and experiential training, and into the therapist-client
relationship.
The approximate agenda or process for the course is as follows. This is only a
brief outline as each professor should set the calendar as he or she finds to be appropriate.
The agenda for the course is discussed only to suggest key components necessary for the
course as well as to propose the flow of the course. Specific texts and assignments are
students will need time to adjust to working in this method. Weeks five through ten will
be devoted to specific aspects necessary to improvisation and connected to building the
therapeutic relationship. Topics covered in these weeks are as follows: who, where, what;
listening; empathy; character; emotion; and scenes. The eleventh week will focus upon
through fifteen will focus upon playback theatre, tying in all of the improvisation work
from the past eleven weeks. The final class period will be devoted to playback theatre and
participation should please discuss this with the professor at any time. There is
recognition that this way of working may be new to many students, and may create
anxiety for students. The hope is that the student will try to work through this anxiety and
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CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION
Discussion
This dissertation suggests the lack of emphasis on research and training of basic
helping skills (or pre-practicum skills), self-awareness, and creativity for professional
these areas creates low self-efFicacy and anxiety in the student psychologist.
student's training program in order to create a more holistic experience for the student, as
well as focus upon the skills listed above that are lacking in current training curriculum. It
is hoped that utilization of improvisation and drama techniques will lessen anxiety and
improve self-efficacy in the developing student in further training (e.g. in future in-class
psychologist. It is also hoped that this program will strengthen active listening skills,
psychology student.
The literature review within this dissertation spans many topics and fields. An
attempt was made to discuss the need for these skills (empathic listening, self-awareness,
and creativity) in training and was discussed within the NCSPP's training competencies
discussion of past basic helping skills training techniques was presented, as was the
evidence of the lack of research in this area today even as students are entering into
psychology programs less prepared than in the past. Empathy, empathic listening, self-
105
awareness, and creativity were then defined and discussed in relation to their respective
technique in psychology as well as within its dramatic roots. A history of theatre and
drama was then given to show the therapeutic roots of theatre as well as the therapeutic
benefits of watching theatre and of acting itself. Acting and theatre were then tied to
current uses of drama and psychology; psychodrama and drama therapy. The attempt was
to indicate that drama is utilized to help facilitate growth in clients and to heal. A drama
in education segment was then included to describe the benefits of drama in training and
learning. While the literature review only includes a brief overview of each topic or field,
the attempt was to create an overall understanding between the lack of training for these
skills in psychology and the benefits that drama could provide in teaching these skills to
psychology students.
a two hour pilot program of the course. The course contained seven experiential activities
for the participants. After each experiential improvisational activity, the participants were
asked to discuss their experiences informally in the small group setting. Activities ranged
from improvisation orientation games, role-plays that were similar to those used in
being psychology students. Eight PsyD students from various years in the program
participated in the research. The purpose of the class was to introduce PsyD students to
improvisation as a clinical training tool. The intention was also to assess student interest
106
in this type of training as well as to gather feedback on their experience of learning
Overall feedback on the pilot program was positive. Written feedback suggested
the following strengths in the course: potential to decrease anxiety in students, potential
building skills as a psychologist. Participants reported the following skills as ones that
the techniques and theory behind the improvisation exercises. Participants also suggested
more discussion surrounding the connection between drama and psychology. Another
idea was to allow more time for warm-ups in order to lessen anxiety. Participants also
was incorporated into the final creation of the course. Didactic lectures will occur
throughout the course discussing aspects of and skills within improvisation, drama, and
psychology. Time was allowed, especially in the beginning of the course, to get
107
comfortable with working in an experiential way. Writing was also incorporated into the
Limitations to this research relate to the qualitative nature of this study. The pilot
participants had some interest in the subject matter which could have inflated their
This researcher hopes there will be future research in this area of psychological
training. Further, it is hoped that this program will be enacted and evaluated. An outline
for the necessary components for the course and a basic syllabus was created. It is hoped
freestanding program to evaluate the course in its entirety. Evaluative methods such as
the IRl, the EQ, and the CASES were presented as pre-, post-, and follow-up measures
for empathy and self-efficacy. Journals could also be a potential measure in evaluating
the course. Each of these methods evaluates the growth of the student as well as the
108
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APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT FORM
I understand that any information obtained from me during this study which can identify
me will remain confidential, or will be disclosed only with my permission unless
required by law. I am in agreement that scientific or clinical information not identifiable
with me resulting from the study may be presented at meetings and published so that the
information can be helpful to others. My name will not be associated with any results; all
results will be reported in a group format. The videotape and transcription will be
maintained securely for a minimum of 5 years, after which they will be destroyed.
I understand that I may ask questions at any time during the study.
This study has been approved by the Chicago School IRB Committee. If you have
questions regarding the ethical approval of the study, please call or e-mail the IRB
Committee chair, Dr. Evan Harrington, at 312 329-6693
(eharrington@thechicagoschool. edu).
Participant Signature
Date
Agreement to audiotape (please initial)
Agreement to videotape (please initial)
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APPENDIX B: PILOT PROGRAM OUTLINE
Group sits in a circle - Introduce self by going around the room and indicating
their year in school. Expectations or goals for the class?
Thanks for your participation. Will only discuss bolded sections in the intro.
Rohd:
"The act of expression is an act of connection - through it we become positive,
active participants in our lives and in our communities" (Foreward)
Emunah:
Dramatic enactment can change us as people. We are deepened and
broadened by the roles we play. New parts of ourselves become
accessible, parts that can be mobilized in our work as healers.. Therapy is
not only a science; it is an art. Perhaps we can best express the art of
psychotherapy via an artistic process. (Emunah, 1989, pp. 35-36)
I do not believe that we must have lived through what our clients have; we
need not have been psychotic or alcoholic or abused to help such a client.
Nevertheless, to come closer to the skill of the shaman, we do need to
understand those we work with as deeply and empathically as possible.
This kind of understanding can occur through becoming the other, for
awhile, through dramatic enactment. (Emunah, 1989, p. 35)
7:30pm: Introduce Keith Whipple (Drama Therapist and Psychodramatist- Institute for
Therapy through the Arts, and Improviser - Comedy Sportz).
At end have the pair process. And then process with the group.
8:20pm: Process
8:35pm: Process
8:40pm: Meet the Client (added last minute given extra time)
8:40pm: Machines
"Your Life as a Student"
Possible mini-playback building a machine about a person's day
Possible "opposite" machine
8:55pm: Process 'Machines'
9:00pm: Thoughts/Feedback
Process Questions:
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What did you like about this class?
What did you dislike about this class?
Do you feel there is a connection between improvisation and therapy?
Overall, do you feel like this class would benefit your skills as a psychologist?
Which skills would this type of class benefit? (i.e. Empathic listening, creativity,
self-awareness)?
Do you think creative arts have any place in the training of psychologists? If so,
what?
I will also be handing out these questions for those who do not feel comfortable
discussing this in front of the group.
Thank you!!
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APPENDIX C: PILOT PROGRAM TRANSCRIPTION
Participants:
Monique
Ken
Jacob
Jordan
Stephanie
Antoine
Lori
Adrian
Abby: Ok, what we're going to do right now is just go around the room, and just say your
name, and if you have any expectations for tonight, please let me know, if not.. .just say
your name. And maybe what year you are. My name's Abby, and I'm a 4th year, and I'm
hoping that you all have fun.
Abby: Ok great. Thank you all for coming. Um, I am going.. tonight we're going to start
with just a brief introduction about what this dissertation really is about. And I'm going
to read you a quote linking therapy or training and improv - in a psychology sense. And
then we're just going to go right into the work with Keith. And we'll be able to process as
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we go along. And if you guys have any questions throughout, please, just shout it out.
Very informal. And please ignore my taping (point to camera).. I don't want to be in the
way, because I will be off to the side just like taking notes and mostly doing taping. And
about the taping, it's mostly just for the transcript so I have something for the
dissertation... and no one will ever see it. Ok. Um...
So that's the basic gist of the reason for the class. And this is a quote from
Renee.. .Emunah
Abby: She is a drama therapist and she wrote an article about the connections between
training drama therapists using drama to become drama therapists and I thought it was
very appropriate to this class.
"Dramatic enactment can change us as people. We are deepened and broadened by the
roles we play. New parts of ourselves become accessible, parts that can become
mobilized in our work as healers. Therapy is not only a science, it is an art. Perhaps we
can best express the art of psychotherapy via an artistic process."
"I do not believe we must have lived through what our clients have. We need not have
been psychotic or alcoholic or abused to help such a client. Nevertheless, to come closer
to the skills of Shaman, we do need to understand those we work with as deeply and
empathically as possible. This kind of understanding can occur through becoming the
other for awhile through dramatic enactment."
So I thought that was appropriate. Now I want to handout, Keith put this together, um,
it's just improv, he calls it The Improv Paradigm, it's just rules of improv. Um... through
Spolin, primarily?
Keith: Uh, yeah, basically, it's it's a, honestly, the genesis is looking at, goes back to
doing corporate work. And the point is, in any kind of student setting or places where
people are learning about what it is in improv, why improv? Why are corporations going
there, why in schools, why are people considering going to improv as a source. So going
back to Spolin, and looked at her introductory chapters on improvisation to the theatre.
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And I looked at it as sort of a paradigm, what's the sort of thinking she's laying out, uh,
the gold means of improv. And, uh, it's laid out in terms of, uh, it's laid out as it is
because, the eight, uh, principles, these are principles that are in the chapter. They are laid
out this way because it's very cobiesque. Uh, that's uh subtype of highly (intelligent?)
people mode here, uh.. Really those are what's laid out. Uh, the quotes, you may find
others that work or are more provocative for you. But as you look through or go over
some of those things you will find that those are some of the activating principles that are
in improv.
Abby: All right, great. So why don't we just go ahead and go start doing some improv
exercises. Um, and just sort of remember that this would be a semester-long course so
take what you can, but you know, you need to take this stuff into your everyday life and
see how it plays out in your everyday life with your work in psychology. But just wanted
to be honest about, like, if this is going to change your life, you know what I mean,
(laugh) So, I just wanted to put that out there. Does anyone have any questions before we
start? OK.
Keith: Um. Two things as we go before we start from myself is that I've designed this
course with Abby to be a sense of moving into, uh, using the arts as a way of knowing
yourself better and getting more attuned and aware. We have not chosen this to be
something that is a drama therapy session or a psychodrama session. We have been very
deliberate about the way this is structured so that it's really about, um, having an
experience that is not invasive in any way, but that really gets to some of the things that
suggests what an actual semester course would be like. OK? So let me go ahead and get
up on our feet. Put paper and things to the side.
(Everyone rises)
Keith: First thing's just to get energized. We're just going to shake things out a little bit.
But spread out, you're going to need a lot of room to spread out here, we want a really
full circle so we want to sort of fill in these gaps here as well. So fill in.. .great. Games.
First game is Kitty Wants a Corner. All you gotta do is come right up to someone. You
know this. Some of you might know this. Kitty wants a corner. You come right up to the
person and say this. Why? Because he has to say: "Go ask my neighbor." Which means
he'll point to somebody back there somewhere, right? Look at them, point to them. Go
pick somebody out. Go ahead and point to them. You don't have to go to them, point to
them with your hand. That's where you'll (unintelligible). That's right. So you'll say,
"Go ask my neighbor."
Keith: I will proceed directly to this person to ask her. In the meantime, it is your
challenge, all of you who are not the person I am looking at to make eye contact with
someone else, say, (pointing) you to you, and change places. Before I come around and
126
take your spot. Otherwise, you're the person in the center going around, in the center
going around asking people Kitty wants a corner. Make sense?
Keith. All right, very simple. There you are. So we'll kitty wants a corner.
