Earth Science

2nd Grading
Grade 8
“Remediation”

Ms. Shane Catherine T. Besares

Science Teacher – RANHS
Lesson 1 – Earthquakes and Faults
An EARTHQUAKE is a sudden movement of the earth’s crust caused by the release of stress accumulated
along geologic faults or by volcanic activity which can result to destruction of properties and loss of many lives.

FAULT: fracture/break in the Earth’s crust where earthquakes are most likely to occur.
Many faults occur along plate boundaries.
Faults can also occur anywhere in the crust where rocks are bent (folded) until they break.
Faults occur as a result of various types of stress.

Different Faults Move in Three Different Ways

Stress - the force applied to rocks.

Tensional - rocks are stretched away from each other.

Compressional - rocks are pushed toward each other.
Shear - rocks are pushed toward each other but not the same axis.

HANGING WALL vs FOOTWALL

A fault divides rock into two fault blocks
For any inclined fault, the block above the fault is the hanging wall block, and the block below the fault is the
footwall block

Three Types of Faults

1. Dip Slip Fault
2. Strike Slip Fault
3. Oblique Slip Fault

DIP-SLIP FAULTS
NORMAL FAULTS: Dip-slip faults on which the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall.
THRUST or REVERSE FAULTS: Dip-slip faults on which the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall

STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS
 RIGHT-LATERAL (DEXTRAL) FAULTS: Strike-slip faults across which the block moves to the right
 LEFT-LATERAL (SINISTRAL) FAULTS: Strike-slip faults across which the block moves to the right

OBLIQUE SLIP FAULTS

A fault which has a component of dip-slip and a component of
strike-slip is termed an oblique-slip fault.
What are Earthquakes?
The shaking or trembling caused by the sudden release of energy. It is usually associated with faulting or
breaking of rocks and continuing adjustment of position results in aftershocks.

What is the Elastic Rebound Theory?

It describes the build up and release of stress during an earthquake. It explains how energy is stored in rocks.
“Rocks bend until the strength of the rock is exceeded”
Rupture occurs and the rocks quickly rebound to an undeformed shape
Energy is released in waves that radiate outward from the fault

The point within Earth where faulting begins is the focus.

The point directly above the focus on the surface is the epicenter.

Seismographs is an instrument used to detect and record earthquakes.

Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an
explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.

How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?

Three seismograph stations are needed to locate the epicenter of an earthquake. A circle where the radius
equals the distance to the epicenter is drawn. The intersection of the circles locates the epicenter

How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?

Intensity - subjective measure of the kind of damage done and people’s reactions to it.
Magnitude - using the Richter scale, it measures total amount of energy released by an earthquake;
independent of intensity

Active faults- is a fault that is likely the source of another earthquake sometime in the future
Inactive faults- are faults that you can identify but do not have earthquakes

SEISMIC WAVES - are waves that transmit the energy released by an earthquake.
Types of Seismic Waves
Body Waves - travel through the interior of the Earth
P WAVES - ground motion ⬍
are compression waves. They can propagate in solid or liquid material. They cause little damage.
S WAVES - ground motion ⬌
are shear waves. They only propagate in solid material.
More dangerous because they have greater amplitude.
Amplitude - the amount the ground moves as the waves passes by.
Surface Waves are the slowest waves and travel only on the surface of the Earth.
LOVE WAVES ↑↓
move back and forth horizontally.
RAYLEIGH WAVES ↻
cause both vertical and horizontal ground movement. They can be the most destructive.
Evaluation
Multiple Choices. Write the letter of the correct answer on your paper.

1. Vibrations in the earth caused by the sudden 5. A characteristic of earthquakes that cause the
movement of rock are called: most severe damage is:
a. Epicenters a. a deep focus
b. Earthquakes b. An intermediate focus
c. Faults c. A shallow focus
d. Tsunamis d. A deep epicenter