Keith: Um, it's important not to cheat, so as you'll notice I'm coming right up to giving
you guys plenty of room. Right? No, you guys aren't cheating, I'm just demonstrating.
Kitty wants a corner.
Keith: All right. (Clapping) Let's keep moving. There's plenty of time and plenty of
opportunity for you to get across right.
127
Monique: Ok (giggling) in the middle...
Keith: All right all right all right, spread out, don't make it easy for her.
Monique: Kitty?
(Dyads switching)
Keith: You, you. ..had the perfect opportunity because she said go ask my neighbor and
was already in motion.. .you jump into her spot and you've either cut her off or the
person who is taking her place.
Monique: Ok
Keith: All right? So spread out guys, spread out a little bit, you've made it a little, there
we go.
(Pointing)
(Dyads switching)
Jordan: (Points)
(Dyads switching)
(Dyads switching)
(Laughing)
Keith: Whoa... so who is in the middle? So.. I'll stay there. Kitty wants a corner.
(Dyads switching)
Keith: Good. Ah. So one thing you want to be really clear about is what is happening. All
right. So let me ask a question really quick, right? What is happening? What do you
notice happening?
Keith: A LOT! Right? I've decided we're switching. (Laugh) You may not have decided
that. I've decided that. Ya... .(starting again) Kitty wants a corner.
130
(Dyad switch - Jordan stuck in center)
(Dyad switch)
(Dyad switch)
(Dyad switch)
Jordan: Kitty wants a corner.
(Dyads switching)
Lori: (Points)
(Laughing)
132
(Laughing, unintelligible)
(Antoine shrugs)
Keith. Good! Right - spread out a little bit! So keep that in mind. We're going to come to
process that just a little bit - as we go. Next thing I want you do is that you've, you've, -
we've introduced ourselves already. So let's go around with names again - Keith.
Antoine: Antoine
Adrian: Adrian
Jacob: Jacob
Monique: Monique
Lori: Lori
Jordan: Jordan
134
Stephanie: Stephanie
Ken: Ken
Keith: So, because there's two (removed for confidentiality), and, you know, they -
we're going to introduce ourselves in a slightly different way, which is, to just make a
sound and gesture that might go along with how you're feeling or somehow just
representing you in place of your name. All right. So, for example, one might be
something like, (Rubbing hand through hair with a sigh). Or whatever it is. It's just a
simple little sound and movement that represents you instead of your name. All right? So,
just trust whatever comes out. All right. (Gestures to Ken). Ken'11 do it.
Ken: (Muttering) Here's what I'm doing. (Puts hands in pockets and sighs).
Keith: So it's this, both hands in...can we do it with both hands out? Just sort of...
Keith: Op - just like that! See how it comes, how easy it comes? And what was the sound
along with that?
Keith: So can everyone do that just to make sure we've got that?
Keith: So let's do those two together just to make sure we've got that.
Jordan: Ugh.
Keith: What?
Jordan: Ugh!
Keith: Ugh! And there was a bit of a head turn there. Was that right?
Jordan: (Does head turn) Ugh.
(Laughing)
Keith: I will add one just for the sake of things. (Jumps into warrior- type position) OK!
Keith: Good. Ok. Now, the idea is that I will say somebody's name, right, so, and then
you'll repeat your own name and say somebody else's, right? So let's just repeat the
names we just did so that everybody has a chance to see them again. So we have (does
his gesture) OK. (then gestures to next person) and ...
(Everyone goes around the room doing each person's sound and gesture)
Keith: Good. So I'm going to go with (his sound and gesture, then L's sound and
gesture).
Keith: And then you're going to go (gesture). So repeat your name and do somebody
else's.
Lori: All right. All right. (Her sound and gesture, Antoine's sound and gesture).
Antoine: Bop (gesture). Oh woops. (His sound and gesture, Stephanie's sound and
gesture).
Keith: Oh yeah, he, that's right, you're (Jacob's sound and gesture)
Jacob: That's right. (His sound and gesture, Adrian's sound and gesture)
Monique. OK. Uh... (Monique's sound and gesture, Jacob's sound and gesture)
Keith: Op. Sorry. (Keith's sound and gesture, Antoine's sound and gesture)
Adrian: (Adrian's sound and gesture, Antoine's sound and Keith's gesture)
Antoine: (Antoine's sound and gesture, Jordan's sound and gesture). I did, whoo (head to
side).
Keith: Good. Now let's actually try to really pick up your pace on it now and see how
fast we can actually pass it around. All right? (Points to Jordan)
(pauses)
Lori: Ok. (Lori's sound and gesture, Adrian's sound and gesture)
139
Jordan. (Jordan's sound and gesture, Keith's sound and gesture)
Lori. (Monique's sound and gesture). Oh. (Lori's sound and gesture, Monique's sound
and gesture)
Keith: Good. Everybody sit down for a second. Just tell me what you observed about just
those two. What do you observe about just those two? Those first two.
Jordan: a lot of eye con... not only eye contact, but you had to, sort of, look for facial
expressions, like raising eye brows or I guess some sort of (unintelligible) initiate to go...
Jacob: When we got to the other spot we got (motions with his hands a circle)
Keith: Ah ha. There is that sense of all of the (motions smaller circle with hands) old
habit. Congregates toward it.
Antoine: The mastery of the game. All of the sudden people were getting more hesitant to
take it seriously, like, at first it was chaotic, and then the group (unintelligible).
Keith: OK, what about the second one as well. What did you notice in that?
Monique: I think it was my energy, I did notice that I would find the (Stephanie's sound
and gesture) more quickly.
Ken. I got more and more organized with the second one. But with the first one, it got
more chaotic. (?)
K: Ok.
Jordan: I was going to say the different types of (unintelligible) we were using in the
beginning (unintelligible) I guess the most memorable ones. There was more variety in
the end to less variety in the end.
Keith: I noticed, uh, laughter. When you'd hear, when the gesture would come up. I also
noticed a (sigh) if someone was repeated. Huh? The ones that suddenly, like you said
(motioning to Jordan), became familiar. How about when it dropped, when it wasn't
picked up on right away? Anything about that dynamic?
Lori: Well, social pressure. It's because the group is waiting for that other person. So
that, uh...
Keith: Right. They didn't really say your name. My name's Fred and you said Fed.
(Laughs). All right, so we had one (Ken's sound and gesture) with different things, so
you could say we're picking up on different things. And we're going to take it into
another (?) again, then in terms of just attunement and getting in touch with each other.
All right? So what I want to do it just pair off with somebody. Just just find a way to pair
off and we'll, and if there's loose and we'll just find it. Good. You good? Good. What I
want you to do is just.. give yourself your own little bit of space. That's all. Just give
yourself your own little bit of space. All right? And you can stay wherever you are, floor,
or seating. Choose kind of an A and B between you. Who is A and who is B?
Keith: All right. So - what we're going to do is, and if one person could just come out
here for a second just to demo with me for a minute.
Keith: There you go. Fine. Very good. So what we're going to do is just face each other
and I'm going to give you a chance to just place your hand just gently underneath mine.
And it can be this way (face down) this way (face up) or however you want to do it. K?
So what we're going to do is, all I'm going to do is start to ask you to follow me just by
where I move my hand. We're just keeping just that amount of space. K. So you're just
going to try and maintain - that's right - maintain close no matter where I go.
Lori: O h - O K .
Keith. All right? So no matter where I go I want you to try and follow it. K? And then I'll
call switch, which means now it's me following her.
(Laughter)
Keith: All right - here we go. All right. So. But notice. Work with this - you've got all
different sorts of planes that you can work at. I've taken it back over again - but - right?
So you can go up, down, and around from there. And you can start on the floor.
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(Laughter)
Keith: But that's ok. Because that will teach you guys to - how do we get up together?
All right? That's fine.
Keith: (Laughter)
Keith: But I would try to see how much you guys can explore. And yet - try to also
maintain your awareness of other groups so you're not just leading your partner into the
next group over. All right - so try to do it - you won't need too much talking. But, yeah,
that's all right. You can be touching slightly, or, if you're going to try and go with feeling
each other's aura's - fine.
(Laughter)
Keith: But you still have to keep that space as a lead. There you go. Go. Go for it.
Keith: See how you connect. If you're going fast, try going at a slower pace. If you've
been experimenting with one plane, try a different plane... horizontal, vertical plane. OK.
Keith: Switch!
(Giggles)
Keith: Good. Now keep going. Take the verbal completely out of there. Just go with the
hands and sensing each other.
Switch... switch... switch... switch... .switch... switch... .switch... switch
... switch... switch.. good. Come around into a circle. Good. All right. Good. Who really
wants to lead... anyone... in particular?
(Participants are touching hands in a worm-like shape moving around the room)
(Giggles)
Keith: Now you've got a much bigger partner, but see what you can do to explore there.
See how well - they're you go.
(Moving)
(Laughter)
Keith: Now try your pace, try to alter your pace or the plane that you're working on.
Keith: Antoine, want you to try working at a really slow pace. K? Really slow. Really
slow and deliberate. And try to work with a difference in what plane you're working on.
What vertically you're working on, how high, how...
Antoine: Ooohhh...
Keith: See what I'm saying, there we go. Don't need 747.
(Laughter)
Keith: And whatever he's doing with your hands you try to mirror it to the next person.
That's it. Don't watch him, just feel it. If it doesn't tear you all the way down, it's just
something to know.
(Muttering, laughter)
Keith: Good. Stop. Find your original partners. A and B, ok? All right now. A and B, um,
A you're going to lead B. B you're going to have your eyes closed. OK? Make any
adaptations you feel are necessary to protect B. All right? B, you don't have to make any
adaptations because the adaptations are A's responsibility. All right? So, try to avoid your
contact with other groups or other things around you. Your main job, A, is to lead B
around and keep them safe. Actually, your main job is to keep them safe and lead them
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around. When I call switch, when I call switch, exactly from where you are, you will stop
and you will immediately switch whose eyes are closed, right? Switch!
Keith: Switch! There you go. Watch. . . where they are. . . switch. Switch. Switch. Switch.
Stop. Good, come around the circle. All right, tell me about it.
(Laughter)
Jacob: First it was a little hard for me having my eyes closed. I don't know, like I might
hit a wall or something. Even though I knew it wasn't going to happen, I held my head
down just in case.
Antoine: Same thing was awesome, especially like the leader of that - to be able to
manipulate like this larger train.. .you know (Laughter). It was just, it was interesting to
see if like if you would just try to think of different variations of like.. what? I don't want
to kill people. So it was interesting to just sort of like really (moving arms) moving your
arms and gesturing and having other people just follow.
Lori: I think it's interesting and it explores a lot of trust issues between two people and,
like, it felt good for me to be able to, like, just close my eyes and let her lead me around.
And then the other way around. Like it felt like a relief to open up to .. like on both sides
it kind of was an interesting experience.
Monique: Yeah. I thought it felt like it was a trust activity. And, although I guess I
pretended like I trusted her, in my mind I could see, which didn't - says like, although
I'm (unintelligible) doing this with my eyes close, I was like, oh I can see...
Monique. I was pretending that I could see where she was leading me.
Keith: OK. So - in a way, you invented a narrative of what you were doing, right? Which
is what when I do drama is what I'm concerned and we come up with it all the time,
right? You were visualizing a kind of narrative or journey. You could see it in your
mind's eye happen. Did anybody go anywhere else narratively, go anywhere else
imaginatively while this was happening? Anything else pop up.
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Stephanie: I did. I actually remember - because I took modern dance in undergrad and so
we did a lot of things with your eyes closed and I was transported back to undergrad and
actually keeping my eyes closed and being led by another dancer.
Antoine: I felt the closeness in terms of the touching with another person. I mean it's a
really kind of intimate activity (laugh) that we're doing.. but to, um, at one point you
know like I started spinning him around you know and just kind of just like almost you're
thinking I'm in the ballet (giggle)... you know...
Keith. Yeah. But that's it exactly. That's like the next narrative piece is now I'm in the
ballet. Am I swimming? Am I. .. feel like there's wind around me... or what are the next
imaginative images that come around or the next associations that come to mind. Um,
we're going to process this a little more, but first, for right now go and find your original
partners. Go up to a space, go with your original partners to a space. And I'm going to let
you lead a little bit, but I want you to drop in a little narrative. Which means I just want
you to go for your blind partner, because this is going to be a blind thing again. I want
you to feel free to try and paint a picture for them of where they are going. Are they
going through a tunnel? Are they going over stones? Paint them a picture of what your
journey is. OK? Again, your first job is now to keep them safe. Your second job is now to
take them on a journey. OK? Make sense? So, uh, B lead A to start with.
(Muttering)
(Each dyad is moving around, leader utilizing both touch and verbal cues)
Keith: Again try different levels, try going backwards rather than forwards, try different
directions, but keep telling them where they are going.
Keith: A's, all of you try and narrate some experience of going over something. Some
experience of having to go over something.
Keith: Good. Some of you are already there. But make sure you try and get the
experience of going under something. Going under something or you're painting in the
journal .. painting the picture. Now we're doing the under.
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(Stories and movement)
Keith. You have to go around something now. Make the picture of around. Go around.
Keith: Now the experience of going through. Not something that's obviously not painful
to grow through. But something safe to go through. We go through things all the time, so
what can you take them through.
Keith: Good. Stop. If you're not all of the way finished with your journey, take a moment
to finish it. Or a few steps, if you need to. All right good. Just checking. I didn't want to
leave anybody halfway home. All right. Switch! And B lead A, over, under, around,
through. OK, go.
Keith: New story. Find a new story. Unless your story involves the same path and
something's different about it. Good, so we have to go over something, have to go under
something....
Keith: All right, now, yeah, keep going, if we're getting to through, that's fine. Keep your
eyes closed. Now here's the thing we're going to have to do. You're going to have to find
a way now, keep your eyes closed, careful. I mean whoever's got their eyes closed, don't
forget where we are now. Keep your eyes closed whoever has them closed, sorry. And,
what you're going to need to do now is trade partners, somehow, but you're going to
have to make this - try to make this transition work for the person who has their eyes
closed. You're going to have to have to actually switch who you're leading, so you're
going to have to actually trade off this poor person to someone else. And now transitions
are always difficult.
(Laughter)
(Stories overlapping)
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(Laughter)
Keith: Just for this one go without the story, just lead without the story for now. All
right? All right? Good. Stop. Switch.
Keith: Take care of your partner. Take care of your partner. Good. If you want to,
reintroduce some narrative...as you feel it. Imagine you're going to...now you're going
to get to a point where you're going need to trade this partner with somebody else. It's
always the same person trading.
Keith: Find a way to trade, you're going to have to find somebody else that you're going
to actually transition somebody brand new to...
Keith: Good. Let your narrative go for a second. Let it go. K. All right? That's all right?
Nice... I got you.
Keith: Stop. Come on over to the center. You guys find a way to just relax and say
goodbye to the last person you were with. If you need to open your eyes and say
goodbye. Good. Go ahead and open your eyes. You can open your eyes. There you go.
All right? Good. Come on around the circle. Tell me a little bit more. There were a lot of
dynamics going on there. Tell me about some of them.
Lori: Hard to transition once you trust somebody and then I'm like oh god a new partner,
what?
Jacob: I find myself relying on the narrative to sort of distract from the whole trust issue.
Keith. Ok. What does that tell you? What kind of information does that give you? What
do you think about in terms of that whole transition when you had to switch that person
to somebody else and you were so comfortable working with that other person?
Adrian: Didn't bother me. Cuz he (Antoine) went so fast and I was used to that and
everybody else was like really slow, so it was very easy for me to transition off to
another...
Keith: Uhhuh...
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Adrian: Yeah..
Antoine: Switching from who I was with to Lori was like a crazy experience cuz I felt
like I was being launched and pulled in this other direction, you know, where the other
one had been a lot calmer, and so ...
Keith: But (laughter).. .good.. .that was interesting. It was an interesting dynamic there
where it was like you took me to a war zone so here I'm going to... .(motions moving
back)... (laughter) You say (unintelligible) - if that's your narrative, here - try this!
(Laughter)
Keith. Oh nice! (Laughter) Other - what kind ofjourneys did we come up with other than
Nietzsche's syphilis riddled mind?
Ken: You know, my kind of, although the movement changed moreso than the one I did
before from really fast to the zigzag thing we had going, it was always somewhere
mutual... (unintelligible)... a prairie or there was a river or a creek...
Antoine: He did the city for me, because you were like, "Now we're on the El" and I
could see the El, especially he did one where he was like, "Now we're going through a
turnstile," and I really could visually see myself go through a turnstile... in my mind. Like
I held an image for that.
Keith: What were some of elements were successful? They weren't, they weren't
intellectually amusing necessarily, but for a moment you felt like you were going on that
journey with a person.
(Overlapping discussion)
Stephanie: Well, I don't know, I was just walking through some nature - a lot, just a lot
of the steps, like now we're going through here - just a lot - 1 really had to step, or I
really had to do what I had to do in order to get through it. Like, it was right there in front
of me so I gotta make this move.
149
Ken: (Unintelligible)
Keith: Were there any moments that made it harder or more difficult to reestablish - there
are all kinds of things you can think about in terms of client transition, we have to
transition from some person to another person.
Stephanie: Well I walked him into a wall. I imagine that was interesting - (Laughter) -1
was feeling bad about that.
Antoine: It's almost like I was thinking - (unintelligible) - and working with a client -
you could be working with a client particularly and have a certain way of doing things
and you switch and they turn to another person and just like before - 1 was being pulled
and led in this specific way where with him it was a very different type of journey, you
know, so - going to me was going to a Kosovo war zone vs. a peaceful nature walk.
(Laughter) We had different orientations would be a metaphor for it.
Jordan: This is actually really interesting.. .before I came here, we did work with - every
night of the week - with kids who were working with (unintelligible) - unfortunately had
to switch for various reasons beyond our control which people didn't always consider the
affect it would have on the child and it was underestimated with them being homeless
there is definitely a trust issue you build up with them (unintelligible) and then you
switch to someone brand new and the (unintelligible) trust and understanding and
everything else that might have clicked, and at least where I came from, you can't
underestimate (unintelligible).. .there is something there that needs to be appreciated.
Keith: Was there, did anyone attempt to pick up on the narrative that was before you?
Keith: For example, there was no rule not to when you traded.. Listeners say, "Where
have you been; where are you going? And, where have you been? Where are you going?"
Monique. I think I did, because the interviewer said I was a frog (??), so I think I then
said I was an albino frog and he had to go on a zig zag cuz frogs sometimes go
(unintelligible).
Keith: So you were introduced that way so it's this idea of the transition. So that if we go
for, I know you've been in that nature trail... so - this part of the nature trail goes through
this really rough area.. but it's like.. but, the question, how would that have been?
Would there been more of a transition that takes you.. There was a moment where I think
we did a switch where two blinds ended up together.
150
Lori: That, that was totally like, that was me - 1 figured that would happen. I kind of
planned it because I thought it was funny.
Lori. I just wanted to put them together cuz they both had their eyes closed...
Jacob: And then we got across the room and he said, "Wait, one of us has our eyes open,
right?" (Laughter)
Keith: So you were actually pretty good at just with neither of you... cuz we were
watching. We weren't going to let you walk out a window. (Laughter) No, no, we were
watching from here.
So you were moving and then at a certain point, I think it was you who opened your eyes
or did you both do it.
Keith: All right. But you decided, "Oh, so I'm going to lead." So you just made a
decision that you were just going to...
Jacob: It was more from, um, putting together his reaction just with sound. And linking
up with mine, which was just, just that we're both standing there, non-directional, you
know, and there was something about that when I heard his laugh and I'm like, no wait,
maybe that's what happened.
Keith: Ahh... What was it like for you to have two people with eyes open?
Lori: It was - 1 found it very enlightening. I like - 1 liked to have my eyes open just to see
how people react. I mean it's interesting how for - they just for awhile say "what's going
on?" And...
Keith: How were the two journeys? You did journey with eyes open and then one eyes
closed?
151
Stephanie: Yeah, it really was, because I was like, "Oh, look, her eyes are open," - I'll
close mine.
Keith: Ahhh. ..
Keith: Cool. Rule banks count. Right? One of us must be (laughter) OK. But it was
good... experience to say half of it, exactly, find out what's the next thing with each other.
Go on. Ok cool. Talk to me now about some of the emotions that came up during all of
this so far, different emotions that have come u p - also I'm going to widen the spectrum
and say emotions that have come up in all of your training and experiences. Just different
emotions. You had (unintelligible) - it's a lot of emotions.
Keith: So especially - but ones - and especially ones that you would be ok with just sort
of giving some (unintelligible) to - just the emotions themselves.
Keith: Defensiveness.
Antoine: Being prepared for like, you know, like someone was saying earlier, like I was
really going to not get to something so I'm like...
Antoine: .. brace for that, you know, and I'm really waiting for that collision.
Lori: There was a level of uncomfort for me - that's kind of why I'm really interested in
this whole kind of improv and acting and the intersection in psychology because I - 1
wonder - 1 think that people go through their lives acting everyday. Right now - we're all
acting - 1 mean in a sense. And so I wonder how we become more authentic through
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playing someone else or, you know, imagining yourself going somewhere - 1 just - I'm
trying to figure out all in my head - like who, where is yourself when you're constantly
playing these roles.
Lori: That's the thing, you know what I mean, I don't even know where - that's the thing,
like I, this is just...
Keith: Right, and I've had this same discussion with someone who thought that, when I
said acting, they thought I was referring to being dishonest, instead of the idea of playing
certain roles in certain social situations. And saying, "well, I'm always me." The person I
was talking to was like, "No, no, I'm always me, I'm always the same wherever I go,
whatever I do, I'm always the same." Well, OK! That itself is a choice. Um...
Lori: It's just interesting. Yeah, I know, sometimes I'm uncomfortable with trying to -
yeah - teasing that out - when it's you, and when it's not.
Keith: And so obviously, you're going get to the idea of some of what this touches on -
and what it's supposed to open up in terms of that comfort zone and what you're most
familiar with. But let me touch on these emotions now, so what I've got - um - I've got -
is anybody else connected with anger? Because I wanted to hear if there was an anger
echo for anybody? You had an anger? All right...
Antoine: I felt close, personalness - especially like I guess when I switched to Lori who
I'm more comfortable with...
Keith: Well, I would put fear into defensiveness - so there could be anger, there could be
something else in there as well. I don't know...
Antoine: Yeah, but also just like being when I was leading her I felt like more, cuz I
know her personally, so it felt a little more personal hand-holding thing, probably, and it
felt like a closeness shared, because we were, I don't know, we were just more as one
physical set-up that was different for me that I experienced this whole thing...
Jordan: Yeah I was more like (unintelligible) between assumptions and expectations. I
expected that no one was going to (unintelligible) because I assumed that everyone else
here (unintelligible) was not doing it. (Unintelligible) People here you don't know them,
but we're all responsible because of what we are doing. So I've got sort of huge problems
- 1 expect everything to go wrong. What could possibly go wrong -
Keith. In the course through your year what other emotions have you experienced? Just
through the course of your training. You were - just the last training experience you
talked to me about with the kids - different emotions that came up.
153
Jordan: Out of frustration and as an outsider because I saw what was happening and I saw
what was going on. And best practices (unintelligible) just going by the wayside and not
being - and just basically being told yeah we see it but don't worry about it.