2. The elastic rebound theory states that as a rock 6. Most severe earthquakes occur
becomes stressed, it first: a. In mountains
a. Deforms b. Along major rivers
b. Melts c. At plate boundaries
c. Breaks d. In the middle of plates
d. Shifts positions
7. The boundary of the Pacific plate scrapes
3. The point along a fault where an earthquake against that of the North American plate and forms
begins is called the: a. A single fault
a. Fracture b. A subduction zone
b. Epicenter c. A volcano
c. Gap d. A fault zone
d. Focus
8. P waves travel through
4. The point of the earths surface directly above a. Solids only
the point where an earthquake occurs is called the: b. Liquids and gases only
a. Focus c. Both solids and liquids.
b. Epicenter d. Liquids only
c. Fracture
d. Fault 9. S waves cannot pass through
a. Solids
b. The mantle
c. The earth’s outer core
d. The asthenoshpere
Lesson 2 – Underwater Earthquakes
What is a Tsunami?
A tsunami (pronounced "soo-nahm'ee") is a series of waves generated by an undersea disturbance such as an
earthquake. From the area of the disturbance, the waves will travel outward in all directions, much like the
ripples caused by throwing a rock into a pond. The time between wave crests may be from 5 to 90 minutes, and
the wave speed in the open ocean will average 450 miles per hour.
Tsunamis reaching heights of more than 100 feet have been recorded. As the waves approach the shallow
coastal waters, they appear normal and the speed decreases. Then as the tsunami nears the coastline, it may
grow to great height and smash into the shore, causing much destruction.

1. Tsunamis are caused by an underwater disturbance - usually an undersea earthquake. Landslides,

volcanic eruptions, and even meteorites can also generate a tsunami.
2. Tsunamis can originate hundreds or even thousands of miles away from coastal areas. Local geography
may intensify the effect of a tsunami. Areas at greatest risk are less than 50 feet above sea level and
within one mile of the shoreline.
3. People who are near the seashore during a strong earthquake should listen to a radio for a tsunami
warning and be ready to evacuate at once to higher ground.
4. Rapid changes in the water level are an indication of an approaching tsunami.
5. Tsunamis arrive as a series of successive "crests" (high water levels) and "troughs" (low water levels).
These successive crests and troughs can occur anywhere from 5 to 90 minutes apart. They usually occur
10 to 45 minutes apart.

Did You Know...

 In 1964, an Alaskan earthquake generated a tsunami with waves between 10 and 20 feet high along parts
of the California, Oregon, and Washington coasts. This tsunami caused more than $84 million in
damage in Alaska and a total of 123 fatalities.
 Although tsunamis are rare along the Atlantic coastline, a severe earthquake on November 18, 1929, in
the Grand Banks of Newfoundland generated a tsunami that caused considerable damage and loss of life
at Placentia Bay, Newfoundland.
 In 1946, a tsunami with waves of 20 to 32 feet crashed into Hilo, Hawaii, flooding the downtown area
and killing 159 people.
 In 1906, a typhoon with a tsunami killed an estimated 10,000 people in Hong Kong.
 The Tsunami Warning Centers in Honolulu, Hawaii, and Palmer, Alaska, monitor disturbances that
trigger tsunamis. When a tsunami is recorded, it is tracked and a tsunami warning is issued to the
threatened area.
 Most deaths during a tsunami are a result of drowning. Associated risks include flooding, polluted water
supplies, and damaged gas lines.
 Since 1945, more people have been killed as a result of tsunamis than as a direct result of an
earthquake's ground-shaking.
Evaluation
Answer on a one whole sheet of paper.

Multiple Choice

1) What is a tsunami?
6) Tsunamis are caused by ___________.
A. A large storm with very high speed winds
B. A tropical cyclone that occurs in the Pacific A. Wind traveling over the surface of the ocean
Ocean B. The rotation of the Earth
C. A large and powerful ocean wave C. The gravitational pull of the Moon
D. A type of tornado D. A large displacement of water
E. Any earthquake that causes significant damage E. All of the above

2) What natural event can cause a tsunami? 7) True or False: Although tsunamis are sometimes
A. Earthquake called tidal waves, they have nothing to do with the
B. Volcanic eruption ocean's tides.
C. Landslide
D. A glacier breaking off into the ocean A. TRUE
E. All of the above B. FALSE

3) How far can a tsunami travel? 8) Most tsunamis are caused by what natural event?

A. Less than 1 mile A. Earthquake

B. 10 miles B. Volcanic eruption
C. 100 miles C. Landslide
D. 500 miles D. A glacier breaking off into the ocean
E. Over 1000 miles E. Hurricane

4) True or False: Tsunamis move very slow, typically 9) What do we call a series of waves generated by a
around 10 miles per hour. tsunami?