Keith: Uh... let me recap some of the emotions that I've heard. Which is discomfort,
defensiveness, which I've kind of put in a little fear in there cuz there usually,
instinctively I think there is some fear involved in that at work -
Lori: Absolutely.
Keith: Um.. I'm hearing frustration and anger. And I'm pairing some things for myself.
You said anger before, is that right?
Monique: Mm hmmm.
Keith . Yeah, sure. So - um, and then, what are some of the other ones?
Jacob: Anxiety.
Keith: Anxiety. Which is another good one there, but it's a little different -
Adrian: For me, it was just, coming into here, it was just kind of, letting go of any kind of
expectations. Anything like how I'm supposed to act - how - what we're supposed to do
and just kind of doing whatever you're supposed to do. Like when I was being led
around, just blanking everything out and just listening. And just being in it like 100% -
just trying -
Keith: How does that feel? When you said that - how does that feel.
Adrian: At first, anxiety, because you feel anxious about bumping into something. And
then it's really really relaxing because like I'm being led around and no matter where he
led me or whoever led me I didn't bump into anybody so I just kind of went wherever.
Keith: Uh, and then I'm just trying to remember what I heard from you. Just emotions.
Keith: (Laugh) Well, which one for you that really comes up.
154
Monique: Most? Um, I guess I would say (unintelligible) I would say the shame and
embarrassment.
Keith: Ok. Yeah, that sort of shame and embarrassment kind of thing.
Monique: Yeah, I couldn't pretend because I had the training because you're expected to
play a certain role, but I didn't feel that certain role. So then that to me is kind of like
uncomfortable but it's also kind of shameful because people I think who know what they
are doing they can tell when you're playing. You're playing the therapist until you get it.
Right?
Keith: Uncertainty. Got it. Let me - I'm going to pair you up. But we're going to do
another exercise with this. K? I'm going to sort of give voices to this. I'm going to put
anxiety kind of together here. All right? And let anger be together here as well. And then
we're going to put sort of our defensiveness - sort of this fear here. And then I'm going
to put the uncertainty with the sort of shame part because I just want to put together the
little closeness of - we're getting sort of to this mad, bad, scared, uncertain - and this is
just - this is all a little bit scared, but in a different way. All right? So it's also just a little
bit - there is a bit of positive emotion mixed into this one. So it's both anxious but it's
getting a bit liberated at the same time. All right? So it's that mix. What I want you to do
is.. we're going to go ahead and make a sort of a semi-circle... sort of thing... so... stand
next to your partner. But we'll be standing for this. OK? The... let's see... sort of semi-
circle so why don't you guys find a way to join your circle up a little bit so it's almost
like you'd be facing an audience. Facing out. All of you facing out. So we can bring you
around this way. There we go. There we go. There we are. So we're paired here, paired
here, paired here, paired here. Great. All right. So.. good. So this is where our audience
is going to be here as we go. So what I want to do is - 1 want you to think just the two of
you now making the sound of the emotions that you had was? Generally we had angry,
frustrated, that body of guilt. I want you to think about not being verbal, but just making
sound. What does that sound like? Actually, the whole group, what do you think that that
sounds like? Everybody all together - what does that sound like? Just make the sound of
anger, the sound of frustration.
Group: (Sounds)
Group. (Sounds)
155
Keith: Good. Try to vocalize it. Make like a vocal sound with it.
Group. (Sounds)
Group: (Sound)
Keith: Good. Give me a - now take that same sound and we're going to make it very
staccato, very short.
Group:(Sound)
Keith: What we're on our way to is we're going to go ahead and create a whole
symphony with these emotions. So give them full voice. All right? So first we have, all
together, anger.
Group:(Sound)
Group:(Sound)
Group. (Sound)
Keith: And get grumbles (unintelligible). So just for you two, what does that sound like?
Keith: Good. Stay with it. Very good. Now we have the next one which is that sense of
anxiousness. Anxiousness with a little bit of excited. Everybody, what does that sound
like? Everybody altogether.
Group: (Sound)
Keith: What does that sound like, right? That's the - try to put your body - some people
are trying to put your body what it's like to do that. What's it like again?
Group:(Sound)
Keith: Good. One more. Try to extend - try to extend that note.
156
Group:(Sound)
Group:(Sound)
Keith: (Laughter) Good. Now. Take it now - you guys - it's kind of uncertain, a little bit
ashamed. You know that kind of stuff - not sure I know how to do this.. that kind of
feeling. So how does that sound everybody?
Group. (Sounds)
Keith: Good. Amplify that. Take that little thing that you're doing - what I heard you
doing - amplify it a little bit. Exaggerate it.
Group: (Sounds)
Keith. (Unintelligible)
Group: (Sounds)
Keith: Do exactly that - but do it so the words lose all of their sense so that it's like
"stupid me" ye ye ye.. Ye ye ye - that's it. Now let me hear it again. Even louder.
Group: (Sounds)
Group: (Sounds)
Keith. Short
Group: (Sounds)
Keith: Short.
Keith: Extended.
Keith. Good. Wow. So this last one right - it's that kind of a little bit fearful,
defensive...all right? All right, very good, and perfect. What's it sound like?
Group. (Sounds)
Keith: Extend that note, take whatever you are doing and exaggerate it a little bit.
Group. (Sounds)
Keith: Good good good. Now we're going to put it all together. All right? So - you'll
have a chance to play this as a full symphony, right? So if I come to you, I may come up
to different sections of the symphony and bring it up, down, stretch it out - right? All
right. So - (kneeling) - what I'm going to ask you to do now, is first, I will ask you to
don your instruments. Which is - 1 want you to take your hand and pass it in front of your
face. It's like a kabuki mask. We have - you just have a normal expression, but the
minute the hand passes in front your face - try to make the mask of whatever you think
that emotion is. All right? So everyone don your emotional instruments. All right, so each
one of us - so we have, to recap, we have (motioning to one pair) all right, (motioning to
another pair) all right, (motioning to another pair), ok, (motioning to the last pair) good.
So ready, so I'm just going to count like a conductor...
Keith: Good (laugh). So this is emotional symphony. Does anyone else want to conduct?
The symphony.. .you just saw me conducting it. I will take your place if you wish to step
out and actually conduct rather than just be in the symphony.
158
Keith: All right. Great! (Stephanie kneels in front of the group)
(Laughter)
Keith: Excellent. So you keep a tap with your foot if you want to keep that 8-count.
Keith: Who else wants to conduct. Just checking. Cool. All right. So - what I want to do
briefly is - is anyone else - 1 wanna say - who wants to be an audience for this? Who
wants to be an audience for this or who is OK with just - turn to your partner in emotion
and just make a decision about who is going to actually watch and who is going to just do
it.
Keith: You can always switch. This is a chance for you to sort of just watch it happen. All
right?
(Muttering)
Keith: All right. So now, get closer together. Now move closer together. Get close
together. Of people who are here, including yourself, is there anyone else here who wants
to conduct before I conduct this group - this foursome? Just checking, ok, great, so -
same emotions but we have a chance now to play a combo so we'll move back and forth.
If I go like this it means I want you to look at each other and do it right at each other, ok?
Ok? All right. So. (Sigh) For the emotional symphony will you please don your
emotional masks. (Group members raise hand over face)
159
Keith: Trade places. Think for the moment audience, before you start doing it, if your
mind creates a story out of that...
Keith: Oh yeah? So.. .flight of the bumble bee? Did anyone else think - or any of you
guys up there experiencing it - did there seem to be any kind of story emerging in that?
You could say you know what that felt like, that felt like -
Adrian: There was definitely us and them. We were together and she was barking at us.
(overlapping, unintelligible)
Keith: Good. So she was an antagonist. Anything in your mind that would say, "hmm, if I
were to imagine this antagonist, this antagonist would be an a..." Or where this
antagonist would be.
Keith: I got an office. That's where my mind went - office. But it could have gone to
working with children -whatever it is - all right.. But if you're not going to go there -
we've created with kids - entire structures and narratives just beginning from an
emotional symphony. What they imagine, "oh yeah - you were doing this and you were
doing that" and then something else, all right? So we're going to let you guys come
together a little closer. There you go. All right. Now.. Can you come here (pointing to Ju
to move spots)
(Keith kneeling)
Keith: All right. All right. Would you please don your emotional instruments?
(Sound/emotional symphony)
(Laughter)
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(Sounds/emotional symphony)
Keith. What is that... what is that - what did it seem like? Was there any narrative created
for you?
Adrian: For me there was... it felt like there was a conflict between the person who - was
- conflict was initiated on a building for (unintelligible) - it seemed like there was some
kind of - like they were trying to work together to solve something.
Keith: Uh huh. K. So they were trying to work together. Did anyone have different parts
in the conflict, or in the solution to it?
Adrian: It seemed like she was kind of the one going back and forth as the liaison
between the other people.
Antoine: Yeah, it felt like he was trying to say something to me but I was turned away
and I wasn't (?) . . . so I was just like sitting there just like staring off ignoring him while he
making sounds at me. But I would communicate with her cuz she seemed more like the
gentle voice. (Laughter)
Jacob: yeah, I was up this high and I felt like I wanted to interact more with them.
Keith. Uh huh.
Stephanie: Oh. Great fun. It's - yeah - it's a lot of fun. I mean - 1 didn't think of it as
anything deeper than that - it's just a lot of fun.
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Keith: Uh huh.. No... and you know, you just make the connections. Obviously we're not
doing a therapy session.. we're just thinking about - what are the connections
here... what are the things - you know obviously things will come up and you will
process them in a different way, but - um - obviously, what role does the conductor play
in being able to - whether in a narrative or a (unintelligible) - is it - do I pick the
narrative or am I just seeing one that's already there and emphasizing it more?
Lori: I think you're - the interaction and their reaction is creating the narrative. And
depending on who is viewing it - you know - he saw a different narrative emerged for
him than maybe say Antoine who was actually inside of it - or for you who was
conducting it.
Lori: Yeah.
Keith: And we find out what we have in common - what's the subtext. So um -
(unintelligible) - does anyone else need to do that - anybody else need to take care of
that - water, bathroom? Anything like that - just checking. So what we want to go into
then - is - uh - well...
Keith: Cool. So what we'll do is we'll try a couple things with, uh, we're just going to
divide this in half exactly as we are now. We're just going to divide in half. And I need
basically what I need is for half of you to be market researchers - and the other half are
going to stay and be the people who are researched about. All right. So one of you are
going to be interviewers and the other interviewees. OK. So - any feeling from the group
about which you want to be?
Monique: Interviewee.
Keith: (Laughs) My interviewers (unintelligible).. .which means what I'm going to ask
you to do is a.. .just a second... is step outside. You can be with them out in the
soundproof lobby.
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Abby: OK
Keith: Uh... and just think about - all you're doing is doing a little market research.
You're going to find out what psychology students prefer - what do they like, what don't
they like. That kind of thing. Just basic as if they were any marketing group and ask those
kinds of questions.
(Second tape begins with 4 group members practicing the next game with Keith. The
game is called "Meet the Client" and he is preparing the group members in the room to
be interviewed by the other group members outside the room)
Jacob: (Unintelligible)
Keith: No, before it was "Brazil", but "Brazil" has an 80's (unintelligible) with me, I
don't know why.
Keith: Yeah.
Keith: Um, hobbies that I have, oh, you know, I sketch, I'm involved in performance, I
do a lot of stuff like that.
Jacob: Ok.
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Keith: Um.
Keith: Uh, oh boy, these days, yeah - I'd probably say a waffle or something like that.
Good. Keep going with your questions. (Keith leans back in his chair)
Keith: I go to movies.
Jacob: OK
(Laughter)
Jacob: Ok, um, describe.. .describe a current movie that you went to - something in the
last -
(Giggling)
Keith: (Unintelligible)
(Laughter)
Jacob: It's much more difficult to ask those personal questions... (Laughter)
Keith: Ok. All I'm doing is - and I'm going to ask you to do the same thing - what did I
do?
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Keith: I'm trying - 1 tried to match him as closely as I could - the first time. The second
time - so the first person that comes to you - 1 want you to try and - not obviously copy
them - but try to match them as close as you can. Their energy, the kind of quality of
energy that they have. We kind of had a holding - kind of like - we breathed at the same
time - see if you can breathe the same way this person does. OK? I want you to really try
and get in, and (unintelligible) - I'm breathing with him, I'm having the same breath with
him. I'm trying to make eye contact. If his hands are falling here, mine are. I'm not doing
exactly the same thing because that's too much, but my hand might rests at the same spot.
We're both going to watch them, but just because I didn't do it exactly the same, because
that would be copying too much, but I let my hands rest in the same spot. I just sort of
breathed with him. The second one I wanted to make sure - when the second person
comes to you I want you to try and consciously mis-match them. All right? But you're
saying the same stuff. What did I also change? I changed the quality of my speech. My
pace was different then his pace of speech, and I was very deliberate about - 1 listened to
him first - they're going to ask you questions - giving you a chance to hear what their
pace and rhythm is. So that you will be able to
(Laughter)
Keith: Yeah, I'll help switch. You will be - the very first person that you talk to you will
match. Then I will have them rotate. (Monique moves chair near her chair) Right
exactly So I'll have them facing you.
(Participants moving chairs, overlapping discussion figuring out where to position selves)
Keith: Good. So - there you go. And you're not trying to be tricky with your content
really at all. I wasn't really trying to be tricky in terms of my content. Um, I actually
answered everything truthfully. Um, but I answered it in a different style.
Jordan: (Unintelligible)
Keith: Well, because he hesitated, I decided to take over. Because that's opposite his
style. His style was indirect, so I decided to be very direct. Right? So - you could do -
what's the eye contact style? Is he making a lot of eye contact? If so, I won't make any at
all. Unless I'm trying to match.
Keith: It's interesting that his opinion of me changed, even though I was just still as
truthful. His assessment of what kind of person I was completely changed. Well,
165
"Transformer" guy, he's different than "Paris, Texas" guy. (Laughter) But, yet, it's the
same me. Ail right? All right. So - we're going to bring 'em in. The first person, you
match completely, ok? Get comfortable, just get into a nice, comfortable, match with
them. When I say switch, just listen, watch that first person and then ease yourself - get
yourself to be totally un-matched with them as soon as you can. Both of them. Try to
match as soon as you can, try to un-match as soon as you can. Right - first, match.
Second, un-match. Here we go.
(Giggling)
Keith: Hi there! (To group members waiting outside the room) All right. You guys ready.
So go ahead and find someone to interview. We set up an interview situation. At a certain
point I'll call switch and then you can rotate clockwise to another person.
Lori: OK. (Remaining group members enter room and sit down as "interviewers" across
from "interviewee" group members)
Keith: Good. If you would please rotate clockwise. Interviewers, we're trying to get a
market survey so you're going to ask pretty much the same questions if you would. But
go around the next, clockwise. You're going to move to the next person so you'll be here.
All right, good. So this is your second interview. All right.
Keith: Good. Then stop for a second. Interviewers, let me ask you some questions. So, if
the interviewers could look this way. Um.. .Interviewers, tell me a little bit about your
opinion of the two people. Which of one or two did - actually, just give me your
impression of the first person you talked to, especially if they were going to be your
client and you were going to have to work with them regularly.. tell me about them.
Lori: The first person I interviewed was pretty easy going. Uh... laid back, relaxed...
Keith. Cool.
166
Adrian: My first person was very forthcoming, when I asked them questions, they gave
me extra information.
Lori: Ah... she moved like 8-feet closer to me, she was in my face, so...
Keith: Ok.. .and were you comfortable with them? Uncomfortable with them?
Lori: Yeah.
Keith: So was it... which one would you rather work with?
Keith: You could work with anyone - you're a wonderful person and a hard-working
student...
(Laughter)
Keith: You could work with either - but was there a level of comfort with one or two... ?
Lori: Yeah, well definitely my personal space was more comfortable in one.
Keith: How about the second person for you - how was that? (To Ken)
Ken: The second person was much more energetic and fun-loving than the first one.
Ken: Yeah?
167
Keith: M-kay, and how was it for you, that second person?
Keith: A little more difficult to have a conversation.. .all right, how about you? (To
Stephanie)
Stephanie: Yeah, my person seemed sort of disinterested and not really there and was
kind of, not like.. .rather just be somewhere else...
Adrian: Initially, I thought maybe they were just thinking about what I was saying, but
they kind of lost track of the conversation. So they just sort of seemed like they were a
million miles away.
Keith: Ok, so harder to connect with them. OK. So, um, what did I give you guys as the
principle thing to do, because I asked them to be very truthful with you, pretty much
truthful and forthcoming with you regardless. OK? But what was the main thing I asked
them - you guys had to change?
Monique: We mirrored the first person in their verbals, their non-verbals and then the
second person we did the opposite.
Keith: I asked them just to try and match your verbals and non-verbals in the first one.
And not match your verbals and non-verbals at all in the second one. Yeah... so... so
. . .how much - what does that tell us - let's let's come together kind of in a circle and talk
about this. In terms of what does that tell you? What is that experience?
Lori: It must be very hard for people with non-verbal learning disabilities.
Keith. Uh huh.
Lori: That's my first thought. Like you really can't receive it. Like if you really are not
reading someone else's non-verbals and you're reacting the completely opposite
way.. people will run away from you.
Keith: You did. I saw that. You had a really hard time not matching. (Laughter)
168
Jacob: And it was easy with Ken, because Ken and I, I think, have the same sort of style.
And so, like, when he was doing his movements and stuff, were slow, and - 1 don't know
- it was easy to match.
Antoine: Yeah, I got that.. with Lori and I - 1 think we had like a similar tempo. So when
she crossed her legs I was already about to cross my legs anyway, and -
Keith: Yeah - you got into that matching. Was matching easier than not matching?
Monique: The matching I thought - it was fine. I think - it's more familiar to try to get in
tune with someone -
Keith: Yeah.
Keith: Yeah. (To Adrain and Jacob) Even though you still picked up on his attempts to
not match - you still seemed more difficult to interview. I noticed you as - he kept
coming back to like - he'd go with you and match your pace, then he'd try to go away
from your body and then he'd come back and match your body. You kept wanting to,
uh.. and it's in sync - you wanted to instinctively kind of match with him.
Adrian: What I learned is that apparently I lean in because I noticed he kept leaning in
and then you kept telling him to lean back.
Keith: And then it increased as he leaned back more.. I told him to change his pace,
because he was really in pace with you for awhile in terms of how you spoke. (To F.)
You did a great job deciding, you know what, I know what his pace is and I'm going to
be radically different.
Antoine: Yeah... when I saw him originally, I could tell the moment he sat down that it
was just like calm and relaxed so I was just like fireworks.
(Laughter)
Keith: What does it tell you about our own styles and beyond what we do.. .1 mean, what
does it tell us in terms of when we work with somebody whose style and pace is really
different?
169
Monique: It could be difficult for me if someone is radically different. Or uncomfortable.
Jordan: You might get the wrong impression of who they are.
Keith: Yeah. You might make a judgment about who they are as a person. We're normal
- 1 mean - people do that. We make inferences.
Jordan: (Unintelligible)
Antoine: But, having taken like clinical interviewing, we did some role-plays, but I think
it's good to have kind of this idea of (learning) how to match someone. Being told that's
the focus that you want to do. You want to really - things to look out for and to
experience the matching aspect and to go from the un-matching aspect to see your
reaction is different. It's really (unintelligible). I guess it could be bit like transference
issues like those come up - like - you don't like that person who you didn't match with.
Jordan: With that though, I don't think you necessarily have to match to (unintelligible)
per se (unintelligible) one of my friends is shy and one of my friends is
hyperactive...(unintelligible)...physical interactions...(unintelligible).. I don't think it
has to be...
Keith: Is matching also 100% equation? Where you have to match everything?
Jordan: No.
Keith: Is there a thought that maybe - cuz I say would you match just (unintelligible) —
the simple thinking about match is that you're both sitting in a fairly (unintelligible)
posture. Or you could be, you're talking about something else too. Cuz you might be -
you might deliberately be not matching so that you can model something.
Jordan: Right.. .(unintelligible) match might be body language.. where you can get the
connection so when (unintelligible). . . l a m a person of authority so I have a huge voice
and that's my language.
Keith: Do you think that - how much do you think is in play when you think you're in a
sense of empathy - you have an empathic relationship with a person, good rapport with a
person. If you set a camera in there how much matching do you think you might see
happening?
Lori: Lots.
170
Keith: You might - and it might be subtle - it might be the fact that that person might
have their arms crossed and you have your feet crossed. You know there's this sort of -
it's the way we try and go to limbic resonance. You know that sort of sense of how that
rapport is created and the answers if they are out of sync with each other - I've
experienced this recently - trying to find where the other person is breathing - that's why
I brought it up - where is that person breathing? So I can breathe with them. I'm not
saying this always works all the time, especially if you've got someone who is
hyperventilating. I'm going to hyperventilate with someone else! (Laugh) All right.
Because the idea is - certainly in a lot of things from neuro-linguistics to authentic
movement to dancing to therapy to drama to - um, what's that thing called - um,
transformations, you work with match and lead. You might meet the person where they
are - and then introduce the changes that you're trying - or help them move towards the
things you want them to move towards. There is just no way of getting at that - but it's
active for us. So I want to move to another thing where we can sort of get in sync with
each other. OK? I want to get in sync with something which is - 1 just want you to - 1 just
want one person to start a movement and a sound. Just like something you did before
right'' Just start with a movement and a sound, but think of it now as a machine. So the
next person's going to build off of it. OK? So - what I want you to do is.. .just (pointing
to Lori) start a movement and a sound and someone's going to build off of it.
Lori: Ummm...
Keith: So move the chairs aside. This can be any movement and sound. It's just that it's a
machine, so it has working parts all the way around, all right? So I'll build off of
whatever she does, and then somebody can build off of what I do.
Keith. Good. So just keep repeating that. Everybody spread out so you can see it.
Keith: Now - actually make sure that your movement somehow connects with what
we're doing. So that you have a visual image of something feeding in. Cuz I could either
(To Lori) - keep going - do your technique (adds sound and movement to Lori's sound
and movement). So I want to build off the machine. I did this (sound and movement)
because it reaches down to what she's doing. So I want to make sure that the machine is
somehow connected. Even if there's space between us - we are connected to what the
171
other persons doing - all right? Don't stay in the circle, don't just stand in the circle and
make a sound and a motion from where we're standing - because I had a sense we were
going in that direction. Mix it up a little bit. Change the space a little bit.
Keith: You can add, you can go between two things, you can connect - it's the idea of
how do you connect with this machine? Got it? Start a new one.
Keith: Good. Where does this fit? Can you move that out just a little bit so that people
can come all the way around you - anywhere around you? Just take a step forward - both
of you. There you go.
(Machine)
Keith: Good. See if you can speed up all together. All together.
(Laughter)
(Giddy machine)
Keith: Can you follow it around the circle? Keep following yours all the way around the
whole circle. (To Jordan) Walk all the way around. (Machine continues working ) Good.
There you go. Good. Good good good. Spread out again. All right. Somebody else. Try to
see if you can change your configuration or where you were building off of - someone
else start. This - this is a machine for producing... um.. .PsyD's.
(Laughter)
Stephanie: (Goes to middle of circle and lies on the floor) I got it.