A. TRUE A. Tides
B. FALSE B. Wave train
C. Wave town
5) Where do most of the Tsunamis in the world occur? D. Wave farm
E. Sets
A. Great Lakes
B. Atlantic Ocean 10) True or False: Tsunamis can occur in any major body
C. Pacific Ocean of water.
D. Arctic Ocean
E. Southern Ocean A. TRUE
B. FALSE
Lesson 3 – Typhoons
Why is Philippines prone to typhoons?
because it lies astride the typhoon belt, in the active volcanic region known as the "Pacific Ring of Fire,"

What conditions favor the formation of typhoons?

(1)atmospheric instability
(2)a pre-existing low level focus or disturbance
(3)high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere

What have you experienced during typhoon?

Floods, Landslide, Excessive rain, Strong winds

What is a typhoon?
a type of large storm system having a circular or spiral system of violent winds
is very destructive and often results in calamities
typhoon season in the Philippines is from June to December
"Typhoon" is the name of these storms that occur in the Northwestern Pacific.
"Hurricane" is the name given to these storms in the Atlantic Ocean and Northeastern Pacific. In the
Indian Ocean, they are called "Cyclone".

Storm Waves – when typhoon occurs the ocean it brings high waves that rise rapidly and flood coastal
lowlands

“Bagyo” - is called tropical cyclone by scientist, term is used for all types of tropical cyclone in the Philippines
But a Tropical Cyclone is a system of thunderstorms that move around a center or refers to a class of
typhoon weather disturbances.

Different Kinds of Cyclones

Typhoon - storms that occur in the Northwestern Pacific
Hurricane - storms in the Atlantic Ocean and Northeastern Pacific
Tornado – is a violent whirling column of air accompanied by a funnel-shaped thundercloud moving over a
narrow path
Thunderstorm – is an electrical storm accompanied by heavy rains.

Four Categories of Tropical Cyclone

Maximum Wind Speed
Category Wind Speed Compared to:
kilometers per hour (kph)

Tropical Depression 35-64 kph Tricycle

Tropical Storm 65-118 kph SUV Cars

Typhoon 119-200 kph Racing Cars

Super typhoon Greater than 200 kph Japan Railway’s Maglev Train

In the northern hemisphere, the winds blow in a counter-clockwise direction.

In the southern hemisphere, the winds spin around in the opposite direction, clockwise.
PAR(Philippine Area of Responsibility) – includes a big area east of the Philippines because this is where most
tropical cyclones come from.
PAGASA (Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration) – a sector of the
philippine government observes typhoons via radio satellite

Parts of a Tropical Cyclone

The Eye - the lowest air pressure is at the eye of a tropical cyclone, wind speed is low.
*All tropical cyclones have low air pressure at the center. This is the reason why the air in the surroundings
move toward the eye.
Air moves toward low-pressure areas.

The Eyewall - the dense clouds surrounding the eye. The wind speed is great. It is the winds at the eyewall that
wreak a lot of damage
When a tropical cyclone has sustained winds of 200 km/hour - it is referring to the winds at the eyewall.
When the eye of a tropical cyclone passes over a certain place, one side of the eyewall brings strong winds
blowing in one direction. Then comes the eye with its somewhat calm weather. As it leaves, the other side of
the eyewall brings strong winds again, but this time in the opposite direction.

Public Storm Warnings Signals (PSWS)