(Laughter)
(Group members enter into machine quickly, many moans and you can hear "I don't have
any money, I don't have any money" repeated throughout the machine)
Keith: Good. This machine is now going to slowly - keep going, keep going - it's going
to transform itself into whatever - somehow the problem is the opposite of what that is -
right? It's going to somehow sort of slowly, just bit by bit, keep moving your motions -
see if you can slowly move towards a different dynamic then you now - then the machine
right now.
Keith: Your words will change. All right. (To Jordan) So what's the opposite?
Keith: Good. (Clapping) All right. So the idea would be - you can see now, all of the
sudden we're moving in the direction of how a narrative starts to happen. Again - stories
will be told just with the machine. All right? So - uh - off a similar theme - uh - give me
the idea of - and all I want you to do is give me another machine that just is the machine
of the student. All right? It just represents, emotionally, whatever the experience - what
the experience of being a student is. You just did it - partially.
Keith: So do it again. We're going to build off of each other and we're going to work all
the way around. You can be - you don't have to be directly connected - but you should
be sort of peripherally.
Keith: Good. Make a little noise - if you want to add text or a short sentence you can.
(Machine continues. Phrases like: "I can do this" and "I think I want a career" can be
heard)
Keith: Good. Good. (To Jacob and Ken) I'm going to use you two guys to be on the edge
here. Come on over here. I want you two - and (To Abby) are you feeling good?
Abby: Yeah.
Keith. I want you guys to do the parents of the students. You will represent the parents of
the students. All right?
(Two machines continue. You can hear "Money, money, money, money" being repeated
throughout the machines)
Keith: Very good. Students, freeze for a second, I want you to watch the parent machine.
There you go.
(Parent machine)
(Student machine)
174
Keith: Good. Freeze. Look around at each other for a second. Very good. Now what
we're going to - again - we're going to see if we can make the opposite. We're going to
see if these two machines can change in some way. How would we like to change these
two - all right? Try to move however you would think that change would be.
Keith: It's not really a real image - more of an ideal image compared to a real image.
What's an ideal image?
(Both machines continue, you can hear "I did it" and "I have survived")
Keith: All right. Ready? So one of you - we're going to watch yours first so go ahead.
The transformed student change.
Keith: (Laughs) All right - now we're going to watch the transformed parent machine.
Here we go - ready?
Keith. All right. So what do we have here - what's going on? What's starting to happen
there? Tell me a little bit more about it.
Lori: I think without the directionality it becomes, like, the fact that you said - now we
change it up and just kind of do our own thing - at least for our group - we, like, kind of
broke off into our own little - our machine kind of broke down I felt like...
Keith: Did it feel like - you weren't sure about which direction you would all go
together?
Lori: Right.
Keith: Interesting.
Lori: I mean, we were all on the same theme - we were all kind of in - like on the same
plane, but it wasn't a joint effort, we were just doing our own thing within the same thing.
Keith: So it wasn't like - what would the opposite be? Because we also have the question
of - well gee, I thought mine was pretty positive, so I have to go negative. Well, mine
was negative, so I guess I'll have to go positive.
175
Lori: Yeah, we didn't - 1 don't know if we -
Keith: What do you think was the quality of your first one?
Antoine: Well, in the first one I was like an annoyed student typing.
Keith: Ok. So there's annoyance. What else was the quality that was common in the first
one?
Stephanie: Anxiety.
Lori: Yeah, the first one was negative. The second one we eased up and it was a little
more positive.
Keith: Ok. So come back up into it for just a second. How would it be... how would it be
more connected, but it would seem like you're doing the opposite. So if the other one is -
so if this is the one - the first one is annoyed and searching - what's one that is relaxed
and seems a little more found? A little more purposeful.
Lori: That's what we were kind of doing.. I, cuz we - we were doing the (unintelligible)
and he was sitting down there, and then we changed it - we used this electric sharpener -
we did that for awhile - then we decided, "forget it - we're using pens." So then I went to
start -
Keith: Go to the first one for a second - go to the first one for a second. Go and do the
first one.
Lori: Ok
(Machine starts)
Lori: We were grinding and all of the shavings were coming down and you were
saying...
Keith: What do you notice about the quality of what we're looking at? I notice you guys
are doing similar movement though. And you guys are in rhythm in terms of movement.
176
And they work around you (To Adrian) but you're... So how could you guys stay in a
kind of rhythm together but - and in fact - we're all ignoring this central figure. How
could we take care of this central figure better? (About Adrian who is sitting in the center
of the machine)
Keith: Ok. Cuz the big movement pattern in this one is ignoring the figure at the center.
Adrian: Well, for me, what I did in the second one was I was jumping up and down with
excitement. So (unintelligible) them on one side and me on the other facing each other.
Keith: All right. So, would it be - could anyone help that process rather than having you
be totally on your own getting up?
(Laughter)
Keith: Ok. So so - someone dancing with you, and the sense that you've got two people
right here. So how would we move from this to getting you up? What - now we've got
two people right there as well. Do they want to be involved in that?
Keith: All right. What about these two people on this side - what's the relationship here?
177
Keith: Ok you could face them. Great. Is there a way you would physically support what
they're doing?
Jordan: (Unintelligible)
(Laughter)
Keith: But it's got to be this sense of dancing. So it's something like...
Adrian: I was doing this in the middle - and she was kind of...
Keith: Great. So how would you like to meet him as he's coming up into this dance -
how would you like to...
Jordan: Sell your books! Sell your books! (Motioning in and out toward center)
Keith: Good. And now something that's not even buying or selling? What's not buying or
selling? What's the opposite of buying and selling?
Keith: Ok. So giving - or it's not some kind of transaction it's just (unintelligible).
Jordan. Oh.
(Laughter)
Jordan: Congratulations.
Keith: It's neither taking nor giving. (Machine going) (To Stephanie) How do you get
involved in that process? (Keith continues giving direction, but cannot hear words over
machine sounds and movement)
178
(Clapping)
Lori. Good.
Lori: We all got involved in what was going on instead of just doing our own thing and it
came together.
Keith: Good. So what are some of the things that helped that happen?
Keith: Ok.
(Laughter)
Lori: Yeah.
Monique: (Unintelligible) Because before I think I just listened because that - in the
pattern that was there before - (To Lori) you started. And then our noises were - so it
was a non-verbal thing - but our noises were kind of back and forth. And then I listened
to them. So I really didn't talk to them - 1 just listened for the same...
Keith: Is there - in just the few things we've done - this is just sculpting - it's starting to
move towards kind of a role-play. Or what we'd do - there's also this thing called
sculpting where we'd start to sculpt out - (To Adrian) you started to do it a little bit -
sculpting out there - the image that you want or would like it to be. This kind of thing of,
um, I would ask you - do you want to do instead of coming together to just do a machine
- what we might do is do sculpts - which is, you tell me how the machine works. Or you
tell me how the whole sculpture, moving sculpture of student life is for you, and you ask
these people to pose and be your clay and they start to make repeated sound and
movement base d on that. But since you were all choosing your own pretty much - um -
what kinds of roles did you find yourselves winding up in? What kinds of roles did you
play in some of these? What were they like, some of these roles? Were you vicious?
Were you relaxed? Were you somebody who was on the outside? Were you usually
connected to someone? What kind of roles were you playing?
Keith: Ok.
179
Lori. I was like doing something very like, ah.. .proactive, I think, just involved in doing
something (unintelligible).
Adrian: I felt like I was on the outside, even like you said, even when I was on the inside.
I thought that that would change just by moving myself to the inside of the group - and it
still felt like - even though we were all facing each other - like nobody was really
connecting.
Antoine: (Unintelligible) Like where I could see both - all people (unintelligible).
Keith: Ok. So if you put it - if you - good. Anything else you notice about character
choices - things you wound up playing?
Ken. Disconnected.
Jordan: Frustrated.
(Laughter)
Keith: Ok, so there's a sense of, um, would you say there's a quality of either play or
work in the character roles that you were in so far?
Group: Work
Keith: Work. A sense of work. Work. All right. Um.. .there were - what about when we
were doing some opposites. What was it that you found you enjoyed that maybe were not
that same sort of isolated, working person?
(Laughter)
Keith: You felt like you were - you felt like the manipulator rather than manipulate-ee?
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Stephanie: It was fun to think up, what is the opposite - and to hear what everyone else's
opposite is. That was fun.
Jordan: Yeah and I have a case (unintelligible) sort of comical - it just feels like playing a
part.
Keith: Great. Well - yeah. So in terms of playing that part - the one that was the opposite
- what was that like, if...you know...
Jacob: Well, I really resonated with Abby's opposite, that we kind of incorporated with
the parents and, I don't know, that was kind of cool because I felt really connected to-
Jacob . Um, well we started out, like you said, we were very supportive as parents I think
but in a way that wasn't really connected with us or with the students. So, we were
supportive with - by writing a check or giving a hug or (To Ken) what was yours...
Ken: Clapping.
Jacob: Yeah, clapping - like, good job. But not really saying, you know, what is your
experience as a student and what is your experience as a therapist and what is - you know
- let's talk about what you're doing. I think that's something that - 1 don't know - it
resonated with me.
Keith: There was a more - should we say - there was a more open and connected
dynamic with some of the changed roles that you had? Or am I overstating?
Stephanie: I think the parents I saw they went from handing some cash to "let's talk about
it."
Keith. I wonder how many of you are actually more comfortable with (unintelligible)
(Laughter)
Adrian. I liked going back where we re-worked the system.. .trying to make everything
connected. Because what happened was that the people that we were interacting with the
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most we had to like give up and cross over so that you were working with people who
you working with.
Keith: Uh huh. I thought that this was an interesting find. You know you were like, hey -
cool - what's this? Seriously - trying to find - what's a character that's not a transaction
character? You know this one that's - so you became a character that was more a
celebrant rather than a salesmen. You were neither buying nor selling, you were now a
celebrant. How was that transition?
Jordan: Uh.
Jordan. Uh. Once I got into it? It was fine. It seemed to be just - feeding all together. I
mean it was more of like a pattern. Where I went he went.
Keith: Do you - can you see the idea of what it might get into which is that - over time -
you might see a lot of people's range of choices. Character choices. And then try and
work on expanding the range of character choices or what you're most comfortable with.
Where you - what your own natural state is in terms o f - or what character you would
pick - and - what is that? Can I change that a little bit. Or if I tried to change it, what
would that be like? What's the movement dynamic I pick all the time. You know. Cool.
So, you got some process things you want to do so I want to go in to some of that. But
obviously over time - so any other - as she's distributing all that - um, just thoughts
about this idea of...
Abby: And that's exactly how I was going to start too - ask - if you guys have questions
about the whole process - how the process fits with psychology - or how it.. what games
were pulling for what training. You know what I mean, like anything related to that. And
this is also just a feedback form just because I didn't want you to have to like shout out
everything - if you have other things you want to say - please write it down.
Jordan. The interview that we did. I think that part could have great value in a classroom
setting because it exposes you to all sorts of characters you might face when you - you
get to work. How to read them (unintelligible) different techniques and it's something
that, I think, would have great - would be a great tool to have in your arsenal. You would
know how to respond. Sometimes when you're talking to someone they do things to see
how you'll respond. You can respond in a very smooth transition away - they won't
catch you off guard... (unintelligible)... So you can kind of get ahead of them as opposed
to - you'll play on their levels - but are playing behind them. Which at some times, I
feel, at least where I came from - you start falling behind and they start gaining control
then you had to play (unintelligible) as the therapist they changed the rules
(unintelligible) and then you can transition with them smoothly and not make them feel
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like they were able to catch you off guard and their respect is much more easy to get and
hold on to.
Jacob: It is really easy to - this has been my experience in therapy - is to remain within
your comfort zone - 1 have this opportunity to try out stuff regardless of whether or not I
will be able to achieve that or not...
(Laughter)
Jacob: But I feel like I always want to challenge myself and continue to do that - cuz that
is probably one of the most difficult things for me is getting out of my defensiveness and
my comfort zone so I....
Lori: Well, the thing I love about improv is that I was never really exposed to it until I
came here to Chicago and I went - 1 was involved with the Live Bait Theatre. And um,
so, going there was an experience that really changed me in a real way and seeing - it
was a Vaudeville production I saw - and it was so... the anxiety that it produced in me
even as an audience member was so profound. Um, and, of course, anxiety for me is not,
I don't process it in a bad way. I.. I mean, it was very existential.
Lori: Yeah. Um, and it was just genius. And - you know - being a psychologist, like
watching the dynamics of not only the people who are up there but then, you know, the
dynamics of the people watching and the energy feeding off between. You know, what
they're doing, what we're doing - why are they up there? Why are we here? And I was
just like - it just set me off. And it was so interesting, um, also thinking about
improvisation and this whole experience was moving beyond dichotomies. So, you know,
going outside of the box. Not buying or selling, you're just - you're somewhere else. And
I think that's another important point that we need to kind of take with us in psychology.
Take from that and have, you know, apply that.
Antoine: One thing (unintelligible) to this type of thing is before - 1 noticed like, we did
role-plays in interviewing class- you get kind of into this rigid mindset where "I am a
psychologist" and you like put on your psychologist face. You know, where - "I'm
listening to what you're saying and I'm empathizing with you on this level." And it's not
as loose as this was where you find yourself letting go more and really trying to just relax
yourself as a person. You know. Definitely like more interesting ways to understand -
even like transference issues, and how you might be communicating to someone,
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especially if you have like this more stoic, you know, idea about yourself and you're just
nodding your head. You know...
Keith: (Motioning around the circle) Just want to check in with you guys as well.
Monique: I think it's beneficial. I like really - 1 did a Masters in Art Therapy. And the
uncomfortable thing I found was that I really don't enjoy talking the whole hour because
I know.. I know it's a dialogue, but I feel like sometimes people are expecting something
really wise, and I know probably that in the time you could have said things really wise...
So I feel less pressure when it seems like they were more active and engaged and they
found something from more of a product that is co-constructed or that they did. Not like
they are completely dependent on you to say something.. although you haven't graduated
yet, and they don't respect you. You don't have kids, and you're not middle aged. You
know, so...
Keith: I'm noticing this difference between what you both talked about (Monique and
Antoine), this idea of, "The Wise Person," that sits there versus someone who sits there in
rapport with the other person. Receptive, responsive.. but not the one confident. (In a
deep voice) "Welcome, I am glad you have come. When I speak you will be wowed."
(Laughter) You know.
Abby: I think it's like the roles you were discussing earlier. The conversation between
you two about the roles I play each day are going to be different. And when I am acting,
am I being more authentic be being, you know, just trying to be another person. Am I
being more authentic doing that than I am really being in my day to day and what we're
taught through a psychology program - whatever that is in our head - are we playing that
role or are we finding it authentically. I think that was (unintelligible)...
Ken: I just think it's interesting to see how, no matter how many things sometimes I try to
change about myself. You can always see them manifest in different ways when you
don't notice it. But then when you - when you allow yourself to be creative or get rid of
your anxiety or whatever is blocking you - how many different things you can do even
though you may be likely to regress to one thing. You can do so much if you're actually
open to it. You can remove the barriers that you have like, I guess, inside you, like
shyness or whatever...
Keith: I always think of those as like your baseline, like every improviser has a safe zone.
Safe characters, safe body postures, safe vocalization. Sure - the one you're most
comfortable with. And that's great - you want to move beyond it - but you don't sort of
say, "My safe zone is holding me back." It's sort of like if you think of it in terms of
music. There's this baseline and then you want to be able to deviate and move from the
baseline and move around. So maybe you feel like you've completely lost the baseline,
but then you can come back to it. There's that sense of - and improv anyway has that
feeling of like - like you're playing. You're trying to get the - so we're looking at range,
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we're looking at flexibility, range of just awareness so that you're aware of range of just
emotions and character choices, verbals and non-verbals. So you're talking about moving
from a physical sensory awareness to an emotional awareness to a character - kind of -
character and social interaction kind of awareness. That should build all of those. Um,
other...?
Lori: I think from the point of view of consciousness it's kind of interesting because
when you're doing group work you can really see - at least I could see - the group
consciousness working together. Whereas my own consciousness - I'm here doing
something and I'm aware of that but then there's Antoine here, you know, and there is
somebody down here and you have to be aware of the rhythms of the entire group plus,
you know, yourself, so it's layering of consciousness that kind of (unintelligible) is cool.
Keith: Mm hmm. ..
Antoine: In terms of like, Family Therapy, (unintelligible) some of these activities that
we did would be very interesting for families to participate in, especially one that maybe
isn't going through such a great time right now. The idea of movement and running
around and being silly, you know, and just that - 1 feel like after doing an activity like
that you're more ready to make a more emotional (unintelligible) really, like he was
saying earlier, (unintelligible) a safe zone...
Keith: Hopefully, my image is that it opens you up rather than lowering any defenses -
you've got it - will it kind of open - but either way it's just sort of semantics. Yeah.
Jordan: I definitely agree that it may work better with some kind of (unintelligible). Like
it (unintelligible).
Keith: But, and I say we're always very client-centered so I'm going to be picking
exercises and things for, um, - art therapist is drawing. (To Monique) That's great! The
art therapist is drawing. (Laughter) No that's great! That's cool. No, I was just noticing.
Um.. .is the idea that you pick things that work for each person. And some games, yeah,
you're definitely going to get a feeling of like, what can I try? And then track your own
parallel process, which is, am I - is it - it's not the family that is uncomfortable. I'm
uncomfortable being with this family doing this. You have to decide which it is that is
going on. But yeah you usually have to trust yourself and say, yeah, there's a reason I'm
thinking that this may not work, maybe I'll go to a different one. Something different.
(Begins looking around the room for more feedback)
Stephanie: Um, yeah. I don't know. I just - just really enjoyed this. It's been a long time
since I've done improv and it is, I don't know, it's just sort of - it's weird the things that
you find about yourself and how you feel around other people and a lot of it is just sort of
185
the little gems that you that you didn't realize were there, but you ran around with a
bunch of people and you found them, so.. .there they are, suddenly, so yeah, I had a great
time. But also just sort of (unintelligible).
Keith: Cool.
Adrian: What she was saying about layers - you were talking about music and she was
talking about layers. And it reminds me back when I was playing - like we'd play
different - just jam with friends and what not and you learn somebody does this and
somebody does that and you kind of learn how to layer it. There's a really cool dynamic
when everybody does the same thing... nobody's leading or following it's just going back
and forth with each other.. I feel like I (Unintelligble) the process...
(Laughter)
Keith: But, yeah, I get what you're talking about, um.. .We pulled a hodge-podge of
things together. I mean, different things, because I wanted to give the - what I'm hearing
back is - thankfully - what I wanted to touch on by pulling different things together -
when I talked with Abby we pulled some things that are both in Theatre of the
Oppressed, which is Augusto Boal, and worked with (unintelligible), which gets into
image theatre and forum theatre. We get into things strictly from improv. Not that - all of
these are kind of used in improv pretty much - all the stuff we did - it's pretty much used
in improv - uh, but it's also used in other areas as well. Or improv has gotten it from
other things because, as you know, improv is very inquisitive. Improv follows Michael
Caine's acting book, his main motto of that book is steal, but only steal from people who
are good. So improvisers tend to take a lot. Sometimes with and sometimes without
attribution. So anyway - that's a lot of stuff.
Abby: What I'm going to do is hand everyone their stipend when they hand their thing to
me. So...
Abby: Yeah.
(Group moves around, separate conversations and people slowly leave the space.)
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APPENDIX D: PILOT PROGRAM FEEDBACK FORM
1. Please describe any strength(s) of this improvisation class and/or a potential course
utilizing drama in psychology training:
a.
b.
c.
2. What suggestions do you have for improvements of this improvisation class and/or a
potential course utilizing drama in psychology training?:
a.
b.
c.
3. Do you feel there is a connection between improvisation and therapy? (Circle your
answer)
4. On a scale of 1-5, how do you think an improvisation class would benefit your skills as
a psychologist?
(1 - Not at all beneficial, 5- Extremely beneficial)
Not at all beneficial Unlikely beneficial Neither unlikely or likely Likely beneficial Extremely beneficial
1 2 3 4 5
6. Do you think creative arts have any place in the training of psychologists? If so, what?
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APPENDIX E PILOT PROGRAM FEEDBACK RESPONSES
1. Please describe any strength(s) of this improvisation class and/or a potential course
utilizing drama in psychology training:
a. The interviewing aspect of the class would work very well in terms of
learning/teaching psych, students to match clients
b. I think the class would work very well with working with families to start to see
how each individuals actions influences others in the family
c. This will work well to help lower anxiety in general about working with clients by
offering different options/services for practice.
a. emotional intelligence
b. Defense mechanisms
c. Self-discovery
a. It's fun
b. It's surprisingly insightful
c. Um, it's fun!
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2. What suggestions do you have for improvements of this improvisation class and/or a
potential course utilizing drama in psychology training?
a. Maybe make it more than one class and intensify the training in the future if
interest is there.
a. ? I think it went well, perhaps have person write it down (= their reflection)
a. Warm-ups
b. Better idea or
of other activity
direction to remove rigidness and open doors to creativity
in beginning
a. Interviewing activity; have a trained interviewer who can try to show you various
personality types
b. Some theory linked to these activities
3. Do you feel there is a connection between improvisation and therapy? (Circle your
answer)
1. Yes
2. Yes
3. Yes
4. Yes
5. Yes
6. Yes
7. Yes
8. Yes (depending on client and their background)
4. On a scale of 1-5, how do you think an improvisation class would benefit your skills as
a psychologist? (1 - Not at all beneficial, 5 - Extremely beneficial)
Person 1: 4
Person 2: 4
Person 3: 5
Person 4: 5
Person 5: 5
Person 6: 4
Person 7: 4
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Person 8: 5
Total: 36
Mean: 4.5
Person 1.1 feel like it works really well with a psychodynamic contemporary relational
approach or conceptualization...
6. Do you think the creative arts have any place in the training of psychologists? If so,
what?
Person 1: Yes, most def. I think it translates into first year courses and also advanced as a
concentration/track.
Person 2:1 think creativity is a part of training psychologists becuz we should as a whole
person "treat" people as whole entities themselves.
Person 3: Yes. Being a critical thinker requires a type of flexibility. Creative arts expands
and creates more flexibility because we're engaging verbal and non-verbal.
Person 5: Yes!
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Person 7: Yes; it allows for individuals to explore different (arenas?)/ideas in the self
191
APPENDIX F: PROGRAM SYLLABUS
The overall goalfor this course is to strengthen helping skills and develop confidence
prior to a practicum experience (where a student must learn in the moment). The course
description indicates that the course will be mainly experiential (e.g. drama and improv).
And points out which skills this course hopes to strengthen within the student.
Course Objectives:
The student will be able to:
The course objectives were developed using the Bloom's Taxonomy of Education
Objectives (Forsyth, 2003, p. 12). Because the course is geared towardfirst year PsyD
students, the objectives focus primarily on the knowledge, comprehension, and
application levels of Bloom's Taxonomy. The last three objectives move into the analysis
and synthesis levels.
Course Organization:
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This course will be organized around class participation, discussion, and practical
application. Students will spend much of the time "on their feet" in the class. This entails
active involvement by each student in order to maximize the learning of all in the class. It
is expected students will have read the assigned material prior to class.
The course will cover topics such as creativity in learning, self-awareness, empathic
listening, improvisation, role-play, and playback theatre.
This section indicates what class time will entail. It also highlights that students will
spend much of their time actively involved Course topics are also reiterated.