PSWS # 1
What it means
A tropical cyclone will affect the locality
Winds of 30-60 kph may be expected in at least 36 hours or
irregular rains may be expected within 36 hours
The following may happen
Twigs and branches of small trees are broken
Some banana plants are tilted or downed
Some houses of very light materials partially unroofed
Rice crops suffer significant damage in its flowering stage
What to do
Watch out for big waves Listen to severe weather bulletin
issued by PAGASA
PSWS # 2
What it means
A tropical cyclone will affect the locality
Winds of greater than 60 kph up to 100 kph may be expected
in at least 24 hours
The following may happen
Large number of nipa and cogon houses may be partially or
totally unroofed
Some old galvanized iron roof may be peeled off
Winds may bring light to moderate damage to exposed
communities
Some coconut trees may be tilted while few are broken
Few big trees may be uprooted
Many banana plants may be downed
Rice and corn may be adversely affected
What to do
Avoid riding in small seacraft
Those who travel by sea and air should avoid unnecessary
risks
Postpone outdoor activities of children
PSWS # 3
What it means
A tropical cyclone will affect locality
Winds of greater than 100 kph to 185 kph may be expected in at
least 18 hours
The following may happen
Many coconut trees broken or destroyed
Almost all banana plants downed and a large number of trees
uprooted
Rice and corn crops suffer heavy losses
Majority of all nipa and cogon houses uprooted or destroyed;
considerable damage to structures of light to medium
construction Widespread disruption of electrical power and
communication services Moderate to heavy damage experienced
in agricultural and indistrial sectors 151
What to do
Avoid riding in any seacraft
Seek shelter in strong buildings
Evacuate from low-lying areas
Stay away from coasts and river banks
PSWS # 4
What it means
A very intense typhoon will affect locality very strong winds of
more than 185 kph maybe expected in at least 12 hours
The following may happen
Coconut plantation may suffer extensive damage
Many large trees maybe uprooted
Rice and corn plantation may suffer severe losses
Most residential and institutional buildings of mixed construction
maybe severely damaged
Electrical power distribution and communication services maybe
severely disrupted
Damage to affected communities can be very heavy
What to do
All travels and outdoor activities should be cancelled
Evacuation to safer shelters should have been completed by now
The locality is very likely to be hit directly by the eye of the
typhoon
Evaluation
Answer on a one whole sheet of paper.

Multiple Choice 9. It is a violent whirling column of air

1. What conditions does not favor the formation of accompanied by a funnel-shaped thundercloud
typhoons? moving over a narrow path.
a. atmospheric instability b. Low pressure area a. Tsunami b. Tornado
c. far from the equator d. warm water c. Thunderstorm d. Tropical Cyclone

2. Which of the following will you experience 10. It is is an electrical storm accompanied by
during typhoon? heavy rains.
a. Floods b. Landslide a. Tsunami b. Tornado
c. None of the these d.Both A and B c. Thunderstorm d. Tropical Cyclone

3. What is true of a typhoon? 11. Where are typhoons most likely to do the most
a. a type of large storm system having a linear damage?
system of violent winds a. Near the seaboards b. In the forest
b. is very destructive and often results in calamities c. In a desert d.On the North Pole
c. typhoon season in the Philippines is from January
to October 12. What category of a Tropical Cyclone is it when
d. It only occurs in the Asia Paciifc the wind speed is 100kph?
a. Tropical Depression b. Tropical Storm
4. What do you call storms that form and occur in c. Typhoon d. Super Typhoon
the Northwestern Pacific?
a. Typhoon b. Hurricane 13. What category of a Tropical Cyclone is it when
c. Cyclone d. Strong Winds the wind speed is 230kph?
a. Tropical Depression b. Tropical Storm
5. What do you call storms that form and occur in c. Typhoon d. Super Typhoon
the Atlantic Ocean and Northeastern Pacific?
a. Typhoon b. Hurricane 14. Where is the air pressure lower?
c. Cyclone d. Strong Winds a. Eye b. 300 meters from the Eye
c. Eyewall d. Farthest part of the Storm
6. What do you call the high waves that rise rapidly
and flood coastal lowlands when a typhoon occurs? 15. A very intense typhoon with winds of more than
a. Wind Waves b. Storm Waves 185 kph maybe expected in at least 12 hours. All
c. Cyclone Waves d. High Prevalent Waves travels and outdoor activities should be cancelled.
What Public Storm Warning Signal number is this?
7. What do we call a tropical cyclone in the a. PSWS #1 b. PSWS #2 c. PSWS #3 d. PSWS
Philippines? #3
a. Masamang Panahon b. Bagyo Identification
c. Ipoipo d. Tsunami 16. PAG-ASA is a sector of the philippine
government observes typhoons via radio satellite.
8. It is a system of thunderstorms that move around What does PAG-ASA mean?
a center or refers to a class of typhoon weather
disturbances. 17. PAR includes a big area east of the Philippines
a. Tsunami b. Low Pressure Area because this is where most tropical cyclones come
c. Tropical Cyclone d. Strong Winds from. What does PAR mean?

Essay 18-20
(3 points)Why is Philippines prone to typhoons?
Lesson 4 – Comets, Asteroids and Meteors
Comets
• Made of ice, rock, and other organic materials. Sometimes called a dirty snowball
• Has Nucleus, coma, and two tails (dust and ion/plasma tail)
• Nucleus is actual body of rock and ice; varies in size, and ranges from .5 to 25 miles across
• Coma is gas and dust that surrounds nucleus like an atmosphere
• Ion tail is charged gasses, and dust tail is mixture of dust and gas from nucleus breaking down.
Both tails can be many millions of miles long. Ion tail glows fluorescently, and dust tail reflects light
from sun.
• Usually easier to see dust tail. Both tails always point away from sun. This is due to solar wind.
• Comets come from either the Oort cloud or the Kuiper belt. The Kuiper belt is closer than the Oort
cloud. Comets that come from the Kuiper belt have orbits that take less than 200 years to orbit the
sun. Comets that come from the Oort cloud take more than 200 years to orbit the sun.

Asteroids
• Rocky or metallic (sometimes a combination) bodies that orbit the Sun. Metals are Iron and nickel.
• Sometimes called minor planets or planetoids—doesn’t have an atmosphere
• Size can range from a small pebble to hundreds of miles wide
• Largest known has a diameter of more than 500 miles—named Ceres discovered by Piazzi in 1801.
• Ceres is now considered a dwarf planet as well as an Asteroid
• Most found in asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter
• Thought to be left over from formation of universe
Meteors
• Fragments of comets, asteroids, moons, or planets that have broken off
• Sometimes called shooting stars
• Meteor showers usually occur when Earth passes through a comets orbit
• Most meteors are about the size of a match head, but they can be as big across as a mile
• If a meteor is able to get past the Earth’s atmosphere and impact the Earth it is called a meteorite.
Meteorites actually hit the earth’s surface.
• We also have what are called Meteoroids. They are similar to asteroids because they are “floating”
out in space. They don’t burn up in our atmosphere, and don’t hit Earth’s surface. They just travel
around the solar system.
Evaluation
Answer on a one whole sheet of paper.

Multiple Choice. Identify the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

____ 1. A bit of matter that enters Earth's atmosphere and atmosphere, and don’t hit Earth’s surface. They just
survives to reach the ground is called travel around the solar system.
a. a meteor. a. a meteor.
b. a meteoroid. b. a meteoroid.
c. a meteorite. c. a meteorite.
d. a minor planet. d. a minor planet.
e. an asteroid. e. an asteroid.

____ 2. A meteor shower is produced when _____8. It is a part of a comet which is a gas and dust that
a. a large number of sporadic meteors are observed. surrounds nucleus like an atmosphere.
b. the Earth passes through the asteroid belt. a. coma
c. massive particles are carried outward from the sun b. dust tail
by the solar wind and enter Earth's atmosphere. c. plasma tail
d. the Earth passes through the orbital path of a d. nuclelous
comet.
e. meteors cause condensation in the upper _____9. What is an asteroid?
atmosphere that leads to early morning rains a. A giant snowball in space
b. A miniature star
____ 3. Most of the asteroids orbit the sun in a belt c. A large rock that is orbiting the Sun
between the orbits of
a. Venus and Earth. _____10. What are most asteroids shaped like?
b. Earth and Mars. a. Bananas
c. Jupiter and Saturn. b. Starfish
d. Mercury and Venus. c. Lumpy potatoes
e. Mars and Jupiter.
______11. What is the asteroid belt?
____4. The gas tail of a comet always a. A ring of asteroids orbiting the Sun
a. trails behind the head along the orbital path. b. A ring of asteroids orbiting Earth
b. extends ahead of the head along the orbital path. c. An area in space where comets come from
c. points toward the sun.
d. points away from the sun.
e. points perpendicular to the orbital path
True/False. Indicate whether the sentence or statement is true
_____5. Where do comets come from? or false. Write T or F.
a. Oort cloud
b. Kuiper belt 12. Meteorites seem to come from both the asteroid belt and
c. Asteroid belt the comets.
d. All of the above 13. The meteors in meteor showers are believed to be the
e. only A and B debris left behind in comet orbits.
14. Some asteroids show evidence of surface activity such as
_____6. What asteroid considered a dwarf planet as well as an lava flows.
Asteroid? 15. The tail of a comet always points toward the sun.
a. Vesta
b. Pallas
c. Ceres
d. All of the above Essay (16-20)

_____7. They are similar to asteroids because they are What is the difference between meteor, meteorite and
“floating” out in space. They don’t burn up in our meteoroid?