As every student has a different learning style, different methods of teaching will be
incorporated into the classroom setting. Enactment or experiential training will be the
focus of the course; therefore much of this section is devoted to a more in depth
description of this type of teaching/learning.
Textbooks:
Napier, M. (2004). Improvise. Scene from the Inside Out. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Spolin, V. (1983). Improvisation for the Theatre (2nd Ed). Illinois: Northwestern
University Press.
Additional Readings:
Boal, A. (1992) Gamesfor Actors and Non-Actors. New York, NY: Routledge.
Dayton, T. (1990). Drama Games: Techniques for Self-Development. New York, NY:
Innerlook, Inc.
Fox, J. (1986). Acts of Service: Spontaneity, commitment, tradition in the nonscripted
theatre. New York. Tusitala Publishing.
LeGalliene, E. (1973) Mystic in the Theatre: Eleonora Duse. Carbondale: Southern
Illinois University Press.
May, R. (1975). The courage to create. New York: W W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Rilke, R.M (1954). Letters to a Young Poet. New York: W W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Rohd, M. (1998) Theatre for Community, Conflict & Dialogue. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
193
Salas, J. (2003) Improvising Real Life: Personal Story in Playback Theatre. New York:
Tusitala Publishing.
Wiener, D.J. (1994). Rehearsals for growth: Theater improvisation for psychotherapists.
New York: W.W. Norton and Company.
The Spolin text was chosen as it is the "bible " of improvisation and was developed
through her work with Neva Boyd who used improv in her work with children. Many
improvisational techniques and schools have been developedfrom Spolin's ideas. Mick
Napier is a well known improviser and director in the Chicago area. His ideas are taken
from Spolin, but he negates many of the rules that are associated with improvisation.
Each book gives a unique perspective on improvisational techniques. However, these
books are focused on improvisation performance. The additional readings intend to blend
improvisation into trainingfor psychologists. The additional readings reveal ties between
psychology and drama/improvisation. They alsofoster creativity in thinking with the
intention of transferring this type of thought process into everyday life and into the
budding therapist's mindset. Some of the additional readings focus on specific techniques
such as playback theatre and Boal's imago theatre. I will continue looking for
readings/books that capture these ideas and hopefully inspire student learning in the
classroom and beyond
Discussion/participation: 10%
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We will also spend class time discussing reactions to homework, readings, and in-
class improvisations. Authentic reactions to this work are necessary for the class
to evolve.. .especially in making the connection between improvisation and
therapy training. Be present.
Topic ideas:
• Empathy training for MD's utilizing drama techniques
• Drama Therapy
• Psychodrama (Jacob Moreno, Founder)
• Theatre of the Oppressed (Augusto Boal)
• Art Therapy
• Dance Therapy
• Training teachers using drama techniques
• Play Therapy
• Role-play
• Playback Theatre
A grading rubric will be provided to the class two weeks before the paper is due and two
weeks before the final performance to inform students of the specifics surrounding
grading of the project. (This will be a holistic rubric)
This is the activity and evaluation piece. I will be utilizing several student centered
activities. As the class is focused on building helping skills and confidence, student
centered activities seemed most appropriate.
• The first component is participating in weekly experiential class trainings. These
are in essence a large group activity which may be broken down into smaller
group activities depending on the focus of each class. I will be evaluating their
effort and commitment to involving themselves in this process. I will also be
195
evaluating the objective about reacting authentically to the material and
demonstrating ability in improv games.
• Journals are intended to connect the material with the students' personal
experiences (Forsyth, 2003). The journals are intended to help the student make
sense of the material. I will be able to evaluate if they are able to identify and
describe basic methods of improv. I will also be able to see how they are
examining and identifying personal ability and listening skills. The journals will
also hopefully display how the student is analyzing how the self is involved in
working with others (All above listed are course learning objectives). I will give
feedback twice during the semester.
• This discussion piece gives students who have difficulty working in a very
experiential way the chance to express themselves through conversation rather
than action. It is also more of a "normal" type of classroom activity and may ease
the anxiety of students who are experiencing difficulty working in such an active
way.
• The paper will hopefully show how the students are integrating materialfrom the
fields of drama and psychology. As the text discussed, "writing is a profoundly
active experience, for when people write, they identify and define problems,
evaluate evidence, analyze assumptions, recognize emotional reasoning and
oversimplification, consider alternative interpretations, and reduce their
uncertainty (Wade, 1995, as cited in Forsyth, 2003, p. 115). "
• The final performance is the closure for the class. An improv or performance
class loses some of its life without afinal presentation as closure. Hopefully the
final performance will inspire students to continue this type of learning beyond
this course, into further role-play and experiential training, and into the
therapist-client relationship.
Grades:
Final course grades will be assigned on the following basis.
94-100% = A
90-93% = A-
88-89% = B+
84-87% = B
80-83% = B-
70-79% = C
<70% = F
As mentioned above, a grading rubric will be given to students two weeks before the
paper is due as well as two week before the final project is due. If you have any questions
about how you are progressing in the course, please ask. Students who are experiencing
difficulty will be in contact with the professor well before their final grades are given.
Policies:
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Each unexcused absence will result in the dropping of one letter semi-graduation (i.e. A
to A-, B+ to B, etc.). If you are going to miss a class, please contact me prior to the class.
This class requires participation and missing class will be a detriment to you and your
classmates. It is your responsibility to make up the content and the learning from the
missed class. (Grading will be on the student-centered activities. Rubrics will be given
for the major paper andfinal project. Student will receive feedback twice on journals)
Confidentiality:
All information and personal disclosure that evolves out of this work in the classroom
will remain in the classroom. Working experientially can bring up unexpected feelings
and emotions. Please be sensitive and confidential about any topics that are discussed or
enacted within the classroom. Please utilize sources of support if you experience any
difficulty. (Confidentiality is of utmost importance in working in this way, especially if
students are feeling embarrassed, etc. The section about confidentiality would be
highlighted on the first day of class).
Sources of Support:
Academic Support Center: The Chicago School provides a referral service for students
interested in seeking personal counseling. Please utilize this website if you would like a
counseling referral: http://www.thechicagoschool.edu/content.cfm/counseling_services.
Relaxation Techniques can also be helpful when experiencing any anxiety or conflict
surrounding the course material. (This section allows student to seek out their own
support. While I do not want to discourage them from contacting the professor, I want to
set up a clear differentiation between teacher and therapist.)
Calendar:
Week 1: Introduction
Class content:
Define Improvisation, Drama, and Therapy (Class discussion)
Why are psychology students taking an improv course!?!
Improv, Acting, Drama, and Psychotherapy Teaser
Personal Introductions
Syllabus Discussion
Questions
Due:
Nothing
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Week 2: Orientation
Class content:
Improv, Acting, Drama, and Psychotherapy - discussion continued
What is improv?
Spontaneity
Orientation to beginning improvisation exercises
Questions/Thoughts/Feedback on first experiential work
Readings/Homework:
Spolin, V. (1983). Improvisation for the Theater. [Chapters 1 & 2; pages 1-46]
Napier, M. (2004). Improvisation. [Chapters 1 & 2; pages 1-28]
Relaxation Exercise (Dayton, T., #1)
Due:
Journal #1
Week 3: Orientation
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Discussion of homework exercise
Warm-up
Improv Orientation exercises/Games:
Zip, Zap, Zop
Martian, Salesman, Lion
Readings/Homework:
Rilke, R.M. (1993). Letters to a Young Poet. [Pages 7-78]
Individual Mirroring Exercise (Dayton, T. #6)
Due:
Journal #2
Week 4: Orientation
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Homework Discussion
Warm up
Improv Exercises:
Continue with Orientation
Getting comfortable on your feet
Point of Concentration/Motivation/Attention/Intention Discussion
Readings/Homework:
Rilke, R.M (1993). Letters to a Young Poet. [Finish book]
Homework: Inner Face and Outer Face (Dayton, T. #17) (self-awareness)
Due:
Journal #3
Week 5: Where
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Homework Discussion
Warm up
Improv Exercises:
Where
Who, What
Point of Concentration/Motivation/Intention/Attention
What you pay attention to makes you who you are (Ed Harris)
Readings/Homework:
Spolin (Where and POC revisited)
Napier (Same)
Homework: Environment and Body Parts (Napier)
Due:
Journal #4
Reminder: Paper topic due next week
Week 6: Listening
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Homework Discussion
Warm up
Improv Exercises:
Listening Focus
Listening Discussion
Readings/Homework:
La Galliene (?). Mystic of the Theatre. [Excerpt from book]
Homework: Gibberish (Napier and Spolin)
Due:
Journal #5
Paper Topic
Week 7: Empathy
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Homework Discussion
Warm up
Improv exercises.
Li stening/ Attunement
Empathy Focus
Discussion
Readings/Homework:
La Gallienne, E. (?). Mystic of the Theatre. (Another excerpt)
Homework: Role Analysis (Dayton, T. #21)
Due:
Journal #6
Week 8: Character
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Journal Feedback Returned
Homework Discussion
Warm up
Improv Exercises:
Empathy to character focus
Discussion: How is the self connected to playing another?
Readings/Homework:
Work on your paper
Due:
Journal #7
Art/Psychology Paper
Week 9: Emotion
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Warm-up
Improv Exercises:
Emotional Work, Freeing emotion within the boundaries of character
Readings/Homework:
Spolin (Emotion)
Homework: Scene with an emotional shift (Napier, pg 119)
Due:
Journal #8
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Role-play Lecture/Discussion
Warm-up
Improv Exercises: Putting it together
Readings/Homework:
Napier (pages 29-71)
Homework: Go see an improv show (Free shows available, check out 10, Second City,
Annoyance, Comedy Sportz, etc.). If unable, please contact me for alternative
assignment. Then do. Notes on good acting (Napier, p. 126).
Due:
Journal #9
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Homework Discussion
Warm up
Exercises. Role-plays with partner
Readings/Homework:
Role-play reading - perhaps some Rogers
Homework: Character Interview (Napier, page 114)
Continue with this character as he/she will be the client you portray in the in-class role-
plays. Try to spend time each night imagining the circumstances of this client's life (as
the client!)
Due:
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Journal #10
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Homework Discussion
Playback Lecture/Discussion
Warm up
Exercise: Playback Scenario
Possible continuation of role-plays
Discussion
Readings/Homework:
Fox
Salas
Due:
Journal #11
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Homework Discussion
Image Theatre Lecture/Discussion
Connection to Playback
Warm up
Exercise: Playback scenarios
Re-enact scenes for a different outcome
Readings/Homework.
Image Theatre/Augusto Boal
Due:
Journal #12
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Homework Discussion
Warm Up
Exercises: More playbacks (want everyone to have chance to be facilitator and
storyteller)
Improv if time
Readings/Homework:
Boal, Salas, and Fox readings
Due:
Journal #13
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Homework Discussion
Connect improv, acting, and playback back to work as psychologists
Warm-up
Exercises:
Favorites
Reading/Homework:
Emunah, R. - Article about training therapists using drama
Landy, R.
May, R. Courage to Create excerpt
Due:
Journal # 14 (Last j ournal!)
Class content:
Questions/Thoughts/Concerns
Performance!
CHEATING: In any form, including but not limited to, giving or receiving aid on tests,
giving or receiving test materials prior to official distribution, or collaborating on
assignments or exams without instructor permission.
Special Issues:
Any student experiencing any difficult surrounding the class material or participation
should please discuss this with the professor at any time. I understand that this way of
working may be new to many of you, and this newness may be uncomfortable at first,
please try to engage as much as possible in order to become more comfortable in the
class.
(This section highlights again that I realize this type of class may be a very new way of
working and, therefore, may create anxietyfor students. I want them at the very least to
try to work through this anxiety to hopefully become more comfortable in class and
working in this style.)
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